Acoustic properties of the voice. Physiology of the voice: acoustic properties of the voice

The human voice is made up of a combination of sounds with various characteristics, formed with the participation of the vocal apparatus. The source of voice is the larynx with vibrating vocal folds. The distance between the vocal folds is commonly called the “glottis.” When inhaling, the glottis is fully opened and takes the shape of a triangle with an acute angle at the thyroid cartilage (Fig. 1). During the exhalation phase, the vocal folds come somewhat closer together, but do not completely close the lumen of the larynx.

At the moment of phonation, i.e. sound reproduction, the vocal folds begin to vibrate, allowing portions of air to pass from the lungs. During normal examination, they appear to be closed, since the eye does not detect the speed of oscillatory movements (Fig. 2).

The human voice, its acoustic properties, the mechanisms of its generation are studied by a variety of sciences - physiology, phonetics, phoniatry, speech therapy, etc. Since the vocal phenomenon is not only a physiological, but also a physical phenomenon, it becomes the subject of study of such a branch of physics as acoustics, which gives clear characteristics of each sound reproduced. According to acoustics, sound is the propagation of vibrations in an elastic medium. A person speaks and sings in the air, so the sound of a voice is the vibration of air particles, propagating in the form of waves of condensation and rarefaction, like waves on water, at a speed of 340 m/s at a temperature of +18°C.

Among the sounds around us, there are tonal sounds and noises. The former are generated by periodic oscillations of a sound source with a certain frequency. The frequency of vibrations creates a sensation of pitch in our auditory organ. Noises appear during random vibrations of various physical natures.

Both tone and noise sounds occur in the human vocal apparatus. All vowels have a tone character, and voiceless consonants have a noise character. The more often periodic vibrations occur, the higher the sound we perceive. Thus, pitch - This subjective perception by the organ of hearing of the frequency of oscillatory movements. The quality of the pitch of a sound depends on the frequency of vibration of the vocal folds in 1 s. How many closings and openings the vocal folds make during their oscillations and how many portions of condensed subglottic air they pass through, the frequency of the generated sound turns out to be the same, i.e. pitch. The frequency of the fundamental tone is measured in hertz and can, in normal conversational speech, vary from 85 to 200 Hz for men, and from 160 to 340 Hz for women.

Changing the pitch of the fundamental tone creates expressiveness in speech. One of the components of intonation is melody - relative changes in the pitch of the fundamental tone of sounds. Human speech is very rich in changes in melodic pattern: narrative sentences are characterized by a lowering of tone at the end; Interrogative intonation is achieved by significantly raising the fundamental tone of the word containing the question. The fundamental tone always rises on the stressed syllable. The absence of a noticeable, changing melody of speech makes it unexpressive and usually indicates some kind of pathology.

To characterize a normal voice, there is such a thing as tonal range - voice volume - the ability to produce sounds within certain limits from the lowest tone to the highest. This property is individual for each person. The tonal range of women's spoken voice is within one octave, and for men it is slightly less, i.e. the change in the fundamental tone during a conversation, depending on its emotional coloring, fluctuates within 100 Hz. The tonal range of the singing voice is much wider - the singer must have a voice of two octaves. Singers are known whose range reaches four and five octaves: they can take sounds from 43 Hz - the lowest voices - to 2,300 Hz - high voices.

The power of the voice, its power,depends on the intensity of the vibration amplitude of the vocal folds and is measured in decibels, The greater the amplitude of these vibrations, the stronger the voice. However, to a greater extent this depends on the subglottic pressure of the air exhaled from the lungs at the time of phonation. That is why, if a person is about to shout loudly, he first takes a breath. The strength of the voice depends not only on the amount of air in the lungs, but also on the ability to expend exhaled air, maintaining constant subglottic pressure. A normal spoken voice, according to various authors, ranges from 40 to 70 dB. The singers' voice has 90-110 dB, and sometimes reaches 120 dB - the noise level of an aircraft engine. Human hearing has adaptive capabilities. We can hear quiet sounds against a background of loud noise or, finding ourselves in a noisy room, at first we do not distinguish anything, then we get used to it and begin to hear spoken language. However, even with the adaptive capabilities of human hearing, strong sounds are not indifferent to the body: at 130 dB the pain threshold occurs, at 150 dB there is intolerance, and a sound strength of 180 dB is fatal for a person.

Of particular importance in characterizing the strength of the voice is dynamic range - the maximum difference between the quietest sound (piano) and the loudest sound (forte). A large dynamic range (up to 30 dB) is a necessary condition for professional singers, but it is important in the spoken voice and for teachers, as it gives speech greater expressiveness.

When the coordination relationship between the tension of the vocal folds and air pressure is disrupted, a loss of voice strength and a change in its timbre occurs.

Sound timbre is an essential characteristic of the voice. By this quality of his we recognize familiar people, famous singers, without yet seeing them with our own eyes. In human speech, all sounds are complex. Timbre reflects their acoustic composition, i.e. structure. Each voice sound consists of a fundamental tone, which determines its pitch, and numerous additional or overtones of a higher frequency than the fundamental tone. The frequency of the overtones is two, three, four, and so on times greater than the frequency of the fundamental tone. The appearance of overtones is due to the fact that the vocal folds vibrate not only along their length, reproducing the fundamental tone, but also in their individual parts. It is these partial vibrations that create overtones, which are several times higher than the fundamental tone. Any sound can be analyzed on a special device and divided into individual overtone components. Each vowel in its overtone composition contains areas of amplified frequencies that characterize only this sound. These regions are called vowel formants. There are several of them in the sound. To distinguish it, the first two formants are sufficient. The first formant - the frequency range 150-850 Hz - during articulation is provided by the degree of elevation of the tongue. The second formant - the range of 500-2,500 Hz - depends on the row of the vowel sound. The sounds of normal spoken speech are located in the region of 300-400 Hz. The qualities of the voice, such as its sonority and flight, depend on the frequency regions in which overtones appear.

Voice timbre is studied both in our country (V. S. Kazansky, 1928; S. N. Rzhevkin, 1956; E. A. Rudakov, 1864; M. P. Morozov, 1967), and abroad (V. Bartholomew, 1934; R. Husson, 1962; G. Fant, 1964). The timbre is formed due to the resonance that occurs in the cavities of the mouth, pharynx, larynx, trachea, and bronchi. Resonance is a sharp increase in the amplitude of forced oscillations that occur when the frequency of oscillations of an external influence coincides with the frequency of natural oscillations of the system. During phonation, resonance enhances the individual overtones of sound formed in the larynx and causes coincidence of air vibrations in the cavities of the chest and the extension tube.

The interconnected system of resonators not only enhances the overtones, but also affects the very nature of vibrations of the vocal folds, activating them, which in turn causes even greater resonance. There are two main resonators - head and chest. The head (or upper) refers to the cavities located in the facial part of the head above the palatine vault - the nasal cavity and its paranasal sinuses. When using upper resonators, the voice acquires a bright, flying character, and the speaker or singer has the feeling that the sound is passing through the facial parts of the skull. Research by R. Yussen (1950) has proven that vibration phenomena in the head resonator excite the facial and trigeminal nerves, which are associated with the innervation of the vocal folds and stimulate vocal function.

With thoracic resonance, vibration of the chest occurs; here the trachea and large bronchi serve as resonators. At the same time, the timbre of the voice is “soft”. A good, full-fledged voice simultaneously sounds the head and chest resonators and accumulates sound energy. Vibrating vocal folds and a resonator system increase the efficiency of the vocal apparatus.

Optimal conditions for the functioning of the vocal apparatus appear when a certain resistance is created in the supraglottic cavities (extension tube) to portions of subglottic air passing through the vibrating vocal folds at the time of phonation. This resistance is called return impedance. When sound is formed, “in the area from the glottis to the oral opening, the return impedance exhibits its protective function, creating preconditions in the reflex adaptation mechanism for the most favorable, rapidly increasing impedance.” The return impedance precedes phonation by thousandths of a second, creating the most favorable gentle conditions for it. At the same time, the vocal folds work with low energy consumption and a good acoustic effect. The phenomenon of return impedance is one of the most important protective acoustic mechanisms in the operation of the vocal apparatus.

1) first there is a slight exhalation, then the vocal folds close and begin to vibrate - the voice sounds as if after a slight noise. This method is considered aspirate attack;

The most common and physiologically justified is a soft attack. Abuse of hard or aspirated voice delivery methods can lead to significant changes in the vocal apparatus and loss of necessary sound qualities. It has been proven that prolonged use of an aspirated attack leads to a decrease in the tone of the internal muscles of the larynx, and a constant hard vocal attack can provoke organic changes in the vocal folds - the occurrence of contact ulcers, granulomas, nodules. However, the use of aspirated and hard sound attacks is still possible, depending on the tasks and emotional state of a person, and sometimes for the purpose of voice training in one specific period of classes.

The considered acoustic properties are inherent in a normal, healthy voice. As a result of voice-speech practice, all people develop a fairly clear idea of ​​the voice norm of children and adults, depending on gender and age. In speech therapy, “speech norms are understood as generally accepted variants of language use in the process of speech activity.” This fully applies to determining the norm of voice. A healthy voice should be loud enough, the pitch of its fundamental tone should be appropriate for the age and gender of the person, the ratio of speech and nasal resonance should be adequate to the phonetic patterns of the given language.

M., 2007.

Basics of phonopedia

Speech therapy.

Lavrova E.V.

PREFACE................................................... ........................................................ ....................... 3

Chapter 1 HISTORICAL ASPECT OF THE PROBLEM OF STUDYING THE VOICE AND ITS PATHOLOGY AND ITS CURRENT STATE ....................................... ........................................................ ......... 5

Chapter 2 INFORMATION FROM ACOUSTICS AND PHYSIOLOGY
VOTING .................................................................... ........................................................ .... 12

Chapter 4 METHODS OF EXAMINATION AND DETECTION OF VOICE PATHOLOGY..... 34

Chapter 5 CHARACTERISTICS AND CLASSIFICATION OF VOICE DISORDERS........ 45

6.3 Corrective training after removal of the larynx.................................................... .... 81

7.3. Phonasthenia........................................................ ........................................................ ............... 127

7.4. Functional aphonia................................................... ............................................... 132



8.1. Their causes and prevalence.................................................................. ........................... 150

8.2. Prevention and preventive measures
voice disorders................................................... ........................................................ .......... 156

AFTERWORD................................................... ........................................................ ............... 164

APPENDIX 1 TEST TASKS.................................................... ........................... 166

APPENDIX 2 COMPLEX OF PHYSICAL EXERCISES.................................. 173

Exercises for patients with a removed larynx.................................................... .......... 175

PREFACE

The voice is a unique phenomenon, not only physiological or acoustic, but also social. Complete information can be conveyed by having a healthy, beautiful voice, which serves both as a means of communication and as an instrument of production for people of a huge number of professions - teachers, actors, politicians, etc.

The need to improve the voice, to correct its congenital or acquired deficiencies prompts various sciences to study the vocal function, its defining characteristics, capabilities and features. Acoustics analyzes the sound of the voice as a physical phenomenon, physiology tries to explain the mechanism of sound generation in the vocal apparatus, phoniatry as a branch of medicine examines diseases, methods of treatment and prevention of disorders of the vocal function.

The main task of phonopedia is voice correction using special pedagogical techniques.

The term “phonopedia” has become firmly established in modern pedagogical and medical practice. Previously, various researchers gave their names to the problems of voice restoration: phonic method, orthophonic or phonic orthopedics, voice gymnastics. All these concepts meant one thing - correction of voice defects with special, targeted training of the vocal apparatus.

The study of voice pathology and methods for its restoration is one of the most important problems in speech therapy. In recent years, the scope of phonopedia has expanded significantly. The need to eliminate both voice disorders themselves and disorders included in the structure of speech defects in rhinolalia, dysarthria, aphasia, and stuttering was clearly identified. The population of people in need of pedagogical assistance has also expanded due to an increase in disorders of the vocal apparatus in children.

Phonopedia can be defined as a complex of pedagogical influence aimed at the gradual activation and coordination of the neuromuscular apparatus of the larynx with special exercises, correction of breathing and the student’s personality. Special training allows you to establish a way of functioning of the vocal apparatus in which a full acoustic effect can be achieved with the least load. Phonopedia is based on the physiology of voice formation, on the principles of didactics and the methodological foundations of speech therapy and is closely related to the disciplines of the medical and biological cycle. Functional training aimed at correcting the voice is carried out taking into account pathological changes in the vocal apparatus, which are diagnosed by a phoniatrist or otolaryngologist. In addition, to determine the primary or secondary nature of a voice defect, the person’s neuropsychic state is taken into account.

In terms of their etiology and the nature of manifestations, voice disorders are very diverse (their diversity will be discussed separately), but it is important to note here that phonopedic correction methods should be used only for chronic pathology.

Currently, phonopedia has firmly taken its place in the complex of treatment and rehabilitation measures, and in some cases it turns out to be the only way to return full voice function. Knowledge of its basics, as well as methods of preventing voice disorders, is necessary for speech therapists in their preparation for professional activity. They themselves must have a good, resilient voice, and master the techniques of voice correction in both children and adults, taking into account all the diversity of its pathology.

Chapter 1
HISTORICAL ASPECT OF THE PROBLEM
STUDIES OF THE VOICE AND ITS PATHOLOGY AND ITS CURRENT STATE

The processes of development of science devoted to the problems of studying the voice can be traced back to ancient times.

Speech and voice as means of communication have always been considered in close unity. In the education system of Ancient Greece, an important place was given to rhetoric - a discipline whose tasks included the formation of correct speech, a strong, beautiful voice, the ability to logically express one’s thoughts, and convincingly conduct polemics. Historical sources have preserved for us the name of Demosthenes (c. 384-322 BC), who managed to eliminate the defects of his own speech with the help of special training and then became a famous speaker. Hippocrates (c. 460 - c. 370 BC), Aristotle (384-322 BC), Galen (c. 130 - c. 200) studied speech defects and made attempts to describe the structure larynx.

The medieval scientist Avicenna (Ibn Sina, c. 980-1037) examined in some detail diseases and methods of treating the vocal apparatus in his fundamental work “The Canon of Medical Science.” By 1024 he had completed a phonetic treatise covering many problems of voice formation. It explained the causes of sound and the processes of its perception by the organ of hearing, the anatomy and physiology of the functioning of the voice-speech organs, and gave the physiological and acoustic characteristics of phonemes. Particular importance in the mechanism of voice formation was given to the vocal folds: the scientist pointed out their active role in phonation. In his writings, Avicenna emphasized the relationship between the functions of the brain and the vocal apparatus.

At the end of the 16th century. The historical development of world culture was marked by the emergence of a new musical stage genre - opera (Florence is recognized as its homeland). To perform opera roles, the artist had to have not only good vocal abilities, but also great endurance of the vocal apparatus, otherwise overwork would set in, and as a result, voice disorders would arise that could already be considered professional. The identification of specific diseases characteristic of singers, high demands on skill and quality of performance forced specialists to closely study the physiology of voice formation, to look for ways to improve vocal capabilities and ways to eliminate defects if they appeared.

Studies on the isolated larynx of corpses allowed the German physiologist I. Müller to establish (1840) that the formation of sound depends on the structure of not only the larynx, but also the extension tube. However, at this time observations of the larynx of a living person were still unavailable.

In 1855, singer and vocal teacher Manuel Garcia (brother of the famous singer Pauline Viardot) first used a mirror invented by Liston, an English dentist, to examine the larynx. Thus, it became possible to observe the larynx and the vibrating vocal folds. This research method is called laryngoscopy (from the Greek. laryngis"larynx", scopia"I look") and remains to this day. However, at that time, according to the Bulgarian phoniatrist I. Maksimov (1987), it was still impossible to talk about the formation of phoniatrics - the medical science of treating the vocal apparatus. All studies concerned violations of speech and vocal functions of various etiologies, attempts to eliminate them through the joint efforts of doctors and speech therapists. That’s why I. Maksimov called it “rehabilitative pedagogical.”

In 1905, at the University of Berlin, the German doctor G. Gutzmann defended his dissertation on the topic “Disorders of speaking function as a subject of clinical teaching.” It is this moment that is considered the beginning of the identification of phoniatrics as an independent medical specialty. The term “phoniatrics” itself was introduced in 1920 by Gutzmann’s students - G. Stern and M. Seemann. The latter founded and for many years directed one of the world's first phoniatric clinics in Prague.

It can be assumed that the development of speech therapy dates back to this time, since it has always combined the study of speech and voice.

Beginning of the 20th century is characterized by great activity in the development of speech therapy as a science. Two schools stand out - “organics” in Berlin, led by G. Gutzmann, and “psychologists” in Vienna, rallied around the Austrian scientist E. Fröschels. In these cities, departments and offices are being created to provide assistance to people with speech and voice disorders, with the close cooperation of phoniatricians and speech therapists. In 1924, on the initiative of E. Fröschels, the 1st International Congress was held and an association of speech therapists and phoniatrists was organized, which still exists today.

In Russia, E. N. Malutny, I. I. Levidov, F. F. Zasedatelev, L. D. Rabotnov (1920-1940s), M. I. Fomichev, V. G. devoted their works to the development of the foundations of phoniatry Ermolaev (1940-1950s).

Joseph Ionovich Levidov (1933) studied voice production and functional disorders of the vocal apparatus. Having carried out a series of experiments and taking into account the personal feelings of the singer, the scientist came to the conclusion that the sound of the voice “in a mask” is the result of resonance of the nasal and accessory cavities. He considered functional voice disorders to be the result of poor vocal training, forcing the sound, and improper self-study.

Fedor Fedorovich Zasedatelev also saw the causes of occupational diseases in incorrect voice production and paid special attention to breathing and the method of voice production. He summarized the results of his experimental observations in the work “Scientific Fundamentals of Voice Production” (1935), where he analyzed in detail the types of breathing, various positions of the larynx when singing, and examined the meaning and role of resonators.

Long-term observations are reflected in the book by Leonid Dmitrievich Rabotnov “Fundamentals of physiology and pathology of the voice of singers” (1932). The author examined the functions of all parts of the vocal apparatus and dwelled in more detail on the processes of breathing. He put forward a hypothesis about the role of bronchial smooth muscles in the process of phonation and about the “paradoxical breathing” of singers, when the chest does not collapse during singing and slight inhalation movements are performed.

In the monograph by Mikhail Ivanovich Fomichev “Fundamentals of Phoniatry” (1949), descriptions of phonopedic activities occupy a significant place. The author gives clear recommendations on the correct voice mode, describes breathing, articulation and voice exercises.

In 1970, the collective work of Vladimir Georgievich Ermolaev, Nina Fedorovna Lebedeva and Vladimir Petrovich Morozov “Manual of Phoniatrics” was published, summarizing the results of scientific research on the physiology and pathology of voice-forming organs and describing the most common methods of acoustic analysis of the vocal voice. The book was addressed to phoniatricians and otorhinolaryngologists who provide assistance to singers, but it was of significant interest to all specialists dealing with the problems of voice and its pathology.

All of these works laid the scientific and methodological foundations of phoniatry, gave the key to understanding many phenomena in the physiology of voice formation, and although most of the research was aimed at studying the singing voice, they were of great theoretical and practical importance for the production of the speech voice and for the elimination of its defects.

At the same time as interest in the problems of correcting voice disorders in adults, doctors and teachers faced the question of the development and protection of children's voices. Back in the 30s. last century, the study of the peculiarities of the formation of a child’s voice was undertaken in the laboratory of experimental phonetics, headed by Evgeniy Nikolaevich Malyutin (from 1922 to 1941), at the Moscow Conservatory. At the same time, in Leningrad, Joseph Ionovich Levidov, at the Department of Ear, Throat, and Nose Diseases of the Institute for Advanced Medical Studies, studied the nature of the child’s voice using instrumental methods - pneumography, laryngostroboscopy. In 1936, his methodological guide “Vocal Education of Children” was published. The author considered it necessary to properly guide the development of children's speech and voice and for this purpose proposed to carry out therapeutic and preventive measures and medical and pedagogical counseling in schools.

In the post-war years, the Institute of Artistic Education was organized in Moscow at the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences, where experimental studies of children's voices were conducted.

Issues of education and training have always been considered by domestic scientists and practitioners in inextricable connection with individual age-related developmental characteristics, taking into account the latest natural science data, while uniting the efforts of representatives of various fields of science - physiology, psychology, morphology. An important role was played by the studies of Magdalina Sergeevna Gracheva (1956) on the morphological features of the formation of the larynx, the functional interaction of the soft palate and vocal folds. Eduard Karlovich Siirde (1970) conducted a comparative quantitative and qualitative analysis of the uniqueness of the respiratory function in people with various speech pathologies - stuttering, speech defects as a result of hearing impairment, in people with normal voice formation and in singers. The materials of such a comparison confirmed the importance in pathological cases of the need for correction and special breathing training aimed at correcting speech and voice.

The dependence of the state of the voice on the development of children’s musical hearing was emphasized in the works of domestic authors E. M. Malinina (1967), M. F. Zarinskaya (1963) and the Czech phoniatrist E. Sedlachkova (1963), who confirmed that the decrease in acoustic-phonation stereotypes and the weakening sound perception abilities influence the regulation of phonation itself.

Violations of voice function and intonation in children with various speech disorders were studied by Valentina Ivanovna Filimonova (1990), Tatyana Viktorovna Kolpak (1999) and Larisa Aleksandrovna Kopachevskaya (2000). The works of these authors present various techniques for conducting a pedagogical examination and identifying the acoustic characteristics of the voice and confirm that its pathology is often a component of the structure of a speech defect.

In 1990, the monograph of the American teacher D. K. Wilson, “Voice Disorders in Children,” was translated and published, which touched on many aspects of voice pathology - anatomy and physiology, instrumental examination methods, treatment and voice therapy . It also addresses the problems of voice disorders in adults, since they often originate from changes in vocal function in childhood. In this work, to a certain extent, an attempt was made to generalize modern knowledge about both normal and pathological development of voice formation.

Over the past three decades, the number of publications devoted to various aspects of voice pathology, prepared by speech therapists, has increased significantly. Thus, Svetlana Leonovna Taptapova (1963, 1971, 1974, 1985, 1990) developed a technique for restoring sonorous speech after removal of the larynx or its partial resection; Elena Samsonovna Almazova (1973) proposed a system of exercises for correcting the voice of children with cicatricial deformities of the larynx; the author of this manual (1971, 1974, 2001) studied and described various voice disorders of functional and organic origin; Olga Svyatoslavovna Orlova (1980, 1998, 2001) studied the complex problems of spastic voice disorders and outlined a system of correctional work to prevent and eliminate voice disorders among teachers.

In 1971, the Union of European Phoniatricians (UEP) was formed, uniting all specialists working in the field of voice pathology. Every year, congresses are held in one of the European cities at which various aspects of the study of the voice and its disorders are discussed - diagnostics, instrumental and objective research methods, classification and terminology, methods of treatment and voice rehabilitation.

In 1991, the Association of Phoniatricians and Speech Therapists (phonopedists) of Russia was created, which as a collective member joined the Union of European Phoniatricians and the International Union. The Russian Association organizes annual conferences dedicated to current issues of research, treatment and restoration of voice function, in which specialists from the CIS, and often from Europe, are invited to participate. Strengthening international connections and scientific interaction, changing the social character, style and pace of life - all this requires more communication between people. Voice, as one of the means of communication, its quality and capabilities play a very significant role in this process.

Test questions and assignments

1. Name the scientists of the Ancient World and the Middle Ages who studied the problems of voice formation.

3. What genre of art necessitated the professional study of voice?

4. Who first examined the larynx and what name did this method receive?

5. When and by whom did the study of voice as an independent subject of medicine and pedagogy begin?

6. Name domestic scientists of the 1930-1950s who made a great contribution to the study of various properties of the voice and its disorders.

7. Indicate the names of modern specialists who have developed methods of corrective action for organic voice pathology.

8. Name the specialists who proposed methods for correcting functional voice disorders.

Chapter 2
INFORMATION FROM ACOUSTICS AND
PHYSIOLOGY OF VOICE FORMATION

The human voice is made up of a combination of sounds with various characteristics, formed with the participation of the vocal apparatus. The source of voice is the larynx with vibrating vocal folds. The distance between the vocal folds is commonly called the “glottis.” When inhaling, the glottis is fully opened and takes the shape of a triangle with an acute angle at the thyroid cartilage (Fig. 1). During the exhalation phase, the vocal folds come somewhat closer together, but do not completely close the lumen of the larynx.

At the moment of phonation, i.e. sound reproduction, the vocal folds begin to vibrate, allowing portions of air to pass from the lungs. During normal examination, they appear to be closed, since the eye does not detect the speed of oscillatory movements (Fig. 2).

The human voice, its acoustic properties, the mechanisms of its generation are studied by a variety of sciences - physiology, phonetics, phoniatry, speech therapy, etc. Since the vocal phenomenon is not only a physiological, but also a physical phenomenon, it becomes the subject of study of such a branch of physics as acoustics, which gives clear characteristics of each sound reproduced. According to acoustics, sound is the propagation of vibrations in an elastic medium. A person speaks and sings in the air, so the sound of a voice is the vibration of air particles, propagating in the form of waves of condensation and rarefaction, like waves on water, at a speed of 340 m/s at a temperature of +18°C.

Among the sounds around us, there are tonal sounds and noises. The former are generated by periodic oscillations of a sound source with a certain frequency. The frequency of vibrations creates a sensation of pitch in our auditory organ. Noises appear during random vibrations of various physical natures.

Both tone and noise sounds occur in the human vocal apparatus. All vowels have a tone character, and voiceless consonants have a noise character. The more often periodic vibrations occur, the higher the sound we perceive. Thus, pitch - This subjective perception by the organ of hearing of the frequency of oscillatory movements. The quality of the pitch of a sound depends on the frequency of vibration of the vocal folds in 1 s. How many closings and openings the vocal folds make during their oscillations and how many portions of condensed subglottic air they pass through, the frequency of the generated sound turns out to be the same, i.e. pitch. The frequency of the fundamental tone is measured in hertz and can, in normal conversational speech, vary from 85 to 200 Hz for men, and from 160 to 340 Hz for women.

Changing the pitch of the fundamental tone creates expressiveness in speech. One of the components of intonation is melody - relative changes in the pitch of the fundamental tone of sounds. Human speech is very rich in changes in melodic pattern: narrative sentences are characterized by a lowering of tone at the end; Interrogative intonation is achieved by significantly raising the fundamental tone of the word containing the question. The fundamental tone always rises on the stressed syllable. The absence of a noticeable, changing melody of speech makes it unexpressive and usually indicates some kind of pathology.

To characterize a normal voice, there is such a thing as tonal range - voice volume - the ability to produce sounds within certain limits from the lowest tone to the highest. This property is individual for each person. The tonal range of women's spoken voice is within one octave, and for men it is slightly less, i.e. the change in the fundamental tone during a conversation, depending on its emotional coloring, fluctuates within 100 Hz. The tonal range of the singing voice is much wider - the singer must have a voice of two octaves. Singers are known whose range reaches four and five octaves: they can take sounds from 43 Hz - the lowest voices - to 2,300 Hz - high voices.

The power of the voice, its power,depends on the intensity of the vibration amplitude of the vocal folds and is measured in decibels, The greater the amplitude of these vibrations, the stronger the voice. However, to a greater extent this depends on the subglottic pressure of the air exhaled from the lungs at the time of phonation. That is why, if a person is about to shout loudly, he first takes a breath. The strength of the voice depends not only on the amount of air in the lungs, but also on the ability to expend exhaled air, maintaining constant subglottic pressure. A normal spoken voice, according to various authors, ranges from 40 to 70 dB. The singers' voice has 90-110 dB, and sometimes reaches 120 dB - the noise level of an aircraft engine. Human hearing has adaptive capabilities. We can hear quiet sounds against a background of loud noise or, finding ourselves in a noisy room, at first we do not distinguish anything, then we get used to it and begin to hear spoken language. However, even with the adaptive capabilities of human hearing, strong sounds are not indifferent to the body: at 130 dB the pain threshold occurs, at 150 dB there is intolerance, and a sound strength of 180 dB is fatal for a person.

Of particular importance in characterizing the strength of the voice is dynamic range - the maximum difference between the quietest sound (piano) and the loudest sound (forte). A large dynamic range (up to 30 dB) is a necessary condition for professional singers, but it is important in the spoken voice and for teachers, as it gives speech greater expressiveness.

When the coordination relationship between the tension of the vocal folds and air pressure is disrupted, a loss of voice strength and a change in its timbre occurs.

Sound timbre is an essential characteristic of the voice. By this quality of his we recognize familiar people, famous singers, without yet seeing them with our own eyes. In human speech, all sounds are complex. Timbre reflects their acoustic composition, i.e. structure. Each voice sound consists of a fundamental tone, which determines its pitch, and numerous additional or overtones of a higher frequency than the fundamental tone. The frequency of the overtones is two, three, four, and so on times greater than the frequency of the fundamental tone. The appearance of overtones is due to the fact that the vocal folds vibrate not only along their length, reproducing the fundamental tone, but also in their individual parts. It is these partial vibrations that create overtones, which are several times higher than the fundamental tone. Any sound can be analyzed on a special device and divided into individual overtone components. Each vowel in its overtone composition contains areas of amplified frequencies that characterize only this sound. These regions are called vowel formants. There are several of them in the sound. To distinguish it, the first two formants are sufficient. The first formant - the frequency range 150-850 Hz - during articulation is provided by the degree of elevation of the tongue. The second formant - the range of 500-2,500 Hz - depends on the row of the vowel sound. The sounds of normal spoken speech are located in the region of 300-400 Hz. The qualities of the voice, such as its sonority and flight, depend on the frequency regions in which overtones appear.

Voice timbre is studied both in our country (V. S. Kazansky, 1928; S. N. Rzhevkin, 1956; E. A. Rudakov, 1864; M. P. Morozov, 1967), and abroad (V. Bartholomew, 1934; R. Husson, 1962; G. Fant, 1964). The timbre is formed due to the resonance that occurs in the cavities of the mouth, pharynx, larynx, trachea, and bronchi. Resonance is a sharp increase in the amplitude of forced oscillations that occur when the frequency of oscillations of an external influence coincides with the frequency of natural oscillations of the system. During phonation, resonance enhances the individual overtones of sound formed in the larynx and causes coincidence of air vibrations in the cavities of the chest and the extension tube.

The interconnected system of resonators not only enhances the overtones, but also affects the very nature of vibrations of the vocal folds, activating them, which in turn causes even greater resonance. There are two main resonators - head and chest. The head (or upper) refers to the cavities located in the facial part of the head above the palatine vault - the nasal cavity and its paranasal sinuses. When using upper resonators, the voice acquires a bright, flying character, and the speaker or singer has the feeling that the sound is passing through the facial parts of the skull. Research by R. Yussen (1950) has proven that vibration phenomena in the head resonator excite the facial and trigeminal nerves, which are associated with the innervation of the vocal folds and stimulate vocal function.

With thoracic resonance, vibration of the chest occurs; here the trachea and large bronchi serve as resonators. At the same time, the timbre of the voice is “soft”. A good, full-fledged voice simultaneously sounds the head and chest resonators and accumulates sound energy. Vibrating vocal folds and a resonator system increase the efficiency of the vocal apparatus.

Optimal conditions for the functioning of the vocal apparatus appear when a certain resistance is created in the supraglottic cavities (extension tube) to portions of subglottic air passing through the vibrating vocal folds at the time of phonation. This resistance is called return impedance. When sound is formed, “in the area from the glottis to the oral opening, the return impedance exhibits its protective function, creating preconditions in the reflex adaptation mechanism for the most favorable, rapidly increasing impedance.” The return impedance precedes phonation by thousandths of a second, creating the most favorable gentle conditions for it. At the same time, the vocal folds work with low energy consumption and a good acoustic effect. The phenomenon of return impedance is one of the most important protective acoustic mechanisms in the operation of the vocal apparatus.

1) first there is a slight exhalation, then the vocal folds close and begin to vibrate - the voice sounds as if after a slight noise. This method is considered aspirate attack;

The most common and physiologically justified is a soft attack. Abuse of hard or aspirated voice delivery methods can lead to significant changes in the vocal apparatus and loss of necessary sound qualities. It has been proven that prolonged use of an aspirated attack leads to a decrease in the tone of the internal muscles of the larynx, and a constant hard vocal attack can provoke organic changes in the vocal folds - the occurrence of contact ulcers, granulomas, nodules. However, the use of aspirated and hard sound attacks is still possible, depending on the tasks and emotional state of a person, and sometimes for the purpose of voice training in one specific period of classes.

The considered acoustic properties are inherent in a normal, healthy voice. As a result of voice-speech practice, all people develop a fairly clear idea of ​​the voice norm of children and adults, depending on gender and age. In speech therapy, “speech norms are understood as generally accepted variants of language use in the process of speech activity.” This fully applies to determining the norm of voice. A healthy voice should be loud enough, the pitch of its fundamental tone should be appropriate for the age and gender of the person, the ratio of speech and nasal resonance should be adequate to the phonetic patterns of the given language.

Study of sound intensity: Equipment is used: sound level meter, measuring instruments such as “Vocal 2”, “Visible Speech”, etc. (devices that allow you to analyze frequencies). The sound of the voice is recorded repeatedly, at intervals of 3–5 minutes, and the average values ​​are calculated.

Measuring phonation frequency: The computer program “Visible Speech” (modules “Pitch” and “Spectrum”) is also used. The subject pronounces the given sound for a long time. On the display screen, depending on the pitch of the voice, the “mercury on the thermometer” rises when the pitch changes. The indicator records the boundaries of the frequency range.

Spectral analysis of vowel sounds: Carried out using electroacoustic methods - spectrometry. Initially, the voice is recorded on highly sensitive magnetic film in a soundproofed room, after which the speech material is subjected to spectrographic analysis, when various sound parameters are assessed. To assess the intonation features of speech, an intonograph device is used. Tape recordings are passed through an oscilloscope.

One method of voice research is to determine the speech voice profile or vocal field. Its essence is to record the sound pressure level depending on changes in the intensity of the voice, which gives an idea of ​​​​the dynamic range. Dynamic range is the most important indicator of vocal proficiency. Changes in the intensity and pitch of the fundamental tone determine such qualities as flexibility and melody. It is known that monotonous speech makes it difficult for listeners to understand and is a common cause of vocal strain more quickly.

The study was carried out in a room with normal acoustics, background noise did not exceed 40 dB. The intensity of the speech voice or sound pressure level (SPL) is determined using the SM O3 device from Atmos. During the study, the subject is in a vertical position, standing, the microphone is located at a distance of 30 cm from the lips. According to the instructions for the device, you need to start counting quickly from the number twenty. At first, the numbers are pronounced quietly, then the intensity of the voice gradually increases until it is pronounced as loudly as possible. With this dot signal display, sound pressure level data is displayed, which is recorded on a special phonetogram form. The line connecting the obtained coordinates forms the profile of the speech voice. The graphic drawing (figure) is called the voice field. It shows the main acoustic parameters of the singing voice: tonal range, dynamic range and vocal field area as a characteristic of the vocal capabilities of the subject being studied. The area of ​​this figure is directly related to the functional state of the vocal apparatus: the smaller the area, the lower the voice capabilities, and in case of diseases of the vocal apparatus, the expression is impaired.

Another option for carrying out the technique: sing the vowel “a” for at least 2 seconds. Quiet singing (panissimo) before very loud singing (fortissimo). When exploring, the tone is set on the piano. The subject plays a given tone at the appropriate frequency as quietly as possible. Then the next tone is set, which is sung in a similar way, and so continues to the limits of the range inherent in the voice of the subject. In the same way, this scale is performed within the range as loudly as possible. At the same time, sound pressure level data is displayed on the digital and dot display of the device. The study is carried out on the vowel “a”. This is explained by the fact that the sound “a” allows you to best relax the vocal apparatus from excessive tension, has the greatest intensity, and therefore its formation requires the least effort. In addition, the vowel “a” is the most common sound with which most vocal teachers begin to train their voice.

Sound source human voice is larynx with vocal folds . I

Pitch- subjective perception by the organ of hearing of the frequency of oscillatory movements.

Frequency main tones measured in hertz and can vary in normal conversational speech for men from 85 to 200 Hz, for women - from 160 to 340 Hz. The expressiveness of speech depends on changes in the pitch of the pitch.

The power of the voice , its energy and power are determined by the intensity of the amplitude of vibrations of the vocal folds and
measured in decibels. The greater the amplitude of the oscillatory movements, the stronger the voice sounds.

Timbre, or coloring, sound is a characteristic of voice quality. It reflects the acoustic composition of complex sounds and depends on the frequency and strength of vibrations.

Resonance - a sharp increase in the amplitude of oscillations that occurs when the frequency of oscillations of an external force coincides with the frequency of natural oscillations of the system. During phonation, resonance enhances the individual overtones of sound arising in the larynx and causes coincidence of air vibrations in the cavities of the chest and the extension of the tube.
There are two resonators - main and chest.

1) /i] First there is a slight exhalation, then the vocal folds close and begin to vibrate. The voice sounds after a slight noise. This method is considered [i]aspirate attack;

3. Basic functions of the voice. Characteristics of the spoken voice.
Many people owe much of their success to their voice. Just like appearance, people judge a politician's voice within the first few seconds. It doesn't matter whether you are a famous person or not. Despite the memorable appearance of some famous people, when we remember them, we first of all remember their voice.
The voice is an amazing tool of self-expression. It is known that any disease immediately leaves its mark on the strength, timbre and pitch of the voice. Sadness and joy, like other emotions, are primarily conveyed by voice.

Under the influence of illness or constant overstrain, the vocal apparatus weakens. At the same time, for representatives of many professions, such as teachers, artists, announcers, lawyers, politicians, doctors, salesmen, etc., who “work” with their voices, this device must always be “in good condition,” that is, healthy, strong and rich in all shades. Very often it is a voice disorder that forces a person to see a doctor.
Speech plays an important role in the life of society, performing communicative and informative functions. The voice conveys various experiences: joy, pain, fear, anger or delight. Its function is regulated by many nerve connections that coordinate the delicate work of a large number of muscles. Thanks to the shades of voice coloring, you can influence the psyche of another person. A voice devoid of high frequencies seems dull, creeping, “like from a barrel.” And one who does not have low ones can be annoying, shrill and unpleasant. A beautiful, healthy voice should delight the ears of others. However, there may be problems with it. It is believed that, due to their emotionality, women most often suffer from voice problems; even a housewife can lose it.

What are the types of voice disorders?
In terms of strength, timbre and pitch. If strength is impaired, the voice may quickly dry up, be too weak, or, conversely, excessively loud; timbre - hoarse, rough, guttural-harsh, dull, metallic or squeaky; heights – monotonous, low, etc.
Voice disorders affect the communicative function of children's speech and their personality traits. If the voice is absent or impaired, problems may arise in relationships with peers due to communication difficulties. The guys are embarrassed about their voices and sometimes communicate with facial expressions and gestures. Imbalance, irritability, pessimism, aggression, etc. may appear. In the future, this leaves an imprint on the work and personal life of a growing person.

HOW DO WE TALK?
Any elastic body in a state of vibration sets in motion particles of the surrounding air, from which sound waves are formed. These waves, propagating in space, are perceived by our ears as sound. This is how sound is formed in the nature around us.
In the human body, such an elastic body is the vocal folds. The sounds of the speaking and singing voices are formed by the interaction of the vibrating vocal folds and breathing.

The speech process begins with inhalation, during which air is pumped through the oral and nasal cavities, pharynx, larynx, trachea, and bronchi into the lungs, which are expanded upon entry. Then, under the influence of nerve signals (impulses) from the brain, the vocal folds close, and the glottis closes. This coincides with the moment when exhalation begins. Closed vocal folds block the path of exhaled air and prevent free exhalation. The air in the subglottic space, collected during inhalation, is compressed under the action of the expiratory muscles, and subglottic pressure occurs. Compressed air presses on the closed vocal folds, that is, it interacts with them. There is a sound.
We must never forget that people have very individual anatomical, physiological and psychological properties of the body, and hence the need for an individual approach to each individual, and the uniqueness of the sound of each voice, its timbre, strength, endurance and other qualities.

HOW DO WE SING?
Sounds generated at the level of the vocal folds from their interaction with breathing spread through the air cavities and tissues lying both above and below the vocal folds.
Approximately up to 80% of the energy of a singing sound is extinguished when passing through surrounding tissues and is wasted on their shaking (vibration).
In the air-bearing cavities (in the supraglottic and subglottic space), sounds undergo acoustic changes and are amplified. Therefore, these cavities are called resonators.

There are upper and chest resonators.

Upper resonators - all cavities lying above the vocal folds: the upper larynx, pharynx, oral and nasal cavities and paranasal sinuses (head resonators).
The pharynx and oral cavity form speech sounds, increase the strength of the voice, and influence its timbre.
As a result of head resonance, the voice acquires “flight,” composure, and “metal.” These resonators are indicators (pointers) of correct voice formation.
Chest resonance imparts fullness and spaciousness to the sound.

What is the difference between singing voice and speaking? In singing they use the entire available range of the voice, but in speech - only part of it. Regardless of the voice (tenor, bass, baritone, soprano, mezzo), a person uses the middle part of his voice, so
as it is more convenient to say here, he does not get tired.
The singing voice differs from the speaking voice not only in range and strength, but also in timbre, that is, in a richer coloring.

4. Mechanisms of voice formation.
The diaphragm, lungs, bronchi, trachea, larynx, pharynx, nasopharynx, and nasal cavity actively participate in the mechanism of voice formation. The vocal organ is the larynx. When we speak, the vocal folds located in the larynx close. The exhaled air puts pressure on them, causing them to oscillate. The muscles of the larynx, contracting in different directions, ensure the movement of the vocal folds. As a result, vibrations of air particles above the folds occur. These vibrations, transmitted to the environment, are perceived as vocal sounds. When we are silent, the vocal folds diverge, forming the glottis in the form of an isosceles triangle.

Mechanism
voice formation (phonation) is like this.
During phonation, the vocal folds are closed. A stream of exhaled air, breaking through the closed vocal folds, somewhat pushes them apart. Due to its elasticity, as well as under the action of the laryngeal muscles,
narrowing the glottis, the vocal folds return to their original state, i.e. middle position, so that as a result of the continued pressure of the exhaled air stream, it again moves apart, etc. Closing and opening continues until the pressure of the voice-forming exhalatory stream stops. Thus, during phonation, vibrations of the vocal folds occur. These vibrations occur in the transverse and not the longitudinal direction, i.e. The vocal folds move inward and outward, rather than up and down.
As a result of vibrations of the vocal folds, the movement of the stream of exhaled air turns over the vocal folds into vibrations of air particles. These vibrations are transmitted to the environment and are perceived by us as the sound of a voice.
When whispering, the vocal folds do not close along their entire length: in the back part between them there remains a gap in the shape of a small equilateral triangle, through which an exhaled stream of air passes and the edges of the small triangular gap causes noise. Which is perceived by us in the form of a whisper.

5. Voice development in children. The development of a child’s voice is conventionally divided into several periods:
    • preschool up to 6-7 years old,
    • premutational from 6-7 to 13 years old,
    • mutational- 13-15 years and
    • post-mutational-15-17 years old.
Voice mutation(lat. change, change)occurs as a result of changes in the vocal apparatus and throughout the body under the influence of age-related endocrine changes that occur during puberty. The time during which the transition from a child's voice to an adult's voice occurs is called the mutation period. This phenomenon is physiological and is observed at the age of 13-15 years. In boys, the vocal apparatus at this time grows quickly and unevenly; in girls, the larynx develops slowly. During puberty, the male and female larynxes acquire distinct distinctive features. Fluctuations in the mutation period are possible depending on the timing of puberty. In girls, as a rule, the voice changes, gradually losing its childish properties. It's more likely evolution voices, not mutation. The duration of the mutation ranges from one to several months to 2-3 years. The entire period of mutation is divided into three stages: initial, main - peak And final The final stage of the mutation fixes the mechanism of voice formation in an adult. 6. Characteristics of mutational changes in the voice. Functional voice disorders include pathological voice mutation. This voice disorder can be classified as borderline between organic and functional disorders. A mutation is a physiological change in the voice during the transition to adulthood, accompanied by a number of pathological phenomena in the voice and vocal apparatus. The question of whether the mutation period is accompanied by a voice fracture or a gradual change is decided by researchers in favor of the latter. It is indicated that only a minority of young men suffer from a voice fracture, while for the majority this process proceeds almost unnoticed. Voice mutation is associated with rapid growth of the larynx. The vocal folds in boys lengthen by 6-10 mm, i.e. by 2/3 of the length. Laryngoscopy reveals hyperemia of the laryngeal mucosa and lack of closure of the glottis. In girls, the vocal folds lengthen only 3-5 mm. The essence of the mutation is that the growth of individual parts of the adolescent’s vocal apparatus occurs disharmoniously. For example, the vocal folds increase in length, but their width remains the same, the resonator cavities lag behind the growth of the larynx, and the epiglottis often remains childlike in a young man. As a result, coordination in the joint work of breathing and larynx is disrupted. All these reasons lead to the fact that the boy’s voice breaks down, becomes hard, low, rude, and his intonation becomes uncertain. Observed diplophony(bi-tonality), i.e. rapid alternation of high and low tones, sometimes lagging behind each other by a whole octave, while both true and false vocal folds vibrate. Boys sometimes experience strained breathing, since the closure of the vocal folds is incomplete and in order to produce a sound of full force, the expiratory muscles must work intensely and forcefully. In girls, the timbre, strength and character of their voices also change, but without drastic changes. The change is expressed in rapid fatigue of the voice; the range does not undergo major changes. The voice takes on a chesty sound and becomes stronger. A normally occurring mutation can manifest itself in several forms . So, often the voice changes very slowly, imperceptibly both for the children themselves and for those around them; occasionally there is only a slight hoarseness and rapid fatigue of the voice. In other cases (which is more common), the boy’s voice begins to break during speech or singing, and low notes of a bass timbre appear. This “jumping” of sounds first occurs more and more often, then appears less frequently, and finally, the child’s timbre is replaced by a man’s timbre. There is also a form of mutation when a thin boyish voice suddenly takes on a coarser character, hoarseness appears, and sometimes complete aphonia. When the hoarseness disappears, the young man develops a fully formed male voice. Underdevelopment of the genital area of ​​a teenager, acute or chronic laryngitis, various infectious diseases, overstrain of the vocal apparatus when singing loudly outside one’s vocal range, some external harmful factors (dust, smoke) can complicate the course of the mutation, give it a pathological, long-term character and lead to persistent voice disorder. The most common is persistent (ie stubbornly holding on) falsetto voice, which occurs with a convulsively raised larynx and significant tension on the vocal folds during phonation. This voice is high, weak, squeaky, and unpleasant to hear. In other cases, voice disorder manifests itself in a prolonged mutation. At the same time, the voice does not transform into a normal male voice for several years: it continues to remain childish (falsetto), or falsetto sounds break through against the background of a predominant male sound. In boys, sometimes a premature mutation occurs (at 11-12 years old), when the voice prematurely becomes low and rough. The reason for this phenomenon is the premature onset of puberty and prolonged, excessively intense work of the vocal apparatus (when screaming, forced singing, singing in high tessitura). In girls, a perverted mutation is occasionally observed, when the voice is significantly lowered and loses its melody and musicality. Overload of the vocal apparatus if the protective regime is not observed during the mutation period can lead to dysfunction of the internal muscles of the larynx in the form of hypo- and hypertonicity. Age-related changes in voice: usually occur at 12-15 years of age. Age-related mutation caused by changes in the larynx (increases in size by 1.5-2 times in men, by 1/3 in women). The vocal folds increase in size in all respects (length, width, thickness), and begin to vibrate as a whole. The root of the tongue increases. The voice does not have time to adapt to rapid anatomical changes and sounds unstable. Boys' voices go down an octave, girls' voices go down by 1-2 tones. The reasons for the change in voice during the mutation period are impaired coordination of the functions of the external and internal muscles of the larynx and a lack of coordination between breathing and phonation. You can select three periods of mutation: 1) initial 2) peak 3) final Mutation lasts from 1 month to 2-3 years. Mutation disorders: · protracted mutation- voice changes occur over many years, falsetto remains. Cause: impaired coordination of the vocal folds and laryngeal muscles. · masked disorders- in the mutation period, they are characterized by the fact that there are still no visible signs of mutation in the voice, but difficult to explain coughing attacks often occur. Often found in boys who sing in choirs). · premature mutation- more often in boys, 10-11 years old, a rough sounding voice appears, unnatural for children of this age. May be caused by premature onset of puberty or excessive work of the vocal apparatus (for example, forced singing) · late mutation- occurs after puberty. · late mutation- the voice retains its childlike sound for a long time even with a normal larynx structure. May be associated with dysfunction of the thyroid gland, adrenal glands, and gonads. · secondary mutation - comes suddenly, in adulthood. Reasons: disruption of the endocrine glands, voice overexertion, smoking, etc. During voice mutation in adolescents, it is necessary to follow the rules of hygiene and voice protection.
7. General characteristics of voice disorders. (Aphonia, dysphonia, phonasthenia, etc.) Voice disorders are divided into central And peripheral, each of them can be organic And functional. Most disorders manifest themselves as independent, the causes of their occurrence are diseases and various changes only in the vocal apparatus. But they can also accompany other more severe speech disorders, being part of the structure of the defect in aphasia, dysarthria, rhinolalia, and stuttering. The mechanism of voice disorders depends on the nature of changes in the neuromuscular apparatus of the larynx, primarily on the mobility and tone of the vocal folds, which usually manifests itself in the form of hypo- or hypertonicity, less often in a combination of both. Speaking about functional voice disorders, we should highlight: aphonia(complete absence of voice) and dysphonia, manifested in changes in the pitch, strength and timbre of the voice. At aphonia the patient speaks in a whisper of varying volume and intelligibility. When trying to phonate the cough, a loud voice sound appears (as opposed to organic disorders). At the same time, the muscles of the neck, larynx, and abdominal muscles tense, and the face turns red. The appearance of a loud voice on cough is an important method for diagnosing functional voice disorders. This fact also has prognostic significance; it indicates the possibility of rapid voice restoration. At dysphonia the qualitative characteristics of the voice suffer unevenly, often changing depending on the action of various external and internal factors (the patient’s well-being, his mood, time of year, time of day, weather, etc.). Dysphonia manifests itself in a peculiar way with voice overstrain and hysterical neurosis. The absence of anatomical changes in the structure of the larynx gives hope for the possibility of a complete restoration of the voice, i.e., a normal-sounding voice. But a long course of functional disorders sometimes leads to a persistent disorder of voice formation, the appearance of atrophic changes in the larynx and the development of functional disorders into organic voice disorders. Etiology of voice disorders: · diseases of the endocrine glands and gonads · diseases of the cardiovascular system, digestive tract, respiratory organs · exposure to external hazards (dust, smoking, alcohol, etc.) · mechanical damage to the vocal apparatus, postoperative consequences · consequences of colds · disturbance of the central mechanisms of voice formation · psychogenic effects In general, there are two groups of causes of voice disorders: · organic, leading to an anatomical change in the structure of the peripheral part of the vocal apparatus or its central part functional, as a result of which the function of the vocal apparatus suffers Classification of voice disorders: By manifestations : 1) Hysterical mutism - instantaneous loss of voice, most often in people of a neurotic type, with a psychogenic etiology 2) Aphonia - complete absence of voice, only whispered speech is possible 3) Dysphonia - disturbance in the pitch, strength, timbre of the voice. Manifestations: voice is weak or loud, too high or too low, monotonous, with a metallic coloring, hoarse, hoarse, barking, etc. 4) Phonasthenia - vocal weakness or rapid exhaustion of the voice 5) Pathological mutation 6) Voice impairment after laryngectomy ( laryngeal surgery) According to etiopathogenetic mechanisms. There are two groups of voice disorders (organic and functional): 8. The main causes of voice disorders. (see 7) The causes of voice disorder are varied. These include diseases of the larynx, nasopharynx, and lungs; voice overstrain; hearing loss; diseases of the nervous system; failure to maintain hygiene of the speaking and singing voice, etc. One of the voice disorders found in children of primary school age is dysphonia. With dysphonia, the voice is weak and hoarse. If you do not pay attention to this in time, the disorder can become protracted and lead to organic changes in the vocal apparatus. Dysphonia can be caused by constant overexertion of the voice as a result of talking too loudly, singing, or shouting; non-compliance with the basic rules of vocal hygiene when singing (discrepancy between the sound range of the song and the average range of the voice of a child of a certain age); frequent imitation of the voices of dolls (the high, sharp voice of Pinocchio), the voices of adults, the sharp whistles of a steam locomotive, the horn of a car. The development of dysphonia can also be facilitated by adenoid growths in the nose, which make nasal breathing difficult and teach the child to breathe through the mouth. When breathing through the mouth, air is inhaled that is not purified, warmed or moistened, as is the case with nasal breathing, as a result of which chronic inflammatory processes occur in the mucous membrane of the larynx, and the voice becomes hoarse. To prevent voice disorders, schools and families must constantly monitor the condition of children’s nasopharynx and the correct use of their voice, avoiding the above mistakes. This is of particular importance in relation to children who have just suffered from upper respiratory tract diseases. For some time, such children should not be given a lot of stress on their voice, i.e., do not require them to speak loudly and sing. If a child has a hoarse voice for a long time (1-2 weeks), he should be referred to an otolaryngologist and then follow all the doctor’s instructions.

Disorders vote arise as a result of insufficient or improper functioning of the anatomical structures of the vocal tract. Objective assessment of vocal function is an extremely difficult task, because it is influenced by anatomical, physiological, acoustic factors, as well as factors associated with the person perceiving someone else's voice.

Thanks to theoretical and technological breakthroughs In recent decades, many different diagnostic tools have appeared in our arsenal, but, unfortunately, the diagnostic effectiveness and validity of many of them has not been proven.

Within this articles it is impossible to consider in detail the theoretical foundations, methods and logic of all available diagnostic tools; This text will serve only as a brief introduction. The greatest attention will be paid to medical history data, as well as aerodynamic and acoustic factors affecting the quality of the patient's voice.

A) Anamnesis. While an otolaryngologist primarily evaluates the anatomical structure of the larynx, speech therapists (specialists in speech disorders) deal with functional disorders. The larynx is a moving structure, therefore, to diagnose and treat its diseases, it is necessary to evaluate not only factors of the anatomical structure, but also dynamic characteristics.

History taking begins with a life history and medical history, with particular attention to the patient's vocal needs. The specialist conducts a subjective assessment of the quality of the voice (hoarse, aspirated, rough, aphonic, intermittent, trembling, diplophonic, strained, strobe, increased voice fatigue). Subjective characteristics of the voice must be taken into account when conducting objective diagnostic tests (acoustic, aerodynamic).

It is also worth evaluating such factors, such as the type of breathing (thoracic or abdominal), the presence or absence of stridor, the habit of “clearing” the throat. Various scales, such as the GRBAS (see box below) or CAPE-V (see box below), can also help assess the severity of existing voice disorders. The Voice Handicap Index-10 (VHI-10) is a questionnaire that reflects the degree of perception of the severity of the condition by the patient himself.

GRBAS scale:
The researcher assigns a value from 0 (normal) to 3 (sharply expressed) to each characteristic:
Overall severity of existing violations (G, grade)
Roughness (R, roughness)
Presence of aspirations (B, breathiness)
Asthenicity, weakness of voice (A, Aesthenia)
Voltage (S, strain)

b) Acoustic analysis. Acoustic voice analysis uses instruments that analyze the physiological values ​​of the sound wave properties of the voice. Frequency, amplitude, presence of distortions (disturbances), harmonic spectrum, noise, etc. are assessed. Measurements are performed to clarify the etiology, pathophysiological mechanisms and severity of the existing dysphonia.

V) Aerodynamic analysis. Measuring aerodynamic parameters is especially important because with its help, it is possible to quantitatively and qualitatively describe such indicators as subglottic pressure and the volume of air flow passing through the glottis. Spirometry is used to assess lung health. The main indicators of the condition of the vocal apparatus are subglottic pressure or the volume of air flow passing through the glottis.

Change pressure between the subglottic and supraglottic parts of the larynx causes the vocal folds to vibrate. Therefore, when measuring subglottic pressure and air flow passing through the glottis, one can indirectly judge the state of the folded part of the larynx. An increase in subglottic pressure and/or resistance to air flow at the level of the vocal folds may indicate vocal strain or an inflammatory process.

Excessively high air volume level passing through the glottis may be a sign of hypofunction of the vocal folds, as well as their paresis or paralysis. This information is useful both for drawing up a treatment plan and for assessing the results of surgical or conservative treatment. The table below summarizes normative measures of important voice characteristics.

G) Assessment of the nature of vocal fold closure. The movements of the vocal folds are a complex dynamic process; their rapid vibrations occur in three planes at once, which has already been described in more detail in the chapter on the physiology of voice formation. In order to assess the nature of the closure of the upper surfaces of the vocal folds and the nature of the movements of the lateral walls of the larynx, a variety of endoscopic diagnostic methods are used, which include video stroboscopy, video kymography, and high-speed video recording.

However, accurate character closure of the vocal folds, as well as any disturbances that occur when the glottis opens, cannot be assessed using these methods. To visualize such hidden phenomena, the electroglottography (EGG) method was developed.

IN based on EGG lies in the fact that most tissues, due to their high electrolyte content, are good conductors; while air is practically unable to conduct electric current. If small electrodes are placed on both sides of the thyroid cartilage, then a weak high-frequency electrical signal can be sent between them, through the soft tissue of the neck.

At disclosure In the glottis, an increase in the electrical resistance of the system will be noted, since a relatively large air space with low electrical conductivity will appear between the electrodes. When the vocal folds are closed, the resistance in the system gradually decreases, reaching a minimum when the vocal folds are completely closed. Thus, the magnitude of the current is an indicator by which one can judge the area of ​​contact of the vocal folds.

On drawing Below are the results of an EGG in a healthy person with phonation in the modal register, as well as the results of an EGG in a woman with singing nodules. The abnormal nature of the second EGG is clearly determined; and this is just one way to objectively visualize diseases of the vocal folds. To correctly interpret the results of EGG, it is necessary to use suitable quantitative and qualitative assessment methods that will allow us to understand the etiology of the disease in a particular patient.


d) Sound spectrography. By assessing the sound characteristics of the speech signal, it is possible to determine the condition of the glottis and vocal tract structures. The most common method for such assessment is sound spectrography. Frequency is plotted on the vertical axis, time is plotted on the horizontal axis, and the results are presented in various shades of gray. You can adjust the parameters of the spectrograph, adapting it to specific frequencies, timing characteristics, the state of voice filter structures, extraneous noise, etc.

Because of such wide optimization possibilities, sound spectrography is of great diagnostic importance, especially in patients with complex lesions of the vocal apparatus.

On drawing Below are the results of spectrography of the phrase “Joe took father"s shoe bench out,” uttered by a healthy man; this image gives an approximate idea of ​​​​what information can be obtained as a result of spectrography. For example, each vertical line that appears on the graph during the utterance of a vowel sound , corresponds to one cycle of glottal closure; while the horizontal dark areas noted during phonation of vowels correspond to periods of peak resonance, or non-harmonic frequencies (during the pronunciation of “sh” of the word “shoe” or “ch” of the word “bench” ).

Experienced specialist in the interpretation of sound spectrograms, can quite easily assess the time relationships in the work of the larynx and other structures of the vocal tract.


Examples of recording electroglottography (EGG) results.
Left: Top graph shows changes in vocal fold contact area during three vocal cycles of a healthy man.
An increase in the contact area is reflected in the graph as a vertical ascent of the curve,
it reflects precisely the degree of contact of the vocal folds, and does not necessarily indicate a tighter closure of the glottis.
Shown below is the audio output of a voice produced during these three voice cycles.
Right: the nature of the closure of the vocal folds in a woman with singing nodules.
The presence of additional soft tissue formations on the folds leads to the appearance of characteristic “protrusions” on the graph.

e) Conclusion. The main points in the diagnosis of voice production disorders are the collection of anamnesis, as well as studies of the acoustics and aerodynamics of the human voice. Assessment of phonatory and non-phonatory functions of the larynx occurs not only using endoscopic examination methods, but also using other diagnostic methods that allow obtaining and documenting quantitative data. The methods of electroglottography and sound spectrography are of particular value.