What influences the formation of personality. The main conditions for normal mental development (according to A.R.
PREREQUISITES AND CONDITIONS OF MENTAL DEVELOPMENT.
1. The concept of mental development. Indicators of mental development. Biogenetic and sociogenetic theories of development.
2. Prerequisites for mental development: hereditary characteristics, natural properties of the body, maturation processes.
3. Conditions of mental development, social environment (life among people), the child's own activity.
Mental development and activity.
What is development?
Human development is maturation, quantitative and qualitative changes in congenital and acquired properties.
In the process of mental development, there are significant changes in cognitive, volitional, emotional processes, in the formation of mental qualities and personality traits.
From understanding the meaning of the term "mental development" depends on the definition of ways of education and upbringing, approach to the child, understanding the features of his development.
The mental development of a child is influenced by 2 main factors: biological (natural) and social (living conditions, environment).
L.S. Vygotsky defined development as “a continuous process of self-movement, characterized primarily by the emergence and formation of a new one that was not at the previous steps.”
Therefore, he considered age-related neoplasms as a criterion of mental development. Vygotsky L.S. pointed out that children's life consists of epochs characterized by slow evolutionary development, separate crises from each other.
Crises are characterized by the following features:
1. Comes and ends imperceptibly, reaches a maximum in the middle.
2. Negative phenomena.
3. Needs outpace opportunities.
D.B. Elkonin connected the periods with leading activities.
Prerequisites for mental development.
1..The structure and function of the brain.
In animals, most of the brain matter is already occupied by the time of birth. It fixes the mechanisms of instinctive forms of behavior that are inherited. In a child, a part remains “clean”, ready to be fixed, which gives life and upbringing. Etc. Can fix and wolf habits. In the animal world, the achieved level of development, behavior is transmitted from generation to generation, as well as the structure of the body, through biological inheritance, and in humans, all types of activity, knowledge. Skills, mental qualities through social inheritance.
2. Natural properties of the body: the ability to walk upright, orienting reflexes, hereditary features.
Natural properties without generating mental qualities create conditions for their formation. Example: speech hearing makes it possible to distinguish and recognize the sounds of speech. Not a single animal possesses it, since from nature the child receives the structure of the auditory apparatus and the corresponding parts of the nervous system.
conditions for mental development.
1. Life among people (education and training).
2. Own mental activity of the child.
Mental activity is manifested in the activity of becoming a man - it means learning to act.
4. Mental development and activity.
BASIC REGULARITIES OF MENTAL DEVELOPMENT.
The development of each mental function, each form of behavior, is subject to its own laws. They manifest themselves in all areas of the psyche and persist throughout ontogenesis. These are not random facts, but the main, essential tendencies.
1. Irregularity and heterochrony.
Each function proceeds at its own pace and rhythm of becoming. What is ahead, something lags behind, then the functions that are lagging behind become a priority in development and create the basis for further complication of mental activity.
In the first months, the sense organs develop most actively, later on their basis objective actions are formed, then speech, visual-effective thinking.
The periods most favorable for the development of one or another side of the psyche, when sensitivity is heightened, are called SENSITIVE.
Functions develop most successfully and favorably.
2. Staged.
Mental development occurs in stages, having a complex organization in time. Each age stage has its own pace and rhythm of time and changes in different years of life. The year of infancy is not equal to the year of adolescence. The stages follow one after another, obeying their own internal logic, their sequence cannot be rearranged or changed at will.
Each stage has its own value. Therefore, as A.V. Zaporozhets "it is important not to accelerate mental development, but to enrich, expand the child's capabilities in the types of life inherent in this age"
This ensures the transition to a new stage of development.
The characteristics of the stages of mental development are:
The social situation of development.
Leading activity.
Major neoplasms.
Under the social situation of development, L.S. Vygotsky understood the correlation of external and internal conditions for the development of the psyche. It determines the child's attitude to other people, objects, things, himself.
Age neoplasms. A new type of personality structure appears, mental changes, positive acquisitions that allow you to move on to a new stage of development.
Leading activity. A.N. Leontiev, said that this activity provides the cardinal lines of mental development in this period. In this activity, the main personality neoplasms are formed, the restructuring of mental processes and the emergence of new types of activity take place.
According to A. N. Leontiev, the leading activity causes the most important changes in the characteristics of the child in a particular period of development. It is characterized by the following features: 1) the main mental changes of the child in a given age period most closely depend on it, 2) other types of activity arise and differentiate in it, 3) private mental processes are formed and rebuilt in it (1981, pp. 514-515 ).
Despite the fact that each age period is characterized by a certain leading activity, this does not mean that other types of activity are absent or infringed at a given age. For a preschooler, the leading activity is a game. But in the preschool period, elements of learning and work can be observed in the life of children. However, they do not determine the nature of the main mental changes at a given age - their features depend to the greatest extent on the game.
Consider the periodization of childhood, which was developed by D. B. Elkonin on the basis of the works of L. S. Vygotsky and A. N. Leontiev. This periodization is based on the idea that each age as a peculiar and qualitatively specific period of a person's life corresponds to a certain type of leading activity; its change characterizes the change of age periods. In each leading activity, corresponding mental neoplasms arise and form, the continuity of which creates the unity of the child's mental development.
We present the indicated periodization.
2. Object-manipulative activity is the leading one for a child from 1 to 3 years old. Carrying out this activity (initially in cooperation with adults), the child reproduces the socially developed ways of acting with things;
he develops speech, a semantic designation of things, a generalized categorical perception of the objective world, and visual-effective thinking. The central neoformation of this age is the emergence in the child of consciousness, acting for others in the form of his own childish consciousness.<я».
3. Playing activity is most dominant in a child from 3 to 6 years old.
4. Educational activity is formed in children from 6 to 10 years old. On its basis, younger students develop theoretical consciousness and thinking, develop their corresponding abilities (reflection, analysis, mental planning); at this age, children also develop the need and motives for learning.
5. Holistic socially useful activity as a leading one is inherent in children from 10 to 15 years old. It includes such types as labor, educational, public-organizational, sports and artistic activities.
6. Educational and professional activities are typical for high school students and vocational school students aged 15 to 17-18. Thanks to it, they develop a need for work, professional self-determination, as well as cognitive interests and elements of research skills, the ability to build their own life plans, ideological, moral and civic qualities of a person, and a stable worldview.
Internal contradictions are the driving forces of mental development. Mismatch between WANT and CAN.
4. Differentiation and integration of processes, properties and qualities.
Differentiation consists in the fact that, separating from each other, they turn into independent forms or activities (memory is separated from perception).
Integration ensures the establishment of the relationship between the individual aspects of the psyche. So cognitive processes, having undergone differentiation, establish interconnections with each other at a higher qualitative level. So memory, speech, thinking provide intellectualization.
Cumulation.
The accumulation of individual indicators that prepare qualitative changes in different areas of the psyche.
5. Change of determinants (reasons).
The relationship between biological and social determinants is changing. The ratio of social determinants also becomes different. Special relationships are formed with peers and adults.
6. The psyche is plastic.
This contributes to the acquisition of experience. A born child can master any language. One of the manifestations of plasticity is the compensation of mental or physical functions (vision, hearing, motor function).
Another manifestation of plasticity is imitation. Recently, it has been considered as a peculiar form of orientation of the child in the world of specifically human activities, ways of communication and personal qualities by assimilation, modeling them in the actual activity (L.F. Obukhova, I.V. Shapovalenko).
E. Erickson singled out the stages of a person's life path, each of them is characterized by a specific task that is put forward by society.
Infancy (oral st.) - trust - distrust.
Early age (anal stage) - autonomy - doubt, shame.
The age of the game (phallic stage) - initiative - guilt.
School age (latent stage) - achievement - inferiority.
Adolescence (latent stage) - identity - identity diffusion.
Youth - intimacy - isolation.
Maturity - creativity - stagnation.
Old age - integration - disappointment in life.
THE PERIOD OF THE NEWBORNITY.
“When we are born, we cry. It's sad for us to start a stupid comedy. W. Shakespeare
1. General characteristics of the anatomical and physiological features of the newborn.
2. Features of the manifestations of the psyche of the newborn:
A. unconditioned reflexes b. receptor development at birth.
3. Obtaining external impressions - as a condition for the development of the psyche.
4. Individual differences in newborns.
During the period of intrauterine development, organs are laid:
3-9 weeks - heart
5-9 weeks - upper and lower limbs
8-12 weeks - face, eyes, ears, nose
5-16 weeks - kidneys.
In the first 3-4 months of pregnancy, the nervous system is formed. Flu. rubella, hepatitis lead to the appearance of congenital anomalies.
A newborn weighs 3200-3500 grams, height from 49-50 cm. The body structure differs from the structure of an adult and a 7-year-old child. The ratio of body parts is disproportionate: the head is very large 1.4 of the entire length of the child's body in an adult 1.8. Baby's legs are very short. The brain of a newborn weighs 360-370 grams. Nervous tissue of the brain, especially the cortex, to
not yet fully formed at the time of birth, not all nerve cells have the structure, size and shape that characterize the mature brain.
In a newborn, the processes of nerve cells that ensure the establishment of connections between different cells are short and are not able to do their main job - to transmit nervous excitation from one cell to another. Many nerve cells and brain fibers of a newborn are partially ready to receive and respond to simple stimuli. The cerebral cortex is not yet developed, the processes of inhibition are weak, therefore, nervous excitations spread widely throughout the cortex, capturing various centers, and causing general scattered movements in the child.
By the time of birth, the entire receptor apparatus is ready - the child sees, hears, smells, feels pain, touches. From the first days of life, as a result of the impact of external stimuli on the perceiving organs and the response to them, the functions of the cerebral cortex develop.
The infant has an innate ability to respond to sounds and their modifications. At the age of one week, the child is already able to distinguish the voice of his mother from other voices. At the age of 2 weeks, the child probably has formed the image that the face and voice of the mother are one. Experiments have shown that an infant demonstrates a state of anxiety if a mother appears before his eyes and speaks in a strange voice, or when suddenly a stranger speaks in the voice of his mother. The development of sensitivity begins in the prenatal period (example from Brusilovsky "Life before birth" p. 106.
Visual Sensitivity - Vision seems to be the least developed sense at birth. Although newborns are able to follow moving objects, their vision is weak until 2-4 months of age. Studies have shown that at 3 months the ability to distinguish colors can be traced and the child is drawn to red. The ability to distinguish colors, proved by the scientist N.I. Krasnogorsk.
“If there are no external stimuli or they are insufficient, the organization of the work of the cerebral cortex is delayed or goes wrong ... Hence the need to raise a child from the first days of life.” N. M. Shchelovanov.
“Helpless as a kitten” - they say about a newborn baby. But at the same time, they forget that a kitten at birth is more “adapted to life” than a human cub. If a newborn, like a kitten, had to seek food on its own, it would not survive. The life of a child in new conditions is provided by innate mechanisms. It is born with a certain willingness of the nervous system to adapt the body to external conditions. Immediately after birth, reflexes are activated that ensure the work of the main organs and systems of the body (respiration, circulation, excretion). The sense organs of a newborn are better developed than movements.
In a newborn, innate instinctive forms of behavior aimed at satisfying needs are manifested in their pure form. They ensure survival, but do not form the basis of mental development.
Congenital reflexes associated with movements.
Grimaces of pleasure and displeasure.
Adequate facial expressions for sour, salty, bitter and sweet taste stimuli.
Sucking, blinking, swallowing reflexes.
Robinson's grasping reflex.
Babinski's plantar reflex (spreads fingers).
Vertebral Galant reflex.
Walking and swimming reflexes without moving the body.
Raises head from shoulder.
Repulsion reflex.
Orientation reflex.
Defensive (if you sharply pull the diaper, wave your arms and legs).
Tonic neck reflex (swordsman posture).
Unlimited opportunities for learning new experience, acquiring forms of behavior characteristic of a person are the main features of a newborn.
External impressions are necessary for correct psychic development. Without such impressions, the maturation of the brain is impossible, since a necessary condition for the normal maturation of the brain during the neonatal period is the exercise of the sense organs, the entry into the brain of various signals received with their help from the outside world. (If a child falls into sensory isolation, his mental development is delayed. The adult is the source of impressions.)
“The world enters the consciousness of man only through the door of the organs of external senses. If it is closed, then he cannot enter into a relationship with him. The world then does not exist for consciousness.” B. Preyer.
The infant has better developed distant receptors, so auditory and visual sensations are available to him earlier.
Conditioned reflexes.
1. The appearance of a reaction of concentration from the side of the eye and ear (1-2 minutes).
2. Conditioned reflexes “to the position during feeding” are formed.
3. Positive emotional reaction to an adult, the need for communication.
4. By 2-3 weeks reflex to feeding time.
"Complex of revival" is a special emotional-motor reaction addressed to an adult. It is the boundary between newborn and infancy.
individual differences.
Although in many situations and relationships, babies behave remarkably similarly, however, they are very different. There is a big difference on the basis of irritability. Even in the same family, children differ in their typical mood.
Appearances of reaction of concentration from the side of the eye and ear.
Conditioned reflexes to individual stimuli are formed.
Positive reaction to an adult, the need for communication.
Conclusions on the Infant p. 177 Carol Flake Hobson
Communication.
During this period, the contact of the child with the world is carried out through an adult. The center of the situation in which the child is located is an adult. During the prenatal period, the child is physically bound, and in infancy, socially. At 3-6 months there is a selective attitude towards adults. The child reacts to the face and intonation of the voice. For mental development during infancy, emotional communication with him is important.
Communication with an adult is the main factor in development in infancy.
Research by D.B. Elkonina, M.I. Lisina, L.I. Bozhovich, M. Reibl, I. Langmeyer, Z. Mateichik allow us to conclude that the leading activity of the infant is emotional communication with the mother.
The American Sempman showed that baby rats, who received in early childhood experiences of helplessness with the inactivity of adults, will subsequently be passive in risky life situations. Even sarcoma was rejected more often.
The Czechoslovakian psychologist M. Dombrovska found that babies aged 6-10 months, deprived of a family, are 7 times more likely to experience fear when they meet new objects, toys than family children.
The American psychologist D. Pruga found that in situations with constantly changing adult caregivers, an infant is able to restore interrupted emotional contact with adults no more than 4 times. After that, he stops looking for new contacts and remains indifferent to them.
The Polish psychologist K. Obukhovsky cites the data of R. Spitz on the consequences of separation from the mother of a 6-month-old baby.
1 month - cries, demands mother.
2 months - avoidance reaction, screams when approached. At the same time, there is a drop in weight and a decrease in the overall level of development.
3 months - demonstrates apathy, autism, avoidance of any contact with the world.
8-9 month old children sat or lay with wide eyes and frozen faces, in a daze, contact is difficult, sometimes impossible. Children suffered from insomnia, lost weight, got sick, especially skin diseases.
4 months - facial expressions disappear, the face freezes with a mask, does not scream, but moans plaintively.
In case of separation more than 5-6 months. the changes are basically irreversible.
Emotionally cold and principled strict mothers often achieve that by the age of 7-8 children experience serious emotional disorders.
At the age of 60, psychologist Wayne Dennis studied babies in an orphanage in Tehran (Iran) and noted serious developmental delays. IQ for the year is reduced by 5-10 units. The level of development of the average child is higher by 30 units. When the conditions of upbringing change, the child can catch up with peers in development. So Dennis found out that if a child is picked up for 1 hour a day and activated with objects, then development can be accelerated by 4 times. V.S. Rotenberg and S.M. Bondarenko believe that a child deprived of communication at 1 year of life is doomed to emotional deafness - schizoid. At the age of 1, the child needs not the principle of the mother, but the unconditional manifestation of maternal warmth, love and affection.
After birth, the need for communication is absent. It follows the principle of "appeal-response". Initially, the communication of an infant with an adult acts as a one-way process. The appeal comes from an adult, the response of the child is hardly perceptible. R. Burns, referring to the research of S. Coopersmith, argues that for a positive self-perception, it is not the method of feeding itself that is important, but the mother's confidence in the chosen method.
1. The first achievement in the communication of a child with an adult is persistent looking into the eyes and lips of an adult (1 month). the revitalization complex is the first response to an adult's appeal, the most important social need for positive emotions on the part of an adult is formed. By 4-5 months, communication becomes selective, begins to distinguish friends from strangers. Gradually, communication for the sake of communication develops into communication about objects, toys, and into joint activities.
The most important means of communication are expressive actions (smiling, humming, active motor reactions). Observations showed that organized communication from 3 months with the help of the word failed.
2. At 6-7 months. the means and forms of dialogue become more complicated, a crying call and crying sympathy appear. The pity of grandmothers and compassionate mothers (oh and aha) frighten the child and give rise to fear of movement.
One-year-olds are annoyed by long monologues.
after 3 months cooing
About 4 months imitation of the rhythm of sounds a-a-a-a, s-s-s, o-o-o
6 months-babble is a gradual improvement in the use of lips, tongue, breathing.
From the middle of infancy, conditions are created for understanding speech. Where is Lala? Orientation response to the word. As a result of repeated repetitions, there is a connection between the subject and the word. By the end of the year, the relationship between the name of the subject and the subject itself. It is expressed in the search and finding of an object, a passive vocabulary arises. At this time, gestural communication develops. At 5 months – hand movement, then make patties, wave your hand. At 9-10 - affirmative, negative, indicative, threatening, beckoning.
Prerequisites for the acquisition of speech.
Stage 1 - calms down, listening to how adults are talking to him.
Stage 2 - after 3 months, he hums, making sounds, listens to them.
Stage 3 - in the second half of the year babble, babble pronounces and distinguishes new sounds. Normal babies begin to babble at the age of five months. This initial phase lasts about a month, with children pronouncing a wide variety of sounds. Deaf children also go through this phase even though they have never heard a single word. They babble as much as normal children, although they cannot hear themselves.
By the end of the first year, babbling ends and turns into colloquial speech, which a normal child constantly hears around him. It takes a long time to consolidate speech skills. The speech of children who became deaf in childhood gradually becomes impoverished. At the age of 6 years, the onset of deafness does not affect the development of speech. As a result of repeated repetitions, there is a connection between the word spoken by the adult and the object pointed to. By the end of 1 year, in response to the word of an adult, a speech reaction can occur where is dad?, the child is “dad”. By the end of the year, he knows from 4 to 15 words. Boys are dumber. The passive stock is much larger than the active stock.
By the end of infancy, the assimilation of speech acquires an active character, becomes one of the important means of expanding the possibilities of communication between a child and an adult.
Lashley identified the causes of difficulties in speech development:
hearing, features of development of the speech analyzer.
lack of experience with adults.
features of the emotional life of the child.
inhibition due to other children.
poor coordination of movements.
The way to stimulate the development of speech, according to Lashley, is a game.
The first half of the year is a period of preparation for the development of speech. During this period, the preparation of the speech-motor apparatus and the development of phonemic hearing take place. On the basis of communication, there is a need for verbal communication with people around. The first speech reactions are conditioned reflex in nature and are formed in the process of emotional communication with adults.
By the second half of the year, the child has a large number of conditioned reactions to objective stimuli.
In particular, reactions of this nature appear - it captures the sound pattern of a word and correlates it with a specific subject. Where is the clock? Shows.
The development of the second signaling system, the ability to respond to the meaning of the word, appears much later (11-12 months). With the help of speech, we begin to control the child's behavior. The child develops understandable speech, it is situational in nature.
Conclusions for 1 year:
Understanding the speech of adults and the first self-pronounced words.
Action can be controlled by a word.
The child's perception can be controlled by the word.
Speech becomes active, prerequisites for successful language acquisition are formed.
The decisive condition for understanding speech is the need for communication in a situation of attractive activity, a mandatory positive emotional coloring. The accumulation of the names of objects occurs in the following order: a. the names of the immediate surroundings b. names of adults and names of toys c. images of objects, clothing and body parts.
Do not leave with a stranger or approach strangers to the crib and stroller. Meet only sitting in the arms of their parents.
Respect for the child. You can't spank. Especially boys, as the testicles will rise from the scrotum.
Patience and kindness.
It is impossible to compare, since everyone develops according to the laws of individual biology.
Take the child in your arms.
Don't ignore the crying baby.
Not reacting to a "seizure" is the best way to develop a relationship with a child. A fit is a sign of a boundary.
Subject consultations.
1. Surround your child with the best.
2. Communication with the child as a factor of intellectual development.
memory at an early age.
Memory is not given in finished form, it is formed under the influence of living conditions and upbringing.
Stage 1 - the form of imprinting and recognition of external influences. According to the research of Kasatkina N.I. observed in the first months. At 3-4 months, a more complex form of imprinting is based on an elementary analysis of stimuli. It manifests itself in raising the head and striving the body in the direction.
5-6 months - recognition of loved ones.
At 7-8 months, in the process of communicating with adults, a peculiar form of memory appears - recognition mediated by speech (where is Lyalya?)
By the age of 1, a new reaction to the word is a pointing gesture. At the end of the first, beginning of the 2nd year, words become the object of memorization. With age, the period of perception with subsequent recognition lengthens.
At 2 years old, he recognizes loved ones after a few weeks.
At 3 years, a few months.
4 years after a separation lasting a year.
At preschool age, memory is unintentional, involuntary, that is, the child remembers something without setting himself the goal of remembering.
A child who learns foreign languages at the age of 3 cannot master the system of knowledge from the field of geography. Memory at an early age is one of the central basic mental functions. The thinking of a young child is largely determined by his memory. To think for a young child means to remember, that is, to rely on previous experience. Thinking at an early age develops in direct dependence on memory.
Leading activity– subject activity, business practical cooperation with an adult.
Subject-manipulative activity.
Central neoplasm this age:
The emergence of a child's consciousness, acting for others around him in the form of his own "I".
Intensive mastery of object-tool operations forms practical intellect.
Imagination and the sign-symbolic function of consciousness arise, the child proceeds to active speech.
There are prerequisites for gaming and productive activities.
Communication with peers is born.
Object perception is formed as a central cognitive function.
There is a personal action, personal desire, there is an objective relationship to reality.
An important new formation is pride in one's achievements.
Development Crises:
independent sense of "I", or doubt and shame.
Development tasks:
self-control, language development, fantasy and play, independent movement.
Development resources:
human relations, sensory stimulation, protected environment, limited environment.
PRESCHOOL CHILDHOOD.
Central neoplasms:
Leading activity- game.
In gaming activity, for the first time, they form and manifest
the child's needs to influence the environment.
Imagination and symbolic function are formed, orientation to the general meaning of human relations and actions.
There is a selection in them of motives of subordination and control, as well as generalized experiences, a meaningful orientation in them.
The main neoplasm is a new internal position, a new level of awareness of one's place in the system of social relations.
The child masters a wide range of activities: play, labor, productive, household, communication.
Mastering modeling as a purposeful mental ability.
Mastering the ways and means of cognitive activity.
Formation of arbitrary behavior.
1. General characteristics of the nervous system of a preschool child.
2. Development of types of attention in preschool age.
3. Development of the properties of attention in preschool age.
4. The value of play and learning in preschool age.
The development of sensations.
Sensory is a system through which the impressions of the outside world become the property of our psyche. (accumulation of sensory experience)
"The most far-reaching advances in science and technology are designed not only for thinking, but also for feeling people." B.G. Ananiev.
The development of sensations and perception is of great theoretical and practical importance.
developed sensory is a prerequisite for the development of other mental processes (thinking, memory, imagination).
the basis for improving practical activities.
contributes to normal emotional and volitional development.
associated with the development of special abilities.
There are 2 points of view on the sensory development of the child:
sensory abilities are given to the child from birth in finished form.
Purpose: sensory education is reduced to the exercise of these abilities.
sensory development is the formation of new properties and sensory processes that did not previously exist.
The maturation of analyzers is, of course, an important condition, but this is only an organic prerequisite. The formation of sensory abilities and their improvement occurs in the course of assimilation of social sensory experience. This point of view is shared by many well-known scientists Wenger, Elkonin, Sakulina.
What, then, should be the content of sensory education?
1. Formation of sensory standards (acquaintance of children with sensory standards). Assimilation of ideas about the various properties and relationships of objects.
2. Mastering the methods of examining objects, perceptual actions that allow you to more fully and dissectedly perceive the world around you.
sensory standards - samples of each type of properties and relations of objects.
In the process of socio-historical development, mankind has systematized the whole variety of properties of objects: shape, primary colors, pitch scale. The lattice of phonemes of the native language. Each type of standards is not just a set of individual samples, but a system in which there are varieties of a given property. Assimilation of sensory standards occurs as a result of perception actions aimed at examining varieties of shape, color, size. Without specially organized sensory education, children usually learn only some standards at first (circle, square, red, yellow, blue, green). Much later they learn about the triangle, rectangle, oval, orange, blue, violet colors). With great difficulty, children learn ideas about the size of objects, about the relationship in size between objects.
Consistent familiarization of children with different types of sensory standards and their systematization is one of the main tasks of sensory education. To acquaint with sensory standards means to organize the memorization of words denoting the main varieties of object properties.
These basic shapes help children understand the variety of properties of objects. This is carried out in all types of activities and goes through 2 stages:
1.1 from birth to 3 years. Children learn and recognize basic sensory patterns. They don't have to be named.
1.2. From 3 to 7 years old, children learn sensory standards and consolidate them in speech.
2.Formation of investigative actions.
Visual examination:
3-4 years - eye movements are not numerous, the gaze glides along the middle of the surface, there is no contour tracing.
4-5 years old - basic movements in the middle of the figure, orientation to the size and area of the figure, fixations related to the characteristic features of the figure.
5-6 years - eye movements appear along the contour of the object, but not all parts of the contour are examined.
6-7 years - the duration of fixation decreases, the movement models the figure (reminiscent of the movements of an adult).
We see that there is a gradual transition from the child's extended actions, to curtailment, to instantaneous visual modeling, i.e. interiorization.
3 years - manipulation of the subject without attempts to examine
4 years - examining the subject, highlighting individual parts and features.
5-6 years - systematic and consistent examination.
7 years - systematic, systematic examination
Examination of objects takes place in different ways depending on the goals, so when drawing, an object is considered only from one side, because the image is planar.
When designing, the inspection takes place from all sides.
But there are techniques typical for many types of examination:
1. Perception of the integral appearance of the object.
2. Isolation of the main parts of this subject and determination of their properties (shape, size)
3. Definition of spatial relationships relative to each other (above, below, left, right).
4. Selection of small parts and their location in relation to the main parts.
5. Repeated holistic perception of the subject.
Each type of activity has its own research activities.
Conclusions on visual sensations:
1. Children at preschool age are capable of fine color discrimination. Even at a younger age, they know colors and shades well.
Sunyaeva Daria Olegovna
Conditions that determine the development of a child's speech
Terms, determining the development of the child's speech
In order for the process of speech development children proceeded in a timely and correct manner, necessary certain conditions. So, child must be mentally and somatically healthy, have normal mental abilities, have normal hearing and vision; have sufficient mental activity, the need for verbal communication, and also have a full-fledged speech environment. Normal (timely and correct) speech child development allows him to constantly learn new concepts, expand the stock of knowledge and ideas about the environment. Thus, speech development most closely associated with development of thinking.
In the practice of working with young children, numerous techniques have been developed by which adults help to kid master speech faster and more perfectly, enrich vocabulary, develop correct speech. Undoubtedly, the role of the most important adults, with conditions for raising a child in a family played by his parents. In this case, the main responsibility for speech child development falls right on them.
In this section, we consider the main techniques and techniques that provide speech child development.
Mandatory conversation with child from the very first days of his life is the first and most important condition and method of speech development. Any communication with child or action must be accompanied by speech. In the family, the baby, naturally, is provided with an individual approach, since for the most part he is alone and the attention of the whole family is drawn to him. Of particular importance is the speech of the mother, who, for child is a source of life, love, affection, positive emotional and purely intimate experiences. The speech from the mouth of the mother, in this regard, is perceived as particularly effective.
But the most favorable conditions for the perception and development of speech young children are created with a combination of family and social education.
Residence child in a children's team, in a group, it influences in a peculiar way children's speech development. Child communicates with children in the classroom, shares his impressions with them and finds in them an appropriate understanding of his speeches, sympathy for his interests, promotion of his activity. All this mobilizes child for the further development of his speech. The impact of the children's team on speech development can be attributed to what is called self-learning a language.
For a successful speech development children, it seems very important to influence not only hearing, but also vision and touch. Child should not only hear the adult, but also see the face of the speaker. Children, as it were, read speech from the face and, imitating adults, begin to pronounce the words themselves. For development understanding is desirable child not only saw the object in question, but also received it in his hands.
Storytelling is one of the ways development of children's speech, children like it very much. Children are told small works, simple and easy to understand, they also tell fairy tales, read poems. Poems, stories and fairy tales are recommended to be recited by heart for better perception by their children. It is necessary that the children, listening to the narrator, sit comfortably around him and see his face well. And the narrator himself must see the children, observe the impression of the story, the reaction of the children. Nothing should prevent children from listening.
good reception speech development is the examination of pictures, since speech is made visual and more accessible for understanding. That is why it is good to accompany the story by showing pictures, talking about the picture.
One of the best means development of speech and thinking of children
is a game that delivers baby fun, joy, and these feelings are a strong tool that stimulates active perception speeches and generating independent speech activity. Interestingly, even when playing alone, younger children often speak, expressing their thoughts aloud, which in older children proceed silently, to themselves.
Helps a lot speech development and the thinking of young children about
playing with toys, when they are not only given toys to play on their own, but also shown how to play with them. Such organized games, accompanied by speech, turn into a kind of small performances, so entertaining children and giving so much for them. development.
Children from the words of adults are able to remember and reproduce by heart what they hear. This requires repeated repetition of speech material.
Recitation and singing accompanied by music is also an important way development of children's speech. They are especially successful in memorizing poems and songs, which they then recite and sing.
In addition to this means speech development and thinking of children is reading books to children. This captivates children, they like it, and quite early, imitating adults, children themselves begin to examine the book, "read" her, retelling often by heart what was read to them. Children sometimes memorize an interesting book in its entirety.
Familiarizing children with the world around them development of speech and thinking of children. At the same time, it is important to draw the attention of kids to objects and the life around them, to talk with them about it.
So everything the above methods and techniques are mandatory for parents, as they provide versatile conditions for the development of a child's speech at all stages of his development
One of the important factors speech development is the development fine motor skills in children. Scientists came to the conclusion that the formation of oral the child's speech begins then when the movements of the fingers reach sufficient accuracy. In other words, the formation speeches performed under the influence of impulses coming from the hands. In electrophysiological studies, it was found that when child makes rhythmic movements with his fingers, the coordinated activity of the frontal (motor speech zone) and temporal (sensory area) parts of the brain, that is, speech areas are formed under the influence of impulses coming from the fingers. For determining the level of speech development children of the first years of life developed the following method: child they ask to show one finger, two fingers, three, etc. Children who succeed in isolated finger movements are talking children. Until the movements of the fingers become free, speech development and, therefore, thinking will not be achieved.
This is also important with timely speech development, and - especially - in cases where it is development is disturbed. In addition, it has been proven that both thought and the eye child moving at the same speed as the hand. This means that systematic exercises for training finger movements are a powerful means of increasing the efficiency of the brain. Research results show that the level speech development in children is always in direct proportion to the degree development fine finger movements. The imperfection of fine motor coordination of the hands and fingers makes it difficult to master writing and a number of other educational and labor skills.
So, speech is improved under the influence of kinetic impulses from the hands, more precisely, from the fingers. Usually a child with a high level development of fine motor skills, can reason logically, he is quite good at developed memory, attention, coherent speech.
Muscular sensations of the speaker from the movements of his articulatory organs - this is "matter of language" in her subjective perception; in oral speeches to muscle sensations, auditory sensations are added, which are present in the form of representations (images) and at talking about yourself(internal speeches) . Child who has learned to perceive this or that complex of sounds as a word, i.e., who has understood it as a sign certain phenomena of reality, remembers auditory and muscular sensations from a given word. Because the child still does not know how to control his articulation apparatus, first he learns to hear the word (speech, and then to pronounce it. However, the auditory image of the word and its "muscular" the image of child created at the same time; another thing is that "muscular" the image of the word at first is very inaccurate. It is known that children of the third and even fourth years of life, who do not know how to pronounce certain words correctly, nevertheless have their correct auditory images and notice when adults distort these words. Therefore, the sensory basis speeches for each person is his Feel: auditory and muscular (speech motor). According to physiologists, speech movements, "surrendering" in the brain, make the brain work (certain parts of it) as an organ speeches. That's why child learn to articulate sounds speeches, modulate prosodems, i.e., you need to help him learn "matter of language" Otherwise, he will not be able to learn speech. This is a regularity. It has already been said above that the components of the articulatory apparatus are the tongue, lips, teeth, vocal cords, lungs, and when mastering writing speech - hand, fingers of the writing hand. But at the same time, it should be noted that the fingers are not only the organ of writing speeches, but also affect oral speech development. It turns out that this role of the fingers was known (unconsciously understood) a very long time ago, talented people from the people who created in ancient times such children's amusement rhymes as "Okay", "Magpie" etc., in which the mother, the nanny makes the fingers work child("I gave it, I gave it"- she says, starting to touch the baby's fingers). Experiments carried out by physiologists in recent years have confirmed the role of fingers child as a speech-motor organ and explained the reason for this phenomenon.
This is how M. M. Koltsova describes the child at the Institute of Physiology of Children and Adolescents of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the Russian Federation experiment with children aged 10 months to 1 year 3 months with a delay speech development. Based on the situation that in the process speeches muscle sensations from the work of the speech apparatus play an important role, the experimenters suggested that children who have delayed speech development, you can help if you strengthen the training of their speech apparatus. To do this, you need to call them for onomatopoeia. It was training, which included mainly onomatopoeia, that accelerated speech infant development.
An important role for development of oral speech children are playing with the correct setting of their breathing. Of course the sounds speeches, prosodems are formed with a known position of the articulatory organs, but with the indispensable condition: a stream of air coming from the lungs should pass through the articulatory organs. The jet of air is intended primarily for breathing; means, child must learn to breathe and speak at the same time. In the first years of life, this is not so easy, and here you should come to the rescue. child caregiver with professional knowledge.
Speech research development twins give grounds to assert that in their lagging behind singleborn children, apparently, a greater role is played by psychological rather than biological factors. At the same time, the above facts allow us to conclude that in the case of twins, one can speak not only of quantitative differences, but also of a qualitatively unique way of mastering speech in comparison with the situation of a single-born child. Application of the communicative approach (studies of dialogue, pragmatics, speeches in various social contexts) to the analysis of verbal interaction in twin children makes it possible to single out those peculiar techniques that they develop in order to adapt to conditions twin situation, which, ultimately, allows them to go through the stages of speech development faster or slower and demonstrate phenomena speeches not found in single-born peers. Although there are few studies organized in this vein, they deserve closer attention.
Thus, the necessary conditions to form the correct child's speech are his good somatic health, the normal functioning of the central nervous system, the speech-motor apparatus, the organs of hearing, vision, as well as the various activities of children, the richness of their direct perceptions, providing the content of the children's speeches, as well as a high level of professional skills of teachers and good preparation of parents for the process of education and training. These terms do not arise by themselves, their creation requires a lot of work and perseverance; they need to be constantly supported.
In order for the process of speech development of children to proceed in a timely and correct manner, certain conditions are necessary. So, the child must be mentally and somatically healthy, have normal mental abilities, have normal hearing and vision; have sufficient mental activity, the need for verbal communication, and also have a full-fledged speech environment. The normal (timely and correct) speech development of the child allows him to constantly learn new concepts, expand the stock of knowledge and ideas about the environment. Thus, speech and its development are closely connected with the development of thinking.
In the practice of working with young children, numerous techniques have been developed with the help of which adults help the child to master speech faster and more perfectly, enrich vocabulary, and develop correct speech. Of course, the role of the most important adults, provided that a child is raised in a family, is played by his parents. In this case, the main responsibility for the speech development of the child lies with them.
In this section, we consider the main techniques and techniques that ensure the speech development of the child.
Mandatory conversation with the child from the very first days of his life is the first and most important condition and method for the development of speech. Any communication with a child or action must be accompanied by speech. In the family, the baby, naturally, is provided with an individual approach, since for the most part he is alone and the attention of the whole family is drawn to him. Of particular importance is the speech of the mother, which for the child is the source of life, love, affection, positive emotional and purely intimate experiences. The speech from the mouth of the mother, in this regard, is perceived as particularly effective.
But the most favorable conditions for the perception and development of speech in young children are created when combination of family and social education.
The stay of a child in a children's team, in a group, has a peculiar effect on the development of children's speech. The child in the classroom communicates with children, shares his impressions with them and finds in them an appropriate understanding of his speech, sympathy for his interests, and promotion of his activity. All this mobilizes the child for the further development of his speech. The influence of the children's team on the development of speech can be attributed to what is called self-learning of the language.
For the successful development of children's speech, it is very important to influence not only hearing, but also on sight, and for touch. The child must not only hear the adult, but also see the speaker's face. Children, as it were, read speech from the face and, imitating adults, begin to pronounce the words themselves. For the development of understanding, it is desirable that the child not only sees the object in question, but also receives it in his hands.
storytelling- one of the methods of developing children's speech, children like it very much. Children are told small works, simple and easy to understand, they also tell fairy tales, read poems. Poems, stories and fairy tales are recommended to be recited by heart for better perception by their children. It is necessary that the children, listening to the narrator, sit comfortably around him and see his face well. And the narrator himself must see the children, observe the impression of the story, the reaction of the children. Nothing should prevent children from listening.
A good technique for developing speech is looking at pictures, as the speech is made visual and more accessible for understanding. That is why it is good to accompany the story by showing pictures, talking about the picture.
One of the best means of developing speech and thinking of children is the game, which gives the child pleasure, joy, and these feelings are a strong tool that stimulates the active perception of speech and generates independent speech activity. Interestingly, even when playing alone, younger children often speak, expressing their thoughts aloud, which in older children proceed silently, to themselves.
It is very helpful in the development of speech and thinking of young children. playing with toys when they are not only given toys to play on their own, but also shown how to play with them. Such organized games, accompanied by speech, turn into a kind of small performances, so entertaining children and giving so much for their development.
Children from the words of adults are able to remember and reproduce by heart what they hear. For this it is necessary repeated repetition of speech material.
Declamation and singing accompanied by music is also an important way to develop children's speech. They are especially successful in memorizing poems and songs, which they then recite and sing.
In addition, a means of developing speech and thinking of children is reading books to children. This captivates children, they like it, and quite early, imitating adults, children themselves begin to examine the book, “read” it, often retelling by heart what was read to them. Children sometimes memorize an interesting book in its entirety.
Introducing children to the world around them contributes to the development of speech and thinking of children. At the same time, it is important to draw the attention of kids to objects and the life around them, to talk with them about it.
Thus, all of the above methods and techniques are mandatory for parents, as they provide versatile conditions for the development of a child's speech at all stages of his growing up.
One of the important factors in the development of speech is development of fine motor skills in children. Scientists came to the conclusion that the formation of a child's oral speech begins when the movements of the fingers reach sufficient accuracy. In other words, the formation of speech takes place under the influence of impulses coming from the hands. In electrophysiological studies, it was found that when a child makes rhythmic movements with his fingers, the coordinated activity of the frontal (motor speech zone) and temporal (sensory zone) parts of the brain sharply increases, that is, the speech areas are formed under the influence of impulses coming from the fingers. To determine the level of development of speech in children of the first years of life, the following method has been developed: the child is asked to show one finger, two fingers, three, etc. Children who succeed in isolated finger movements are talking children. Until the movements of the fingers become free, the development of speech and, consequently, thinking cannot be achieved.
This is also important for timely speech development, and - especially - in cases where this development is impaired. In addition, it has been proven that both the mind and the child's eye move at the same speed as the hand. This means that systematic exercises for training finger movements are a powerful means of increasing the efficiency of the brain. Research results show that the level of speech development in children is always in direct proportion to the degree of development of fine finger movements. The imperfection of fine motor coordination of the hands and fingers makes it difficult to master writing and a number of other educational and labor skills.
So, speech is improved under the influence of kinetic impulses from the hands, more precisely, from the fingers. Usually a child with a high level of development of fine motor skills is able to reason logically, his memory, attention, and coherent speech are quite well developed.
Muscular sensations of the speaker from the movements of his articulatory organs - this is the "matter of language" in its subjective perception; in oral speech, to muscle sensations, auditory sensations are added, which are present in the form of representations (images) and when talking to oneself (inner speech). A child who has learned to perceive this or that complex of sounds as a word, i.e., who has understood it as a sign of a certain phenomenon of reality, remembers auditory and muscular sensations from a given word. Since the child does not yet know how to control his articulation apparatus, he first learns to hear the word (speech), and then to pronounce it. However, the child's auditory image of the word and its "muscular" image are created simultaneously; another thing is that the "muscular" image of the word at first is very inaccurate. It is known that children of the third and even fourth years of life, who do not know how to pronounce certain words correctly, nevertheless have their correct auditory images and notice when adults distort these words. Consequently, the sensual basis of speech for each person is his sensations: auditory and muscular (speech-motor). According to physiologists, it is the speech movements that "reverberate" in the brain that make the brain (certain parts of it) work as an organ of speech. Therefore, the child must be taught to articulate the sounds of speech, to modulate the prosodemes, i.e., it is necessary to help him assimilate the "matter of language", otherwise he will not be able to assimilate speech. This is a regularity. It has already been said above that the components of the articulatory apparatus are the tongue, lips, teeth, vocal cords, lungs, and when mastering written speech, the hand, fingers of the writing hand. But at the same time, it should be noted that the fingers are not only an organ of written speech, but also affect the development of oral speech. It turns out that this role of the fingers was known (unconsciously understood) for a very long time to talented people from the people, who created in time immemorial such children's nursery rhymes as "Ladushki", "Magpie", etc., in which the mother, the nanny makes the child's fingers work ("This I gave it, I gave it,” she says, starting to touch the baby’s fingers). Experiments carried out by physiologists in recent years have confirmed the role of the child's fingers as a speech-motor organ and explained the cause of this phenomenon.
So M. M. Koltsova describes an experiment with children aged 10 months to 1 year 3 months with delayed speech development, set up by the staff of the Laboratory of Higher Nervous Activity of the Child at the Institute of Physiology of Children and Adolescents of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the Russian Federation. Based on the position that muscle sensations from the work of the speech apparatus play an important role in the process of speech, the experimenters suggested that children with delayed speech development could be helped if their speech apparatus was strengthened. To do this, you need to call them for onomatopoeia. It was training, including mainly onomatopoeia, that accelerated the speech development of babies.
An important role in the development of oral speech of children is played by correct breathing pattern. Of course, the sounds of speech, the prosodema, are formed with a certain position of the articulatory organs, but under an indispensable condition: a stream of air coming from the lungs must pass through the articulatory organs. The jet of air is intended primarily for breathing; This means that the child must learn to breathe and speak at the same time. In the first years of life, this is not so easy, and here a teacher with professional knowledge should come to the aid of the child.
Studies of the speech development of twins give grounds to assert that, apparently, psychological rather than biological factors play a greater role in their lagging behind singleborn children. At the same time, the above facts allow us to conclude that in the case of twins, one can speak not only of quantitative differences, but also of a qualitatively unique way of mastering speech in comparison with the situation of a single-born child. The use of a communicative approach (studies of dialogue, pragmatics, speech features in various social contexts) to the analysis of verbal interaction in twin children makes it possible to single out those peculiar techniques that they develop in order to adapt to the conditions of the twin situation, which, ultimately, allows they go through the stages of speech development characteristic of single-born children faster or slower and demonstrate speech phenomena that are not found in single-born peers. Although there are few studies organized in this vein, they deserve closer attention.
Thus, the necessary conditions for the formation of the correct speech of a child are his good somatic health, the normal functioning of the central nervous system, speech motor apparatus, organs of hearing, vision, as well as various activities of children, the richness of their direct perceptions, providing the content of children's speech, as well as a high level of professional skills of teachers and good preparation of parents for the process of education and training. These conditions do not arise by themselves, their creation requires a lot of work and perseverance; they need to be constantly supported.
CONCLUSION
Speech is one of the main mental processes that distinguish humans from animals.
Speech performs such basic functions as communicative and significative, due to which it is a means of communication and a form of existence of thought, consciousness, are formed one through the other and function one in the other.
In psychology, it is customary to distinguish external and internal speech, external speech, in turn, is represented by oral (monologic and dialogic) and written speech. Also, the speech of the child is presented in certain forms in accordance with its genesis, in this case we mean various types of sensory and expressive speech.
Speaking about the stages of the formation of a child's speech, we turn to the periodization proposed by A. N. Leontiev, which includes preparatory, pre-preschool, pre-school and school stages. In the preparatory stage, the conditions under which the child's speech is formed are especially important (the correct speech of others, imitation of adults, etc.). The pre-preschool stage represents the initial acquisition of the language. At the preschool stage, the child develops contextual speech, and at the school stage, conscious assimilation of speech takes place.
The necessary conditions for the formation of the correct speech of the child are his good somatic health, the normal functioning of the central nervous system, speech motor apparatus, organs of hearing, vision, as well as various activities of children, the richness of their direct perceptions that provide the content of children's speech, a high level of professional skills of teachers and good training. parents to the process of education and training.
Mukhina B. Developmental psychology. Phenomenology of development
CHAPTER I. FACTORS DETERMINING MENTAL DEVELOPMENT
§ 1. CONDITIONS OF MENTAL DEVELOPMENT
Section I Phenomenology of Development
Developmental psychology as a branch of psychological knowledge studies the facts and patterns of development of the human psyche, as well as the development of his personality at different stages of ontogenesis. In accordance with this, child, adolescent, youthful psychology, adult psychology, as well as gerontopsychology are distinguished. Each age stage is characterized by a set of specific patterns of development - the main achievements, accompanying formations and neoplasms that determine the features of a particular stage of mental development, including the features of the development of self-consciousness.
Before starting a discussion of the laws of development themselves, let us turn to age periodization. From the point of view of age psychology, the criteria for age classification are determined primarily by the specific historical, socio-economic conditions of upbringing and development, which are correlated with different types of activity. The classification criteria also correlate with age-related physiology, with the maturation of mental functions that determine the development itself and the principles of learning.
So, L. S. Vygotsky, as a criterion for age periodization, considered mental transformations, characteristic of a particular stage of development. He singled out "stable" and "unstable" (critical) periods of development. He attached decisive importance to the period of crisis - the time when a qualitative restructuring of the functions and relations of the child takes place. During these periods, there are significant changes in the development of the child's personality. According to L. S. Vygotsky, the transition from one age to another occurs in a revolutionary way.
The criterion for age periodization by A. N. Leontiev is leading activities. The development of leading activity causes major changes in the mental processes and psychological characteristics of the child's personality at a given stage of development. “The fact is that, like every new generation, so does every single person belonging to a given generation find certain conditions of life already prepared. They make possible this or that content of his activity.
The age periodization of D. B. Elkonin is based on leading activities that determine the emergence of psychological neoplasms at a particular stage of development. Relations between productive activity and communication activity are considered.
A. V. Petrovsky for each age period identifies three phases of entering the referential community: adaptation, individualization and integration, in which the development and restructuring of the personality structure take place2.
In reality, the age periodization of each individual person depends on the conditions of his development, on the characteristics of the maturation of morphological structures responsible for development, as well as on the internal position of the person himself, which determines development at later stages of ontogenesis. Each age has its own specific “social situation”, its own “leading mental functions” (L. S. Vygotsky) and its own leading activity (A. N. Leontiev, D. B. Elkonin)3. The ratio of external social conditions and internal conditions for the maturation of higher mental functions determines the general movement of development. At each age stage, selective sensitivity is detected, susceptibility to external influences - sensitivity. L. S. Vygotsky attached decisive importance to sensitive periods, believing that learning that is premature or late in relation to this period is not effective enough.
The objective, historically conditioned realities of human existence in their own way affect him at different stages of ontogeny, depending on through which previously developed mental functions they are refracted. At the same time, the child “borrows only what suits him, proudly passes by what exceeds the level of his thinking”4.
It is known that the passport age and the age of "actual development" do not necessarily coincide. The child can be ahead, behind and correspond to the passport age. Each child has his own way of development, and this should be considered his individual feature.
Within the framework of the textbook, periods should be determined that represent age-related achievements in mental development within the most typical limits. We will focus on the following age periodization:
I. Childhood.
Infancy (from 0 to 12-14 months).
Early age (1 to 3 years).
Preschool age (3 to 6-7 years).
Junior school age (from 6-7 to 10-11 years).
II. Adolescence (from 11-12 to 15-16 years).
Age periodization makes it possible to describe the facts of a child's mental life in the context of age limits and to interpret the patterns of achievements and negative formations in specific periods of development.
Before we proceed to the description of age-related features of mental development, we should discuss all the components that determine this development: the conditions and prerequisites for mental development, as well as the significance of the internal position of the developing person himself. In the same section, one should specifically consider the dual nature of a person as a social unit and a unique personality, as well as the mechanisms that determine the development of the psyche and the human personality itself.
CHAPTER I. FACTORS DETERMINING MENTAL DEVELOPMENT
§ 1. CONDITIONS OF MENTAL DEVELOPMENT
Historically conditioned reality of human existence.
The condition for the development of man, in addition to the reality of Nature itself, is the reality of culture created by him. To understand the patterns of human mental development, it is necessary to define the space of human culture.
Culture is usually understood as the totality of the achievements of society in its material and spiritual development, used by society as a condition for the development and existence of a person at a particular historical moment. Culture is a collective phenomenon, historically conditioned, concentrated primarily in sign-symbolic form.
Each individual person enters culture, appropriating its material and spiritual embodiment in the cultural and historical space surrounding him.
Developmental psychology, as a science that analyzes the conditions of human development at different stages of ontogenesis, requires the identification of the relationship between cultural conditions and individual developmental achievements.
Determined by cultural development, historically conditioned realities of human existence can be classified as follows: 1) the reality of the objective world; 2) the reality of figurative-sign systems; 3) the reality of social space; 4) natural reality. These realities at each historical moment have their constants and their metamorphoses. Therefore, the psychology of people of a certain era should be considered in the context of the culture of this era, in the context of the meanings and meanings attached to cultural realities at a particular historical moment.
At the same time, each historical moment should be considered in terms of the development of those activities that introduce a person into the space of contemporary culture. These activities, on the one hand, are the components and heritage of culture, on the other hand, they are a condition for the development of a person at different stages of ontogenesis, a condition for his everyday life.
A. N. Leontiev defined activity in a narrow sense, i.e. on the psychological level, as a unit of "life mediated by mental reflection, the real function of which is that it orients the subject in the objective world"5. Activity is considered in psychology as a system that has a structure, internal connections and realizes itself in development.
Psychology explores the activities of specific people, which takes place in the conditions of an existing (given) culture in two forms: 1) "in conditions of open collectivity - among the surrounding people, together with them and in interaction with them"; 2) "eye to eye with the surrounding objective world"6.
Let us turn to a more detailed discussion of the historically conditioned realities of human existence and activities that determine the nature of a person's entry into these realities, his development and being.
7.
The reality of the objective world.
An object or thing7 in the mind of a person is a unit, a part of being, everything that has a set of properties, occupies a volume in space and is in relation to other units of being. We will consider the material objective world, which has a relative independence and stability of existence. The reality of the objective world includes objects of nature and man-made objects, which man has created in the course of his historical development. But a person not only learned to create, use and preserve objects (tools and objects for other purposes), he formed a system of relations to the subject. These attitudes to the subject are reflected in language, mythology, philosophy and human behavior.
In the language, the category "object" has a special designation. In most cases in natural languages it is a noun, a part of speech denoting the reality of the existence of an object.
In philosophy, the category "object", "thing" has its hypostases: "thing in itself" and "thing for us". "Thing in itself" means the existence of a thing in itself (or "in itself"). “Thing for us” means the thing as it is revealed in the process of cognition and practical activity of a person.
In the everyday consciousness of people, objects, things exist a priori - as a given, as natural phenomena and as an integral part of culture.
10
At the same time, they exist for a person as objects that are created and destroyed in the process of objective, instrumental, tul activity of the person himself. Only at certain moments does a person think about the Kantian question about the “thing in itself” - about the knowability of a thing, about the penetration of human knowledge “into the interior of nature”8.
In practical objective activity, a person does not doubt the cognizability of the “thing”. In labor activity, in simple manipulation, he deals with the material essence of the object and is constantly convinced of the presence of its properties that are amenable to change and cognition.
Man creates things and masters their functional properties. In this sense, F. Engels was right, arguing that “if we can prove the correctness of our understanding of a given natural phenomenon by the fact that we ourselves produce it, call it from the conditions, make it also serve our goals, then Kant’s elusive “thing in itself "the end comes" 9.
In reality, Kant's idea of the "thing in itself" turns out to be not a practical unknowability for a person, but the psychological nature of human self-consciousness. A thing, along with its functional features, often considered by a person from the point of view of its consumption, in other situations acquires the features of the person himself. Man is characterized not only by alienation from a thing in order to use it, but also by the spiritualization of a thing, giving it those properties that he himself possesses, identifying with this thing as akin to the human spirit. Here we are talking about anthropomorphism - endowing objects of nature and man-made objects with human properties.
The entire natural and man-made world in the process of human development acquired anthropomorphic features due to the development in the reality of social space of the necessary mechanism that determines the existence of a person among other people - identification.
Anthropomorphism is realized in myths about the origin of the sun (solar myths), the moon, the moon (lunar myths), stars (astral myths), the universe (cosmogonic myths) and man (anthropological myths). There are myths about reincarnations of one creature into another: about the origin of animals from people or people from animals. Ideas about natural ancestors were widespread in the world. Among the peoples of the North, for example, these ideas are present in their self-consciousness today. Myths about the transformation of people into animals, plants and objects are known to numerous peoples of the globe. Ancient Greek myths about hyacinth, narcissus, cypress, laurel tree are widely known. No less famous is the biblical myth of the transformation of a woman into a pillar of salt.
11
The category of objects with which a person is identified includes natural and man-made objects, they are given the meaning of a totem - an object that is in a supernatural relationship with a group of people (clan or family)11. This may include plants, animals, as well as inanimate objects (skulls of totemic animals - a bear, a walrus, as well as a crow, stones, parts of dried plants).
Animation of the objective world is not only the destiny of the ancient culture of mankind with mythological consciousness. Animation is an integral part of human presence in the world. And today, in the language and in the figurative systems of human consciousness, we find the evaluative attitude of a thing, as having or not having a soul. There are notions that unalienated labor creates a "warm" thing into which a soul has been invested, while alienated labor produces a "cold" thing, a thing without a soul. Of course, the “animation” of a thing by modern man differs from how it happened in the distant past. But one should not rush to conclusions about a fundamental change in the nature of the human psyche.
In the distinction between things "with a soul" and things "without a soul" is reflected human psychology - his ability to feel, to identify himself with a thing and the ability to alienate from it. A person creates a thing, admires it, sharing his joy with other people; he destroys, annihilates the thing, reduces it to dust, sharing his alienation with accomplices.
In turn, a thing represents a person in the world: the presence of certain things that are prestigious for a particular culture is an indicator of a person’s place among people; the absence of things is an indicator of a person's low status.
Thing can take place fetish. In the beginning, natural things became fetishes, to which supernatural meanings were attributed. The sacralization of objects through traditional rituals gave them those properties that protected a person or a group of people and assigned them a certain place among others. So, through a thing from ancient times there was a social regulation of relations between people. In developed societies, products of human activity become fetishes. In fact, many items can become fetishes: the power of the state is personified by the golden fund, the development and multiplicity of technology,12 in particular weapons, minerals, water resources, the ecological cleanliness of nature, the standard of living determined by the consumer basket, housing, etc.
The place of an individual among other people is really determined not only by his personal qualities, but also by the things that serve him, which represent him in social relations.
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(a house, an apartment, land and other things that are prestigious at a particular moment in the cultural development of society). The material, objective world is a specifically human condition for the existence and development of a person in the process of his life.
Naturalistic-objective and symbolic being of a thing. G. Hegel considered it possible to distinguish between the naturalistic-objective being of a thing and its semiotic determinateness13. It is reasonable to recognize such a classification as correct.
The naturalistic-objective being of a thing is a world created by man for labor activity, for arranging his everyday life - a home, a place of work, rest and spiritual life. The history of culture is also the history of things that accompanied a person in his life. Ethnographers, archaeologists, and cultural researchers provide us with vast material for the development and movement of things in the historical process.
The naturalistic-objective being of a thing, having become a sign of the transition of a person from the level of evolutionary development to the level of historical development, has become a tool that transforms nature and man himself - it has determined not only the existence of a person, but also his mental development, the development of his personality.
In our time, along with the world of “tamed objects” mastered and adapted to man, new generations of things appear: from microelements, mechanisms and elementary objects that are directly involved in the life of the human body, replacing its natural organs, to high-speed liners, space rockets, nuclear power plants, creating completely different conditions for human life.
Today it is generally accepted that the naturalistic-objective being of a thing develops according to its own laws, which are more and more difficult to control for a person. A new idea has appeared in the modern cultural consciousness of people: the intensive multiplication of objects, the developing industry of the objective world, in addition to objects symbolizing the progress of mankind, create a flow of objects for the needs of mass culture. This flow standardizes a person, turning him into a victim of the development of the objective world. Yes, and the symbols of progress appear in the minds of many people as destroyers of human nature.
In the mind of modern man, there is mythologization the overgrown and developed objective world, which becomes a “thing in itself” and “a thing for itself”. However, the object violates the human psyche insofar as the person himself allows this violence.
At the same time, the objective world created by man today clearly appeals to the psychic potential of man.
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motivating the power of the thing. The naturalistic-objective being of a thing has a well-known pattern of development: it not only increases its representation in the world, but also changes the objective environment in terms of its functional characteristics, in terms of the speed of performing actions of objects, and in terms of requirements addressed to a person.
Man generates a new objective world, which begins to test his psychophysiology, his social qualities. There are problems of designing a "man - machine" system based on the principles of increasing human capabilities, overcoming the "conservatism" of the human psyche, protecting the health of a healthy person in conditions of interaction with superobjects.
But didn't the first tools that man created make the same demands on him? Wasn't it required from a person, at the limit of his mental capabilities, to overcome the natural conservatism of the psyche in spite of the protective reflexes protecting him? The creation of a new generation of things and the dependence of man on their motivating force is an obvious trend in the development of society.
The mythologization of the objective world of the new generation is the underlying attitude of a person to a thing as a “thing in itself”, as an object that has an independent “internal power”14.
Modern man carries in himself an eternal property - the ability to anthropomorphize a thing, to give it spirituality. The anthropomorphic thing is the source of eternal fear of it. And this is not only a haunted house or brownie, it is a kind of inner essence that a person endows a thing with.
Thus, human psychology itself translates the naturalistic-objective being of a thing into its symbolic being. It is this symbolic domination of a thing over a person that determines that human relations, as K. Marx showed, are mediated by a certain connection: person - thing - person. Pointing to the dominance of things over people, K. Marx emphasized the dominance of land over man: “There is an appearance of a more intimate relationship between the owner and the land than the bonds of simply material wealth. A piece of land is individualized with its owner, has his title... his privileges, his jurisdiction, his political position, etc.”15.
In human culture there are things that appear in different meanings and meanings. This may include sign things, for example, signs of power, social status (crown, scepter, throne, etc. down the strata of society); symbol things, that rally people (banners, flags), and much more.
A special fetishization of things is the attitude towards money. The dominance of money reaches its most striking form where the natural
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and social certainty of the subject, where paper signs acquire the meaning of a fetish and a totem.
In the history of mankind, reverse situations also occur, when a person himself in the eyes of others acquires the status of an “animated object”. So, the slave acted as an "animated tool", as a "thing for another." And today, in situations of military conflicts, one person in the eyes of another can lose anthropomorphic properties: complete alienation from human essence leads to the destruction of identification between people.
With all the variety of human understanding of the essence of things, with all the variety of attitudes towards things, they - historically conditioned reality of human existence.
The history of mankind began with the “appropriation” and accumulation of things: first of all, with the creation and preservation of tools, as well as with the transfer to the next generations of methods for making tools and working with them.
The use of even the simplest hand tools, not to mention machines, not only increases the natural strength of a person, but also enables him to perform various actions that are generally inaccessible to the naked hand. Tools become, as it were, artificial organs of man, which he puts between himself and nature. Tools make a person stronger, more powerful and freer. But at the same time, things that are born in human culture, serving a person, facilitating his existence, can also act as a fetish that enslaves a person. The cult of things that mediates human relations can determine the price of a person.
Periods arose in the history of the human race when separate strata of mankind, protesting against the fetishization of things, denied the things themselves. Thus, the Cynics rejected all values created by human labor and representing the material culture of mankind (it is known that Diogenes walked in rags and slept in a barrel). However, a person who denies the value and significance of the material world, in essence, becomes dependent on it, but on the opposite side in comparison with a money-grubber who greedily accumulates money and property.
The world of things is the world of the human spirit: the world of his needs, his feelings, his way of thinking and way of life. The production and use of things created man himself and the environment for his existence. With the help of tools and other objects that serve everyday life, mankind has created a special world - the material conditions of human existence. Man, creating the material world, psychologically entered it with all the ensuing consequences: the world of things - the human habitat - the condition of his being, a means of satisfaction.
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of his needs and the condition of mental development and personality development in ontogeny.
2. Reality
figurative-sign systems.
Mankind in its history gave rise to a special reality that developed along with the objective world - the reality of figurative-sign systems.
A sign is any material sensually perceived element of reality, acting in a certain meaning and used to store and transmit some ideal information about what lies beyond the limits of this material formation. The sign is included in the cognitive and creative activity of a person, in the communication of people.
Man has created a system of signs that influence the internal mental activity, determining it, and at the same time determine the creation of new objects of the real world.
Modern sign systems are divided into linguistic and non-linguistic.
Language is a system of signs that serves as a means of human thinking, self-expression and communication. With the help of language, a person learns the world around him. Language, acting as an instrument of mental activity, changes the mental functions of a person, develops his reflexive abilities. As the linguist A. A. Potebnya writes, the word is "a deliberate invention and the Divine creation of language." "The word is originally a symbol, an ideal, the word thickens thoughts" "6. Language objectifies a person's self-consciousness, shaping it in accordance with the meanings and meanings that determine the value orientations on the culture of the language, behavior, relationships between people, on samples of a person's personal qualities" 7.
Each natural language took shape in the history of an ethnos, reflecting the path of mastering the reality of the objective world, the world of things created by people, the path of mastering labor and interpersonal relations. Language always participates in the process of objective perception, becomes an instrument of mental functions in a specifically human (mediated, symbolic) form, acts means of identification objects, feelings, behavior, etc.
Language develops due to the social nature of man. In turn, the language that develops in history influences the social nature of man. IP Pavlov attached decisive importance to the word in the regulation of human behavior, dominance over behavior. The grandiose signaling of speech appears for a person as a new regulative sign of mastery of behavior.
The word is of decisive importance for thought and for spiritual life in general. A. A. Potebnya points out that the word "is an organ of thought and an indispensable condition for the entire later development of understanding the world and oneself." However, as you use, as you acquire
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meanings and meanings, the word “loses its concreteness and figurativeness”. This is a very important idea, which is confirmed by the practice of language movement. Words are not only combined and exhausted, but, having lost their original meanings and meanings, they turn into trash, which pollutes the modern language. Discussing the problem of social thinking of people in their everyday life, M. Mamardashvili wrote about the problem of language: “We live in a space in which a monstrous mass of waste products of the production of thought and language has been accumulated”19. Indeed, in the language as an integral phenomenon, as the basis of human culture, along with words-signs that act in certain meanings and senses, in the process of historical development, fragments of obsolete and obsolete signs appear. These "waste products" are natural for any living and developing phenomenon, not only for language.
About the essence of linguistic reality, the French philosopher, sociologist and ethnographer L. Levy-Bruhl wrote: “Representations called collective, if defined only in general terms, without deepening the question of their essence, they can be recognized by the following features inherent in all members of a given social group: they are transmitted in it from generation to generation. They are imposed in it on individuals, prompting in them, according to the circumstances, feelings of respect, fear, worship, etc. in relation to their objects, they do not depend for their being on a separate person. This is not because representations presuppose a collective subject distinct from the individuals who make up the social group, but because they exhibit features that cannot be comprehended and understood by merely considering the individual as such. For example, language, although it exists, in fact, only in the minds of individuals who speak it, it is nevertheless an undoubted social reality based on a set of collective ideas ... Language imposes itself on each of these personalities, it precedes it and outlives it.(emphasis mine. - V. M.)20. This is a very important explanation of the fact that at first culture contains the linguistic matter of a system of signs - it “precedes” an individual person, and then “language imposes itself” and is appropriated by a person.
And yet language is the main condition for the development of the human psyche. Thanks to language and other sign systems, a person has found a means for mental and spiritual life, a means of deep reflective communication. Of course, language is a special reality in which a person develops, becomes, is realized and exists.
Language acts as a means of cultural development; in addition, it is a source of formation of deep attitudes towards a value attitude towards the world around us: people, nature, the objective world, language itself. Emotional-value attitude, feeling
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There are a lot of verbal analogues, but before that, in a lot of linguistic signs, there is something that only then becomes the attitude of a particular person. Language - the concentration of collective representations, identifications and alienation of the ancestors of man and his contemporaries.
In ontogeny, by appropriating a language with its historically determined meanings and meanings, with its relation to cultural phenomena embodied in the realities that determine human existence, the child becomes a contemporary and bearer of the culture within which the language is formed.
Distinguish natural languages(speech, facial expressions and pantomime) and artificial(in computer science, logic, mathematics, etc.).
Non-linguistic systems of signs: signs-signs, signs-copies, autonomous signs, signs-symbols, etc.
signs-signs- a sign, a mark, a difference, a difference, everything by which they recognize something. This is an external detection of something, designation by a sign of the presence of a particular object or phenomenon.
A sign signals about an object, a phenomenon. Signs-signs make up the content of a person's experience in life, are the simplest and primary in relation to the sign culture of a person.
In ancient times, people already identified signs-signs, which helped them navigate natural phenomena (smoke means fire;
scarlet evening dawn - tomorrow the wind; lightning Thunder). Through signs-signs, expressed by external expressive manifestations of different emotional states, people learned reflection from each other. Later they mastered more subtle signs-signs.
Signs-signs are the richest area of human culture, which is present in it not only in the sphere of objects, not only in the sphere of human relations with the world, but also in the sphere of language.
Copy signs(iconic signs - iconic signs) - these are reproductions that carry elements of similarity with the designated. These are the results of human visual activity - graphic and pictorial images, sculpture, photographs, diagrams, geographical and astronomical maps, etc. Copy signs reproduce in their material structure the most important sensually perceptible properties of an object - shape, color, proportions, etc.
In the tribal culture, copy signs most often depicted totem animals - a wolf, a bear, a deer, a fox, a crow, a horse, a rooster, or anthropomorphic spirits, idols. The natural elements - the sun, the moon, fire, plants, water - also have their expression in copy signs used in ritual actions, and then becoming elements of folk art culture (ornaments in house building, embroidery of towels, bedspreads, clothes, as well as all amulet).
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A separate independent culture of iconic signs is presented dolls, which conceal especially deep possibilities of influencing the psyche of an adult and a child.
A doll is an iconic sign of a person or animal, invented for rituals (made of wood, clay, cereal stalks, herbs, etc.).
In human culture, the doll has had many meanings.
The doll initially possessed the properties of a living person as an anthropomorphic creature and helped him as an intermediary, taking part in rituals. The ritual doll usually dressed up beautifully. The expressions remained in the language: “doll-doll” (about a dapper but stupid woman), “doll” (weasel, praise). In the language there is evidence of the possible earlier animation of the doll. We say "doll" - the doll belongs, we give the dolls a name - a sign of its exceptional position in the human world.
The doll, being originally inanimate, but identical in appearance to a person (or animal), had the ability to appropriate other people's souls, coming to life due to the death of the person himself. In this sense, the doll was a representative of black power. In Russian speech, an archaic expression remained: "It's good: before the devil is a chrysalis." The category of abuse included the expression "Damn's doll!" as a sign of danger. In modern folklore, there are many stories when a doll becomes hostile and dangerous to a person.
The doll occupies the space of children's play activity and is endowed with anthropomorphic properties.
The doll is the acting character of the puppet theatre.
A doll is a symbolic sign and an anthropomorphic subject in doll therapy.
Copy signs became participants in complex magical actions when attempts were made to free themselves from the evil spells of a sorcerer, witch, demons. In the cultures of many peoples of the world, the manufacture of stuffed animals is known, which are signs-copies of frightening creatures for their ritual burning in order to free themselves from real danger. The doll has a multi-component effect on mental development.
In the process of the historical development of human culture, it is the iconic signs that have acquired an exclusive space in the visual arts.
Autonomous signs- this is a specific form of existence of individual signs, which is created by an individual person (or a group of people) according to the psychological laws of creative creative activity. Autonomous signs are subjectively free from the stereotypes of social expectations of representatives of the same culture as the creator. Each new trend in art was born by pioneers discovering a new vision, a new representation
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the reality of the real world in the system of new iconic signs and signs-symbols. Through the struggle of new meanings and meanings, the system embedded in new signs was either affirmed and accepted by culture as really necessary, or went into oblivion and became interesting only to specialists - representatives of sciences interested in tracking the history of changing sign systems21.
Signs-symbols- these are signs denoting the relations of peoples, strata of society or groups that affirm something. So, emblems are the distinctive signs of the state, estate, city - materially represented symbols, the images of which are located on flags, banknotes, seals, etc.
Signs-symbols include insignia (orders, medals), insignia (badges, stripes, shoulder straps, buttonholes on uniforms that serve to designate a rank, type of service or department). This also includes mottos and emblems.
Symbolic signs also include the so-called conventional signs (mathematical, astronomical, musical signs, hieroglyphs, proofreading marks, factory marks, brand marks, quality marks); objects of nature and man-made objects, which, in the context of the culture itself, acquired the significance of an exceptional sign, reflecting the worldview of people belonging to the social space of this culture.
Signs-symbols appeared in the same way as other signs in the tribal culture. Totems, amulets, charms have become signs-symbols that protect a person from the dangers lurking in the outside world. Man attached symbolic meaning to everything natural, really existing.
The presence of signs-symbols in human culture is countless, they create the realities of the sign space in which a person lives, determine the specifics of a person’s mental development and the psychology of his behavior in his modern society.
One of the most archaic forms of signs is totems. Totems have survived to this day among certain ethnic groups not only in Africa, Latin America, but also in the North of Russia.
In the culture of tribal beliefs, the symbolic reincarnation of a person with the help of a special symbolic means - a mask - is of particular importance.
Mask - a special overlay with the image of an animal muzzle, a human face, etc., worn by a person. Being a mask, the mask disguises the person's face and contributes to the creation of a new image. The reincarnation is carried out not only with a mask, but also with an appropriate costume, the elements of which are designed to “cover up traces”. Each mask has its own characteristic movements, rhythm, dances. The magic of the mask is to help identify the person
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century with the persona designated by it. The mask can be a way to put on someone else's disguises and a way to show your true qualities.
Liberation from the restraining beginning of normativity is expressed in the symbols of human laughter culture, as well as in various forms and genres of familiar-street speech (curse, swearing, oath, whim), which also take on symbolic functions.
Laughter, being a form of manifestation of human feelings, acts in human relations and as a sign. As the researcher of laughter culture M. M. Bakhtin shows, laughter is associated “with the freedom of the spirit and freedom of speech”22. Of course, such freedom appears in a person who can and wants to overcome the controlling canonization of existing signs (linguistic and non-linguistic).
Mat in indecent abuse, swearing, obscene words has a special meaning in speech culture. Swearing carries its own symbolism and reflects social prohibitions that are overcome in different layers of culture by swearing in everyday life or are included in the culture of poetry (A. I. Polezhaev, A. S. Pushkin). The fearless, free and frank word appears in human culture not only in the meaning of lowering the other, but also in the meaning of a person’s symbolic liberation of himself from the context of the relations of the culture of social dependence. The context of swearing has meaning within the language it has accompanied in history23.
Gestures have always been of particular importance among signs-symbols.
Gestures - body movements, mainly with the hand, accompanying or replacing speech, which are specific signs. In tribal cultures, gestures were used as a language in ritual actions and for communicative purposes.
C. Darwin explained most of the gestures and expressions involuntarily used by a person by three principles: 1) the principle of useful associated habits; 2) the principle of antithesis; 3) the principle of direct action of the nervous system24. In addition to the gestures themselves, consistent with biological nature, humanity is developing a social culture of gestures. The natural and social gestures of a person are "read" by other people, representatives of the same ethnic group, state and social circle.
Gesture culture is very specific among different peoples. So, a Cuban, a Russian and a Japanese can not only not understand each other, but also cause moral damage when trying to reflect each other's gestures. Signs of gestures within the same culture, but in different social and age groups, also have their own characteristics (gestures of adolescents25, delinquents, seminary students).
Another group of structured symbols is the tattoo.
Tattoo - symbolic protective and frightening signs applied to the face and body of a person by incisions on the skin and
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introducing paint into them. Tattoos are an invention of a generic person26, which retains its vitality and is widespread in various subcultures (sailors, criminal environment27, etc.). Modern youth from different countries have a fashion for tattoos of their subculture.
The language of tattoos has its own meanings and meanings. In a criminal environment, the tattoo sign shows the place of the criminal in his world: the sign can "raise" and "lower" a person, demonstrating a strictly hierarchized place in his environment.
Each era has its own symbols that reflect human ideology, worldview as a set of ideas and views, people's attitude to the world: to the surrounding nature, the objective world, to each other. Symbols serve to stabilize or change social relations.
The symbols of the era, expressed in objects, reflect the symbolic actions and psychology of a person belonging to this era. So, in many cultures, an object that signifies the valor, strength, courage of a warrior, the sword, was of particular importance. Yu. M. Lotman writes: “The sword is also nothing more than an object. As a thing, it can be forged or broken... but... the sword symbolizes a free person and is a "sign of freedom", it already appears as a symbol and belongs to culture"28.
The area of culture is always a symbolic area. So, in its various incarnations, a sword as a symbol can be both a weapon and a symbol, but it can only become a symbol when a special sword is made for parades, which excludes practical use, actually becoming an image (iconic sign) of a weapon. The symbolic function of weapons was also reflected in the ancient Russian legislation (“Russian Truth”). The compensation that the attacker had to pay to the victim was proportional not only to material, but also to moral damage:
a wound (even a severe one) inflicted by the sharp part of the sword entails less vira (penalty, compensation) than less dangerous blows with an undrawn weapon or with a sword hilt, a bowl at a feast, or the back of a fist. As Yu. M. Lotman writes: “The morality of the military class is being formed, and the concept of honor is being developed. A wound inflicted by the sharp (combat) part of a cold weapon is painful, but not dishonorable. Moreover, it is even honorable, because they fight only with an equal. It is no coincidence that in the life of Western European chivalry, initiation, i.e. the transformation of the “lower” into the “higher” required a real, and later a symbolic blow with a sword. Anyone who was recognized as worthy of a wound (later - a significant blow) was simultaneously recognized as socially equal. A blow with an undrawn sword, a handle, a stick - not a weapon at all - is dishonorable, because a slave is beaten like that.
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Let us recall that along with the physical reprisal against the participants of the noble movement in December 1825 (by hanging), many nobles underwent a shameful symbolic (civil) execution, when a sword was broken over their heads, after which they were exiled to hard labor and settlement.
N. G. Chernyshevsky also suffered a humiliating rite of civil execution on May 19, 1864, after which he was sent to hard labor in Kadai.
Weapons in all the versatility of their use as a symbol included in the worldview system of a certain culture shows how complex the sign system of culture is.
Signs-symbols of a particular culture have a material expression in objects, language, etc. Signs always have a time-appropriate meaning and serve as a means of conveying deep cultural meanings. Signs-symbols, just like iconic signs, constitute the material of art.
The classification of signs into signs-copies and signs-symbols is rather conditional. These signs in many cases have a fairly pronounced reversibility. So, copy signs can acquire the meaning of a sign-symbol - a statue of the Motherland in Volgograd, in Kyiv, a statue of Liberty in New York, etc.
It is not easy to determine the specifics of signs in the new for us, the so-called virtual reality, which involves many different "worlds", which are iconic signs and new symbols transformed by it in a new way.
The conditionality of signs-copies and signs-symbols reveals itself in the context of special signs, which are considered in science as standards.
Standard signs. In human culture, there are signs-standards of color, shape, musical sounds, speech. Some of these signs can be conditionally attributed to copy signs (standards of color, shape), others - to signs-symbols (notes, letters). At the same time, these signs fall under the general definition - standards.
Standards have two meanings: 1) an exemplary measure, an exemplary measuring device that serves to reproduce, store and transmit units of any quantities with the greatest accuracy (meter standard, kilogram standard); 2) measure, standard, sample for comparison.
A special place here is occupied by the so-called sensory standards.
Sensory standards are visual representations of the main samples of the external properties of objects. They were created in the course of the cognitive and labor activity of mankind - gradually people singled out and systematized various properties of the objective world for practical, and then scientific purposes. Allocate sensory standards of color, shape, sounds, etc.
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In human speech, standards are a phoneme, i.e. sound samples, considered as a means to distinguish between the meanings of words and morphemes (parts of a word: root, suffix or prefix), on which the meaning of spoken and heard words depends. Each language has its own set of phonemes that differ from each other in certain ways. Like other sensory standards, phonemes were gradually distinguished in the language, through a painful search for the means of their standardization.
Today we can observe a great differentiation of the standards that have already been sufficiently mastered by mankind. The world of sign systems more and more differentiates natural and human-created (historical) realities,
Of particular importance is a word that can simultaneously use several sensory modalities in a work of art or description. The novelist who refers the reader to color and sound, to smells and touches, usually manages to achieve greater expressiveness in describing the plot of a whole work or a single episode.
Non-linguistic signs do not exist on their own, they are included in the context of linguistic signs. All types of signs that have developed in the history of human culture create a very complex reality of figurative-sign systems, which for a person is ubiquitous and all-pervading.
It is she who fills the space of culture, becoming its material basis, its property and at the same time a condition for the development of the psyche of an individual person. Signs become special tools of mental activity that transform the mental functions of a person and determine the development of his personality.
L. S. Vygotsky wrote: “The invention and use of signs as auxiliary means in solving any psychological problem facing a person (remember, compare something, report, choose, etc.), with psychological side represents b one paragraph analogy with the invention and use of tools. The sign initially acquires instrumental function, he is called tool(“Language is the tool of thought”). However, one should not erase the profound difference between the object-tool and the sign-tool.
L. S. Vygotsky proposed a scheme depicting the relationship between the use of signs and the use of tools:
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In the diagram, both types of adaptation are represented as divergent lines of mediating activity. The deep content of this scheme lies in the fundamental difference between the sign and the tool-object.
“The most significant difference between the sign and the tool and the basis of the real divergence of both lines is the different orientation of both. The purpose of the tool is to serve as a conductor of human influences on the object of his activity, it is directed outward, it must cause certain changes in the object, it is a means of external human activity aimed at conquering nature. The sign ... is a means of psychological influence on behavior - someone else's or one's own, a means of internal activity aimed at mastering the person himself; the sign is directed inward. The two activities are so different that the nature of the means employed cannot be the same in both cases. The use of the sign marks the going beyond the limits of organic activity that exists for each mental function.
Signs as specific aids introduce a person into a special reality that determines the reincarnation of a mental operation and expands the system of mental function activity, which, thanks to language, become higher.
The space of sign culture turns not only words, but also ideas, feelings into signs that reflect the achievements of human development and transform meanings and meanings in the historical extent of human culture. The sign, "without changing anything in the very object of the psychological operation" (L. S. Vygotsky), at the same time determines the change in the object of the psychological operation in the self-consciousness of a person - not only language is a tool of a person, but also a person is a tool of language. In the history of human culture, the human spirit, there is a continuous rooting of the objective, natural and social world in the context of the reality of figurative-sign systems.
The reality of figurative-sign systems, defining the space of human culture and acting as a human habitat, gives him, on the one hand, the means of mental influence on other people, on the other hand, the means of transforming his own psyche. In turn, the personality, reflecting the conditions for the development and existence of figurative-sign systems in reality, becomes able to create and introduce new types of signs. This is how the progressive movement of mankind is carried out. The reality of figurative-sign systems acts as a condition for the mental development and existence of a person at all his age stages.
3.
natural reality.
Natural reality in all its manifestations in human consciousness enters into the reality of the objective world and into the reality of figurative-sign systems of culture.
We know that man came out of nature, and to the extent that he can restore his historical path, he
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he made his own food from the fruits of nature, created tools from the matter of nature and, influencing nature, created a new world of things that has not yet existed on Earth - a man-made world.
Natural reality for man has always been a condition and source of his life and activity. Man introduced nature itself and its elements into the content of the reality of the figurative-sign system he created and formed an attitude towards it as to the source of life, the condition of development, knowledge and poetry.
Nature is represented in the mind of an ordinary person as something invariably living, reproducing and bestowing - as a source of life. In annual cycles, plants bore fruits, seeds, roots, and animals gave offspring, rivers - fish. Nature provided materials for housing, clothing; its bowels, rivers and solar matter for thermal energy. Man exercised his intellect to take more and more efficiently, from his point of view, to take and take from nature.
As a result of the development of a huge human civilization, the natural conditions of human existence are undergoing cardinal changes. For several decades, environmentalists have been seriously warning:
there was a problem of violation of the ecological balance on our planet. These violations, accumulating gradually, imperceptibly, as a result of seemingly economically justified economic actions of a person, threaten catastrophe in the near future. The tension of the ecological crisis is also increasing due to the increase in the number of people. According to UN estimates, by 2025 there will be 93 cities with a population of more than 5 million people in the world (in 1985 - 34 cities with a population of more than 5 million people). Such settlements determine the special conditions for the formation of man - cut off from natural nature, he is clearly urbanizing, his attitude to nature becomes more and more alienated. This alienation contributes to the fact that a person is constantly “increasing” his impact on nature, pursuing seemingly justifying goals: obtaining food, natural raw materials, work that provides a livelihood. Due to the discrepancy between the growing number of people and the fertility of the land, already today the multi-million population of vast territories is chronically starving. According to UNESCO, children in many countries are starving. Half of the world's children under the age of six are malnourished. From a severe or partial lack of protein in the diet, children primarily suffer from three continents: Latin America, Africa and Asia.
The result of starvation is increased infant mortality. In addition, protein hunger leads children to the so-called general insanity, which is expressed in complete apathy and immobility of the child, loss of contact with the outside world.
Smoke - an integral part of the atmosphere of large cities - leads to the development of anemia, lung diseases. Accidents at nuclear power
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trostantsiyah lead to dysfunction of the thyroid gland. Urbanization leads to super-strong loads on the human psyche.
Violating the ecological laws that determine the sustainable functioning of all parts of the biosphere, a person is alienated from the need to take into account these laws and protect nature. As a result, consciously or unconsciously, the problem of preserving the biosphere passes into the category of secondary ones.
With all reasonableness in relation to the theoretical understanding of being, a person actually consumes nature with the egoism of a child.
In the history of mankind, the concept of "Earth" has acquired many meanings and meanings.
Earth is a planet revolving around the Sun, Earth is our world, the globe on which we live, an element among other elements (fire, air, water, earth). The human body is called Earth (dust)32. The land is called the country, the space occupied by the people, the state. The concept of "land" is identified with the concept of "nature". Nature is nature, everything material, the universe, the whole universe, everything visible, subject to the five senses, but more our world. Earth.
In relation to nature, man puts himself in a special place.
Let us turn to the meanings and meanings of the reality of nature, reflected in the sign system of man. This will allow us to come closer to understanding the relationship of man to nature.
Man in the process of historical development in his relation to nature gradually passed from adapting to by giving it anthropomorphic properties to own it, which is expressed in a well-known symbolic image "Man is the king of nature." The king is always the supreme ruler of the land, people or state. The king of the earth. The function of a king is to govern, to be a king is to govern a kingdom. But the king also subordinates those around him to his influence, his will, his command. The king has an unlimited autocratic form of government, he rules over everyone.
The development of the figurative-sign system in relation to man to himself gradually put him at the head of everything that exists. The Bible is an example.
On the last, sixth day of the creation of His Being, God created man in His image and likeness and granted man the right to rule over all: “... and let them rule over the fish of the sea, and over the birds of the air, and over the beasts, and over the cattle, and over the whole earth, and over all the reptiles that creep on the earth. And God created man in his own image, in the image of God he created him;
male and female he created them. And God blessed them, and God said to them: Be fruitful and multiply, and fill the earth, and subdue it, and have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the beasts, and over the birds of the air, and over every livestock, and over all the earth, and over every animal. , reptiles on the Earth. And God said, Behold, I have given you every herb yielding seed that is in all the earth, and every tree bearing fruit of a tree yielding seed; - this will be food for you; but to all the green beasts, and to all the birds of the air, and to every creeping thing that creeps on the earth, in which there is a living soul,
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I have given all herbs for food. And it became so. And God saw all that He had made, and behold, it was very good.
Man is destined to rule. In the structure of sign systems that form the meanings and meanings of domination, God, the King and man in general are represented. This connection is very strongly represented in proverbs.
King of heaven (God). The king of the earth (monarch ruling the country). The king of the earth walks under the king of heaven (under God). The reigning king (God) has many kings. King from God bailiff. Without God, there is no light; without a king, the earth is not ruled. Where the king is, here is the truth.
The books of kings, the books of the Old Testament, the chronicles of the kings and people of God are the desktop books of enlightened Christians. In Russia, the second millennium has begun, as the images of the Bible dominate the self-consciousness of a person - after all, all Russian culture came out of Christianity, just like other peoples of the world have their forerunners.
Nature itself in the existing sign systems is expressed by images of three kingdoms: animals - plants - fossils. But the king over all nature is Man. In all sign systems reflecting the concepts of “reign”, “reign”, a person took a very significant place for himself, calling himself “Homo sapiens”, “King of Nature”. But the word "reign" means not only to rule, but also to rule, to manage your kingdom. The ordinary consciousness of man, first of all, picked up a meaning that does not place responsibility for the existence of nature. Man in relation to nature has become a source of aggression: he has developed three principles of attitude towards nature: “take”, “neglect”, “forget”, which demonstrate a complete alienation from nature.
Nature was the first and only source of knowledge of ancient man. The entire space of figurative-sign systems is filled with objects and phenomena of nature. It is difficult to enumerate all the sciences that are aimed at comprehending nature, because the original sciences give birth to a child, then they differentiate again.
Science is the most important element of spiritual culture, the highest form of human knowledge. Science seeks to systematize the facts, to establish patterns of development of the matter of nature, to classify nature. Of particular importance for the development of science are sign systems, a special language that each science builds on its own grounds. The language of science, or thesaurus, is a system of concepts that reflect the main vision of the subject of science, theories prevailing in science. Therefore, science can be represented as a system of concepts about the phenomena and laws of nature, as well as human existence.
The knowledge of nature, starting with the practical life of a person and moving in the history of mankind to the level of production of tools and other objects, required a theoretical understanding
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nature. Natural science has two goals: 1) to reveal the essence of natural phenomena, to know their laws and to foresee new phenomena on their basis; 2) indicate the possibilities of using the known laws of nature in practice.
B. M. Kedrov, a Russian philosopher and historian of science, wrote: “Through science, humanity exercises its dominance over the forces of nature, develops material production, and transforms social relations”34.
The fact that science for a long time exercised "dominance" and "correct exploitation of nature" and insufficiently focused on the deep laws of natural science is a natural course of development of human consciousness. Only in the XX century. - In the century of rapid development of technical production, a new problem of mankind arises and is realized: to consider nature in the context of the existence of the Earth in the Universe35. New sciences are emerging that combine nature and society into a single system36. There are hopes for preventing the threat of the death of the entire human community and nature.
In the 70s and 80s, many scientists of the world, united, appealed to the human mind. So, A. Newman wrote: “We hope that the 80s of our century will go down in history as a decade of scientific enlightenment in the field of environmental protection, as a time of awakening global environmental thinking and a clear awareness of the role of man in the Universe”37. Indeed, social consciousness, being a combination of people's social psychology, today should include such concepts as "ecological thinking", "ecological consciousness", on the basis of which a person creates a new system of images and signs that allow one to move from knowledge and domination over the forces of nature to the knowledge of nature and the value attitude towards it, to the understanding of the need for careful attitude and recreation. Scientists of the world for many decades have been urging humanity to move to a new psychology and new thinking aimed at saving the human community through the search for a new ethics of relation to beings in general and to nature in particular.
Thanks to the sciences, man began to build his relationship with nature as a subject with an object. He fixed himself as a subject and nature as an object. But for the harmonious existence of man in nature, it is necessary not only to be able to alienate from it, but also to retain the ability to identify with it. Maintaining the ability to relate to natural objects as a “significant other”38 is of fundamental importance for the development of the human spirit. A person, being one on one with nature, can experience a special feeling of unity with it. Of course, a person cannot free himself from the cultural acquisition of the heritage of sign systems, but, identifying with nature through its contemplation, through dissolution in
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her, he can perceive it in a halo of various meanings (“Nature is the source of life”, “Man is a part of nature”, “Nature is the source of poetry”, etc.). The attitude to nature as an object is the basis for alienation from it; the attitude to nature as a subject is the basis for identification with it.
Natural reality exists and is revealed to man in the context of his consciousness. Being the primary condition for the existence of man, nature, along with the development of his consciousness, assumes the diverse functions that are attributed to it by people.
It is very important for the development of human spirituality not to forget about the possibility of giving nature a variety of meanings that have evolved in the history of culture: from its idealization to demonization;
from the position of the subject to the position of the object, from the image to the meaning.
Analyzing the image and meaning as the main components of art, the famous linguist A. A. Potebnya pointed to the polysemantic nature of the language and introduced the so-called formula of poetry, where BUT - image, X- meaning. Formula of Poetry [BUT< Х\
affirms the inequality of the number of images to the set of their possible meanings and raises this inequality to the specifics of art39. The expansion of the meanings of nature in the self-consciousness of man is the basis of his development as a natural and social existence. This should not be forgotten when organizing the conditions for the upbringing and development of the individual.
4.
The reality of social space.
Social space should be called the entire material and spiritual side of human existence along with communication, human activities and a system of rights and obligations. All the realities of human existence should be included here. However, we will single out and specifically consider the independent realities of the objective world, figurative-sign systems and nature, which is quite legitimate.
Further, the subject of our discussion will be such realities of social space as communication, the diversity of human activities, as well as the reality of duties and human rights in society.
Communication - mutual relations of people. In domestic psychology, communication is considered as one of the activities.
A person is immersed in society, which ensures his life and development through communication with his own kind. This maintenance is carried out due to the stability of the communication system in the community and “the stability of the system of personal in the form of existence, public in nature relations or relationships realized in communication”40.
The content of relationships and relationships is reflected primarily in the language, in the linguistic sign. A linguistic sign is a tool of communication, a means of cognition and the core of personal meaning for a person.
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As a tool of communication, language maintains a balance in the social relations of people, realizing the social needs of the latter in mastering information that is significant for everyone.
At the same time, language is a means of cognition - by exchanging words, people exchange meanings and meanings. Meaning is the content side of the language4". The system of verbal signs that form the language appears in meanings that are understandable to native speakers and corresponding to a specific historical moment in its development.
In logic, logical semantics, and the science of language, the term “meaning” is used as a synonym for “meaning”. The meaning serves to designate that mental content, that information that is associated with a specific linguistic expression, which is the proper name of the subject. A name is a language expression denoting an object (proper name) or a set of objects (common name).
The concept of "meaning" in addition to philosophy, logic and linguistics is used in psychology in the context of a discussion of personal meaning.
Language, as the core of personal meaning, attaches particular importance to the figurative and sign systems of each individual. Having many meanings and socially significant meanings, each sign carries its own individual meaning for an individual, which is formed due to the individual experience of entering the reality of social space, thanks to complex individual associations and individual integrative connections that arise in the cerebral cortex. A. N. Leontiev wrote about the correlation of meanings and personal meanings in the context of human activity and the motives that motivate it: “Unlike meanings, personal meanings ... do not have their own “supra-individual”, their own “non-psychological” existence. If external sensibility connects meanings in the consciousness of the subject with the reality of the objective world, then personal meaning connects them with the reality of his very life in this world, with its motives. Personal meaning creates the partiality of human consciousness”42.
The reality of social space is developing in the process of the historical movement of mankind: the language of signs is becoming more and more developed and more and more diversely reflecting the objective reality of the system that determines the existence of man. The language system determines the nature of people's communication, the context that allows communicating representatives of the same language culture to establish the meanings and meanings of words, phrases and understand each other.
Language has its own characteristics: 1) in individual psychological existence, expressed in personal meanings; 2) in subjective difficulty to convey states, feelings and thoughts.
Psychologically, i.e. in the system of consciousness, meanings exist through communication and various activities in line with the personal meaning of a person. Personal meaning is the subjective attitude of a person to what he expresses with the help of linguistic signs. “The embodiment of meaning in meanings is a deeply intimate, psychologically meaningful process that does not happen automatically and simultaneously”43.
It is the personal meanings that transform the signs of the language in the individual consciousness that represent a person as a unique native speaker. Communication therefore becomes not only an action of com-
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communication, not only by activities associated with other activities, but also by poetic, creative activities that bring “the joy of communication” (Saint-Exupery) from a person’s perception of new meanings and meanings, unknown to him until then, from the lips of another person.
In informal communication, there may be moments when it is difficult for a person to express what he thought was quite mature, having certain linguistic meanings. “It is difficult to find words” - this is usually the name of the state when the consciousness is ready to form emerging images into words, but at the same time, a person experiences difficulty in realizing his impulses (remember Fyodor Tyutchev: “I forgot the word, what I wanted to say, and the thought the incorporeal will return to the hall of shadows"). There is also such a state when the chosen and spoken words are perceived by the speaker as "not at all the same." Let us recall Fyodor Tyutchev's poem "Silentium!"44.
... How can the heart express itself? How can someone else understand you? Will he understand how you live? Thought spoken is a lie. Exploding, disturb the keys - Eat them - and be silent! ..
Of course, this poem has its own meanings and meanings, but in an extended interpretation it fits perfectly as an illustration of the problem under discussion.
The reality of social space in the sphere of communication appears before an individual through a unique set of embodiments of meanings in an individual combination of meanings that are significant for him, which represent him in the world as, firstly, a special person, different from others; secondly, as a person similar to others and thus able to understand (or come closer to understanding) the general cultural meanings and individual meanings of other people.
The reality of social space is also mastered when a person in his individual development goes through trials by various types of activity. Of particular importance are the activities through which a person has to go from birth to adulthood.
Activities that determine the child's entry into human realities.
In the process of the historical development of man, labor and educational activities emerged from the syncretic activity of creating the simplest tools and imitative reproduction according to the model. These types of activity were accompanied by play actions, which, having biological prerequisites in the physical activity of developing cubs and young anthropoid ancestors and gradually changing, began to represent a play reproduction of relations and symbolic tool actions.
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In the individual ontogenesis of a modern person, society provides him with the opportunity to go the way to adulthood and self-determination through the historically established and accepted today, as a matter of course, the so-called leading activities. In ontogenesis for a person, they appear in the following order.
Game activity. In play activity (in its developing part), first of all, there is a search for objects - substitutes for depicted objects and a symbolic image of objective (tool and related) actions that demonstrate the nature of relations between people, etc. Game activity trains sign function: substitution by signs and sign actions; it arises after manipulation and objective activity and becomes a condition that determines the mental development of the child. Game activity today is the subject of its theoretical and practical comprehension for organizing the conditions for the development of the child before school.
Educational activity. The subject of educational activity is the person himself, who seeks to change himself. When a primitive man sought to imitate his fellow tribesman, who mastered the production of a simple tool, he learned to make the same tools as his more successful brother.
Learning activity is always doing, changing oneself. But in order for each new generation to carry out learning effectively, in accordance with the new achievements of progress, a special category of people was required, transferring the means of teaching to the new generation. These are scientists who develop the theoretical foundations of methods that promote learning; methodologists who empirically test the effectiveness of methods; teachers who set the ways of performing mental and practical actions that contribute to the development of students.
Learning activity determines the potential changes taking place in the cognitive and personal sphere of a person.
Labor activity arose as an expedient activity, thanks to which the development of natural and social forces took place, is taking place and will take place in order to satisfy the historically established needs of the individual and society.
Labor activity is the determining force of social development; labor is the main form of life of human society, the initial condition of human existence. It was thanks to the creation and preservation of tools that humanity stood out from nature, creating a man-made world of objects - the second nature of human existence. Labor has become the basis of all aspects of social life.
Labor activity is a consciously carried out impact by a tool on the object of labor, as a result of which the object of labor is transformed into the result of labor.
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Labor activity was originally associated with the developing consciousness of a person, which was born and formed in labor, in the relationship of people about tools and the object of labor. A certain image of the result of labor and an image of what labor actions can achieve this result were built in the mind of a person. The production and use of tools is "a specific characteristic feature of the human labor process..."45.
Tools of labor are artificial organs of man, through which he acts on the object of labor. At the same time, the historically developed generalized methods of labor and objective actions of people, expressed in the signs of the language, are embodied in the form and functions of tools and objects of labor.
In modern conditions, the degree of indirect interaction between a person and the object of labor has significantly increased. Science penetrates into labor activity, into all its parameters: into the process of production of tools and consumer goods, as well as into the organizational culture of work.
In the organizational culture of work, the system of relations and the conditions for the existence of the labor collective are manifested, i.e. something that significantly determines the success of the functioning and survival of the organization (team) in the long term.
People are the carriers of organizational culture. However, in teams with a well-established organizational culture, the latter, as it were, is separated from people and becomes an attribute of the social atmosphere of the team, which has an active impact on its members. The culture of an organization is a complex interaction of philosophy and ideology of management, the mythology of the organization, value orientations, beliefs, expectations and norms. The organizational culture of labor activity exists in the system of linguistic signs and in the "spirit" of the team, reflecting the readiness of the latter to develop, to accept symbols, through which value orientations are "transferred" to the team members. The production relations that people enter into determine the nature of their work activity, the nature of communication about the content of work activity, and mediate the style of communication. Labor activity is focused on the final product, as well as on receiving a cash equivalent for work. But in the labor activity itself there are conditions for self-development of a person. Each person, motivatedly included in the labor activity itself, strives to be a professional and a creator.
Thus, the main types of human activity - communication, play, learning, work - constitute the reality of social space.
The relations of people in the sphere of communication, labor activity, learning and games are mediated by the rules that have developed in society, which are presented in society in the form of duties and rights.
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Responsibilities and human rights.
The reality of social space has an organizing behavior of a person, his way of thinking and motives, the beginning, expressed in a system of duties and rights. Each person will only feel sufficiently protected in the conditions of the reality of social space if he takes the existing system of duties and rights as the basis of his being. Of course, the meanings of duties and rights have the same pulsating mobility in the public consciousness of people in the process of history, like any other meanings. But in the sphere of individual meanings, duties and rights can acquire key positions for a person's life orientation.
At one time, Charles Darwin wrote: “Man is a social animal. Everyone will agree that man is a social animal. We see this in his dislike of solitude and in his striving for society...”46 Man depends on society and cannot do without it. As a social being, a powerful feeling has been formed in man in his historical development - the regulator of his social behavior, it is summarized in a short but powerful word "should", so full of high meaning. “We see in him the noblest of all human qualities, which makes him, without the slightest hesitation, risk his life for his neighbor, or, after due consideration, sacrifice his life for some great goal, by virtue of a deep sense of duty or justice alone”47. Here Ch. Darwin refers to I. Kant, who wrote: “Sense of duty! A wonderful concept that affects the soul through fascinating arguments of flattery or threats, but by one force of an unadorned, immutable law and therefore always inspires respect, if not always humility ... "
The social quality of a person - a sense of duty - was formed in the process of building ideals and implementing social control.
An ideal is a norm, a certain image of how a person should manifest himself in life in order to be recognized by society. However, this image is very syncretic, it is difficult to give in to a verbal construction. I. Kant at one time spoke very definitely: “... We must, however, recognize that the human mind contains not only ideas, but also ideals(emphasis mine. - V. M.), which ... have practical force (as regulative principles) and underlie the possibility of the perfection of certain actions ... Virtue and with it human wisdom in all their purity are the essence of ideas. But the sage (of the Stoics) is the ideal, i.e. a person who exists only in thought, but who is completely consistent with the idea of wisdom. Just as the idea gives the rules, so the ideal then serves as a prototype for the complete definition of its copies; and we have no other standard for our actions than the behavior of this divine man in us, with
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with which we compare ourselves, evaluate ourselves and thereby correct ourselves, never, however, being able to equal him. Although it is impossible to admit the objective reality (existence) of these ideals, nevertheless, one cannot, on this basis, consider them chimeras: they provide the necessary measure for the mind, which needs the concept of what is perfect in its kind, in order to evaluate and measure the degree and shortcomings. imperfect."48 Mankind, when creating and mastering the reality of social space, through its thinkers, has always sought to create a moral ideal.
The moral ideal is an idea of the universal norm, a model of human behavior and relations between people. The moral ideal grows and develops in close connection with social, political and aesthetic ideals. At each historical moment, depending on the ideology that arises in society, on the direction of the movement of society, the moral ideal changes its shades. However, universal human values worked out over the centuries remain unchanged in their nominal part. In the individual consciousness of people, they act in a feeling called conscience, they determine the behavior of a person in everyday life.
The moral ideal is focused on a large number of external components: laws, the constitution, duties that are indispensable for a particular institution where a person studies or works, the rules of a hostel in a family, in public places, and much more. At the same time, the moral ideal has an individual orientation in each individual person, acquires a unique meaning for him.
The reality of social space is the whole inseparable complex of sign systems of the objective and natural world, as well as human relations and values. It is in the reality of human existence as a condition that determines individual development and individual human destiny that every person enters from the moment of his birth and stays in it during his earthly life.
§ 2.PREREQUISITES FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF PSYCHE
biological background. The preliminary conditions for the development of the psyche are usually called the prerequisites for development. The prerequisites include the natural properties of the human body. The child goes through a natural process of development on the basis of certain prerequisites created by the previous development of his ancestors over many generations.
In the second half of the XIX century. and in the first half XX in. The scientific consciousness of philosophers, biologists, psychologists was mastered by the biogenetic law formulated by E. Haeckel (1866). According to this law, each organic form in its individual development
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(ontogenesis) to a certain extent repeats the features and characteristics of those forms from which it originated. The law reads as follows: "Ontogeny is a brief and quick repetition of phylogenies"49. This means that in ontogenesis each individual organism directly reproduces the path of phylogenetic development, i.e. there is a repetition of the development of ancestors from a common root to which this organism belongs.
According to E. Haeckel, the rapid repetition of phylogeny (recapitulation) is due to the physiological functions of heredity (reproduction) and adaptability (nutrition). At the same time, the individual repeats the most important changes in shape that its ancestors went through during the slow and long paleontological development according to the laws of heredity and adaptation.
E. Haeckel followed C. Darwin, who first posed the problem of the relationship between ontogeny and phylogenesis back in the "Essay of 1844". He wrote: "The embryos of extant vertebrates reflect the structure of some adult forms of this large class that existed in earlier periods of the history of the Earth"50. However, Charles Darwin also noted the facts reflecting the phenomena of heterochrony (changes in the time of appearance of signs), in particular cases when some signs appear in the ontogenesis of descendants earlier than in the ontogenesis of ancestral forms.
The biogenetic law formulated by E. Haeckel was perceived by contemporaries and the next generations of scientists as immutable5".
E. Haeckel analyzed the structure of the human body in the context of the entire evolution of the animal world. E. Haeckel considered the ontogeny of man and the history of his origin. Revealing the genealogy (phylogeny) of man, he wrote: “If countless plant and animal species were not created by a supernatural “miracle”, but “developed” through natural transformation, then their “natural system” will be a genealogical tree”52. Further, E. Haeckel proceeded to describe the essence of the soul from the point of view of the psychology of peoples, ontogenetic psychology and phylogenetic psychology. “The individual raw material of a child's soul,” he wrote, “is already qualitatively given in advance from parents and grandparents through heredity;
education presents a wonderful task to turn this soul into a magnificent flower by intellectual training and moral education, i.e. by adaptation." At the same time, he gratefully refers to the work of V. Preiner on the soul of a child (1882), which analyzes the inclinations inherited by a child.
Following E. Haeckel, child psychologists began to design the stages of ontogeny of individual development from the simplest forms to modern man (St. Hall, W. Stern, K. Buhler, and others). So,
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K. Buhler pointed out that “individuals bring with them inclinations, and the plan for their implementation consists of the sum of laws”54. At the same time, K. Koffka, exploring the phenomenon of maturation in relation to learning, noted: “Growth and maturation are such developmental processes, the course of which depends on the inherited characteristics of the individual, as well as the morphological trait completed at birth ... Growth and maturation, however, is not completely independent of external influences...”55
Developing the ideas of E. Haeckel Ed. Clapered wrote that the essence of children's nature "is in the desire for further development", while "the longer childhood, the longer the period of development"56.
In science, during the period of the greatest dominance of any new idea, there is usually a roll in its direction. So it happened with the basic principle of the biogenetic law - the principle of recapitulation (from lat. recapitulation -
a concise repetition of what was before). Thus, S. Hall tried to explain development in terms of recapitulation. He found numerous atavisms in the behavior and development of the child: instincts, fears. Traces from an ancient era - fear of individual objects, body parts, etc. “... The fear of eyes and teeth ... is partly due to atavistic remnants, echoes of those long epochs when man fought for his existence with animals that had large or strange eyes and teeth, when a long war of all against all within the human race was waged further” 57. S. Hall produced risky analogies that were not confirmed by real ontogeny. At the same time, his compatriot D. Baldwin explained the genesis of timidity in children from the same positions.
Many childhood psychologists named the stages through which a child must pass in the process of his ontogenetic development (S. Hall, V. Stern, K. Buhler).
F. Engels was also infected with the idea of E. Haeckel, who also accepted ontogeny as a fact of the rapid passage of phylogeny in the field of the mental.
3. Freud understood the power of biological prerequisites in his own way, who divided the self-consciousness of a person into three spheres: “It”, “I” and “Super-I”.
According to 3. Freud, "It" is a receptacle for innate and repressed impulses, charged with psychic energy and requiring an exit. "It" is governed by the innate pleasure principle. If the “I” is the sphere of the conscious, the “Super-I” is the sphere of social control expressed in the human conscience, then “It”, being an innate gift, has a powerful influence on the other two spheres58.
The idea that innate characteristics, heredity are the key to the earthly destiny of a person, begins to flood not only scientific treatises, but also the ordinary consciousness of people.
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The place of the biological in development is one of the main problems of developmental psychology. This problem will still be worked out in science. Today, however, we can speak quite confidently about many prerequisites.
Is it possible to become human without having a human brain?
As you know, our closest "relatives" in the animal world are great apes. The most docile and intelligent of them are chimpanzees. Their gestures, facial expressions, behavior are sometimes striking in resemblance to human ones. Chimpanzees, like other great apes, are distinguished by inexhaustible curiosity. They can spend hours studying the object that fell into their hands, observe crawling insects, and follow the actions of a person. Their imitation is highly developed. A monkey, imitating a person, can, for example, sweep the floor or wet a rag, wring it out and wipe the floor. Another thing is that the floor after that will almost certainly remain dirty - everything will end with the movement of garbage from place to place.
As observations show, chimpanzees use a large number of sounds in different situations, to which relatives react. Under experimental conditions, many scientists have been able to get chimpanzees to solve rather complex practical problems that require thinking in action and even include the use of objects as the simplest tools. So, through a series of trials, monkeys built pyramids from boxes in order to get a banana suspended from the ceiling, mastered the ability to knock down a banana with a stick and even make one long stick out of two short ones for this, open the lock of a box with bait, using for this a “nag” of the desired shape ( stick with a triangular, round or square section). Yes, and the brain of a chimpanzee in its structure and the ratio of the sizes of individual parts is closer to the human than the brain of other animals, although it is much inferior to it in weight and volume.
All this led to the thought: what if we try to give a human education to a baby chimpanzee? Will it be possible to develop at least some human qualities in him? And such attempts were made repeatedly. Let's stop at one of them.
Domestic zoopsychologist N. N. Ladynina-Kote raised the little chimpanzee Ioni from one and a half to four years in her family. The cub enjoyed complete freedom. He was provided with a wide variety of human things and toys, the "foster mother" tried in every possible way to acquaint him with the use of these things, to teach him to communicate through speech. The entire course of the development of the monkey was carefully recorded in the diary.
Ten years later, Nadezhda Nikolaevna had a son, who was named Rudolf (Rudy). His development up to the age of four was also closely monitored. As a result,
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The book The Chimpanzee Child and the Human Child (1935) was born. What has been established by comparing the development of an ape with the development of a child?
When observing both babies, a great similarity was found in many playful and emotional manifestations. But at the same time, a fundamental difference emerged. It turned out that chimpanzees cannot master the upright gait and free their hands from the function of walking on the ground. Although he imitates many human actions, this imitation does not lead to the correct assimilation and improvement of the skills associated with the use of household items and tools: only the external pattern of the action is grasped, and not its meaning. So, Ioni, imitating, often tried to hammer a nail. However, either he did not apply enough force, or he did not hold the nail in a vertical position, or he hit the hammer past the nail. As a result, despite a lot of practice, Ioni was never able to hammer in a single nail. Inaccessible to a monkey cub are games that are creative and constructive in nature. Finally, he lacks any tendency whatsoever to imitate speech sounds and master words, even with persistent special training. Approximately the same result was obtained by other "adoptive parents" of the baby monkey - the Kellogg spouses.
This means that without the human brain, human mental qualities cannot arise.
Another problem is the possibilities of the human brain outside the conditions of life characteristic of people in society.
At the beginning of the 20th century, the Indian psychologist Reed Singh received news that two mysterious creatures were seen near a village, similar to people, but moving on all fours. They were tracked down. One day, Singh and a group of hunters hid at a wolf hole and saw a she-wolf leading her cubs for a walk, among which were two girls, one about eight, the other one and a half years old. Singh took the girls with him and tried to raise them. They ran on all fours, got frightened and tried to hide at the sight of people, snarled, howled like wolves at night. The youngest, Amala, died a year later. The eldest, Kamala, lived until the age of seventeen. For nine years, she was mostly weaned from wolf habits, but still, when she was in a hurry, she fell on all fours. Kamala, in fact, never mastered her speech - with great difficulty she learned to use only 40 words correctly. It turns out that the human psyche does not arise even without human conditions of life.
Thus, both a certain structure of the brain and certain conditions of life and upbringing are necessary in order to become a man. However, their meaning is different. Examples with Yoni and Kamala in this sense
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le are very characteristic: a monkey raised by a man, and a child raised by a wolf. Yoni grew up as a monkey with all the behavioral characteristics of a chimpanzee. Kamala grew up not as a man, but as a creature with typical wolf habits. Consequently, the traits of monkey behavior are largely embedded in the brain of the monkey, predetermined hereditarily. There are no traits of human behavior, human mental qualities in the brain of a child. But there is something else - the opportunity to acquire what is given by the conditions of life, upbringing, even if it is the ability to howl at night.
Interaction of biological and social factors. The biological and the social in man are in fact so firmly reunited that it is only theoretically possible to separate these two lines.
L. S. Vygotsky, in his work on the history of the development of higher mental functions, wrote: “It is quite well known that the fundamental and fundamental difference between the historical development of mankind and the biological evolution of animal species ... we can ... draw a completely clear and indisputable conclusion: how excellent historical development of mankind from the biological evolution of animal species”59. The process of psychological development of the person himself, according to numerous studies of ethnologists, psychologists, occurs according to historical laws, and not according to biological ones. The main and all-defining difference between this process and the evolutionary one is that the development of higher mental functions occurs without changing the biological type of a person, which changes according to evolutionary laws.
Until now, it has not been sufficiently clarified what is the direct dependence of higher mental functions and forms of behavior on the structure and functions of the nervous system. Neuropsychologists and neurophysiologists are still solving this difficult problem - after all, we are talking about the study of the finest integrative connections of brain cells and manifestations of human mental activity.
There is no doubt that each stage in the biological development of behavior coincides with changes in the structure and functions of the nervous system, each new stage in the development of higher mental functions arises along with changes in the central nervous system. However, it still remains insufficiently clear what is the direct dependence of higher forms of behavior, higher mental functions on the structure and function of the nervous system.
Exploring primitive thinking, L. Levy-Bruhl wrote that the higher mental functions come from the lower ones. “In order to understand the higher types, it is necessary to refer to a relatively primitive type. In this case, a wide field opens up for productive research on mental functions ... "60 Exploring collective representations and meaning "by representation
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the fact of cognition”, L. Levy-Bruhl pointed to social development as determining the characteristics of mental functions. Obviously, this fact was noted by L. S. Vygotsky as a prominent position of science:
“Compared to one of the most profound investigators of primitive thinking, the idea that higher mental functions cannot be understood without biological study, those. that they are the product not of a biological but of a social development of behavior is not new. But only in in recent decades, it has received a solid factual basis in research on ethnic psychology. and can now be considered the indisputable position of our science. 6 "This means that the development of higher mental functions can be carried out through the collective consciousness, in the context of the collective ideas of people, i.e. it is due to the socio-historical nature of man. L. Levy-Bruhl indicates a very important circumstance, which had already been emphasized by many sociologists under him:
“In order to understand the mechanism of social institutions, one must get rid of the prejudice that consists in the belief that collective representations generally obey the laws of psychology based on the analysis of the individual subject. Collective representations have their own laws and lie in the social relations of people. These ideas led L. S. Vygotsky to the idea that became fundamental for Russian psychology: “The development of higher mental functions is one of the most important aspects of the cultural development of behavior.” And further: “Speaking of the cultural development of the child, we have in mind a process corresponding to the mental development that took place in the process of the historical development of mankind ... But, a priori, it would be difficult for us to abandon the idea that a peculiar form of adaptation of man to nature, fundamentally distinguishes man from animals and makes it fundamentally impossible to simply transfer the laws of animal life (the struggle for existence) into the science of human society, that this is a new form of adaptation that underlies the entire historical life of mankind, will be impossible without new forms of behavior, this basic mechanism balancing the body with the environment. A new form of relationship with the environment, which arose in the presence of certain biological prerequisites, but itself grew beyond the limits of biology, could not but give rise to a fundamentally different, qualitatively different, otherwise organized system of behavior.
The use of tools made it possible for a person, breaking away from developing biological forms, to move to the level of higher forms of behavior.
In human ontogenesis, of course, both types of mental development are represented, which are isolated in phylogenesis: biological and
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historical (cultural) development. In ontogenesis, both processes have their analogues. In the light of the data of genetic psychology, two lines of a child's mental development can be distinguished, corresponding to two lines of phylogenetic development. Pointing to this fact, L. S. Vygotsky limits his judgment “only to one moment: the presence of two lines of development in phylogenesis and ontogenesis, and does not rely on Haeckel’s phylogenetic law (“ontogeny is a brief repetition of phylogeny”)”, which was widely used in biogenetic theories of V. Stern, Art. Hall, K. Buhler and others.
According to L. S. Vygotsky, both processes, presented in a separate form in phylogenesis and connected by a relationship of continuity and sequence, actually exist in a merged form and form a single process in ontogenesis. This is the greatest and most fundamental peculiarity of the mental development of the child.
"The growth of a normal child into civilization, - wrote L. S. Vygotsky, - is usually a single alloy with the processes of its organic maturation. Both plans of development - natural and cultural - coincide and merge with one another. Both series of changes interpenetrate one another and form, in essence, a single series of socio-biological formation of the child's personality. Insofar as organic development takes place in a cultural environment, it turns into a historically conditioned biological process. On the other hand, cultural development acquires a completely unique and incomparable character, since it takes place simultaneously and merged with organic maturation, since its carrier is the growing, changing, maturing organism of the child. L. S. Vygotsky consistently develops his idea of combining growing into civilization with organic maturation.
The idea of maturation underlies the allocation in the ontogenetic development of the child of special periods of increased response - sensitive periods.
Extreme plasticity, learning ability is one of the most important features of the human brain, which distinguishes it from the brain of animals. In animals, most of the brain matter is "occupied" by the time of birth - the mechanisms of instincts are fixed in it, i.e. forms of behavior that are inherited. In a child, a significant part of the brain turns out to be “clean”, ready to accept and consolidate what life and upbringing give him. Scientists have proven that the process of brain formation in an animal basically ends by the time of birth, while in humans it continues after birth and depends on the conditions in which the child develops. Consequently, these conditions not only fill the "blank pages" of the brain, but also affect its very structure.
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The laws of biological evolution have lost their force in relation to man. Natural selection ceased to act - the survival of the strongest, most adapted to the environment of individuals, because people themselves have learned to adapt the environment to their needs. transform it with the help of tools and collective labor.
The human brain has not changed since the time of our ancestor - the Cro-Magnon man, who lived several tens of thousands of years ago. And if a person received his mental qualities from nature, we would still huddle in caves, maintaining an unquenchable fire. In fact, everything is different.
If in the animal world the achieved level of development of behavior is transmitted from one generation to another in the same way as the structure of the body, by biological inheritance, then in humans, the types of activity characteristic of him, and with them the corresponding knowledge, skills and mental qualities, are transmitted in another way - through social inheritance.
social inheritance. Each generation of people expresses their experience, their knowledge, skills, mental qualities in the products of their labor. These include both objects of material culture (things around us, houses, cars) and works of spiritual culture (language, science, art). Each new generation receives from the previous ones everything that was created before, enters the world that has "absorbed" the activities of mankind.
Mastering this world of human culture, children gradually assimilate the social experience invested in it, those knowledge, skills, and mental qualities that are characteristic of a person. This is social inheritance. Of course, a child is not able to decipher the achievements of human culture on his own. He does this with constant help and guidance from adults - in the process of education and training.
Tribes have survived on earth, leading a primitive way of life, not knowing not only television, but also metals, extracting food with the help of primitive stone tools. The study of representatives of such tribes at first glance indicates a significant difference between their psyche and the psyche of a modern cultured person. But this difference is not at all a manifestation of any natural features. If you raise a child of such a backward tribe in a modern family, he will be no different from any of us.
The French ethnographer J. Villard went on an expedition to a remote region of Paraguay, where the Guaquil tribe lived. Very little was known about this tribe: that it leads a nomadic lifestyle, constantly moving from place to place in search of its main food - the honey of wild bees, has a primitive language, and does not come into contact with other people. Villars, like many others before him, was not lucky enough to meet the Guayquils - they hurriedly left when the expedition approached. But in one of the abandoned parking lots, apparently,
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a bustling two-year-old girl. Villars took her to France and instructed her mother to raise her. Twenty years later, the young woman was already a trilingual ethnographer.
The natural properties of the child, without giving rise to mental qualities, create the prerequisites for their formation. These qualities themselves arise due to social inheritance. So, one of the important mental qualities of a person is speech (phonemic) hearing, which makes it possible to distinguish and recognize the sounds of speech. No animal has it. It has been established that, reacting to verbal commands, animals catch only the length of the word and intonation, they do not distinguish speech sounds themselves. From nature, the child receives the structure of the auditory apparatus and the corresponding parts of the nervous system, suitable for distinguishing speech sounds. But speech hearing itself develops only in the process of mastering a particular language under the guidance of adults.
The child does not have from birth any forms of behavior characteristic of an adult. But some of the simplest forms of behavior - unconditioned reflexes - are innate in him and absolutely necessary both for the child to survive and for further mental development. A child is born with a set of organic needs (for oxygen, at a certain ambient temperature, for food, etc.) and with reflex mechanisms aimed at satisfying these needs. Various environmental influences cause protective and orienting reflexes in the child. The latter are especially important for further mental development, since they form the natural basis for receiving and processing external impressions.
On the basis of unconditioned reflexes, the child already very early begins to develop conditioned reflexes, which lead to an expansion of reactions to external influences and to their complication. Elementary unconditional and conditioned reflex mechanisms provide the child's initial connection with the outside world and create conditions for establishing contacts with adults and transition to the assimilation of various forms of social experience. Under its influence, the mental qualities and personality traits of the child are subsequently formed.
In the process of assimilation of social experience, individual reflex mechanisms are combined into complex forms - the functional organs of the brain. Each such system works as a whole, performs a new function that differs from the functions of its constituent links: it provides speech hearing, musical ear, logical thinking and other mental qualities inherent in a person.
During childhood there is an intensive maturation of the child's body, in particular the maturation of his nervous system and brain. On pro-
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During the first seven years of life, the mass of the brain increases by about 3.5 times, its structure changes, and functions improve. targeted training and education.
The course of maturation depends on whether the child receives a sufficient number of external impressions, whether adult education provides the conditions necessary for the active work of the brain. Science has proven that areas of the brain that are not exercised cease to mature normally and may even atrophy (lose the ability to function). This is especially pronounced in the early stages of development.
A maturing organism is the most fertile ground for education. We know what impression the events that take place in childhood make on us, what influence they sometimes have on the rest of our lives. Education in childhood is more important for the development of mental qualities than adult education.
Natural prerequisites - the structure of the body, its functions, its maturation - are necessary for mental development; without them, development cannot take place, but they do not determine what kind of mental qualities appear in a child. It depends on the conditions of life and education, under the influence of which the child learns social experience.
Social experience is a source of mental development, from which the child, through an intermediary (adult), receives material for the formation of mental qualities and personality traits. An adult person himself uses social experience for the purpose of self-improvement.
Social conditions and age. Age stages of mental development are not identical to biological development. They are of historical origin. Of course, childhood, understood in the sense of a person's physical development, the time necessary for his growth, is a natural, natural phenomenon. But the duration of the period of childhood, when the child does not participate in social labor, but only prepares for such participation, and the forms that this preparation takes, depend on socio-historical conditions.
Data on how childhood passes among peoples at different stages of social development show that the lower this stage, the earlier the growing person is included in adult types of work. In a primitive culture, children literally
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ment, when they start walking, they work together with adults. Childhood as we know it appeared only when the work of adults became inaccessible to the child and began to require a great deal of preliminary preparation. It was identified by mankind as a period of preparation for life, for adult activity, during which the child must acquire the necessary knowledge, skills, mental qualities and personality traits. And each age stage is called upon to play its own special role in this preparation.
The role of the school is to give the child the knowledge and skills necessary for various types of specific human activity (work in different areas of social production, science, culture), and to develop the appropriate mental qualities. The significance of the period from birth to entering school lies in the preparation of more general, basic human knowledge and skills, mental qualities and personality traits that every person needs to live in society. These include the acquisition of speech, the use of household items, the development of orientation in space and time, the development of human forms of perception, thinking, imagination, etc., the formation of the foundations of relationships with other people, the initial introduction to works of literature and art.
In accordance with these tasks and the possibilities of each age group, society assigns children a certain place among other people, develops a system of requirements for them, a range of their rights and obligations. Naturally, as children's abilities grow, these rights and obligations become more serious, in particular, the degree of independence assigned to the child and the degree of responsibility for his actions increase.
Adults organize the lives of children, build upbringing in accordance with the place assigned to the child by society. Society determines the adults' ideas about what can be required and expected from a child at each age stage.
The attitude of the child to the world around him, the range of his duties and interests are determined, in turn, by the place he occupies among other people, by the system of requirements, expectations and influences on the part of adults. If a baby is characterized by a need for constant emotional communication with an adult, then this is due to the fact that the whole life of a baby is entirely determined by an adult, and is determined not in any indirect way, but in the most direct and direct way: there is almost continuous physical contact when an adult swaddles child, feeds him, gives him a toy, supports him during his first attempts to walk, etc.
The need for cooperation with an adult that arises in early childhood, interest in the immediate objective environment are associated with
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the fact that, taking into account the growing capabilities of the child, adults change the nature of communication with him, move on to communication about certain objects and actions. They begin to demand a certain independence in the maintenance of themselves from the child, which is impossible without mastering the methods of using objects.
The emerging needs to join the actions and relationships of adults, the exit of interests beyond the immediate environment and, at the same time, their focus on the process of activity itself (and not on its result) are features that distinguish a preschooler and find expression in a role-playing game. These features reflect the duality of the place occupied by children of preschool age among other people. On the one hand, the child is expected to understand human actions, distinguish between good and evil, and consciously comply with the rules of behavior. On the other hand, all the vital needs of the child are satisfied by adults, he does not bear serious obligations, adults do not make any significant demands on the results of his actions.
Going to school is a turning point in a child's life. The sphere of application of mental activity is changing - the game is replaced by teaching. From the first day at school, the student is presented with new requirements that correspond to educational activities. According to these requirements, yesterday's preschooler must be organized, succeeding in the assimilation of knowledge; he must learn the rights and duties corresponding to the new position in society.
A distinctive feature of the position of the student is that his study is a mandatory, socially significant activity. For her, the student must be responsible to the teacher, family, himself. The life of a student is subject to a system of rules that are the same for all schoolchildren, the main of which is the acquisition of knowledge that he must learn for future use.
Modern living conditions - in the context of the socio-economic crisis - have created new problems: 1) economic, which at the level of schoolchildren act as the problem "Children and money"; 2) worldview - the choice of positions in relation to religion, which at the level of childhood and adolescence act as a problem "Children and religion"; 3) moral - the instability of legal and moral criteria, which at the level of adolescence and youth act as problems "Children and AIDS", "Early pregnancy", etc.
Social conditions also determine the value orientations, occupation and emotional well-being of adults.
Patterns of development. Since the stages of mental development are mainly of a social historical nature, they are not
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may be unchanged. Those stages that are listed above reflect the conditions of life of children in modern society. All the children of civilized countries go through them in one form or another. However, the age limits of each stage, the time of the onset of critical periods can vary significantly depending on the customs, traditions of raising children, and the characteristics of the education system of each country.
Those basic psychological traits that unite children who are at the same age stage of mental development, to a certain extent determine their more particular mental characteristics. This allows us to speak, for example, about the characteristics of attention, perception, thinking, imagination, feelings, volitional control of behavior that are typical for a young child, or a preschooler, or a primary school student. However, such features can be changed, rebuilt when changing the education of children.
Mental qualities do not arise by themselves, they are formed in the course of upbringing and education, based on the activity of the child. Therefore, it is impossible to give a general description of a child of a certain age without taking into account the conditions of his upbringing and education. Children at different stages of mental development do not differ from each other in the presence or absence of certain mental qualities under certain conditions of upbringing and education. The psychological characteristic of age consists primarily in identifying those mental qualities that at this age can and should be developed in a child, using existing needs, interests and activities.
The revealed possibilities of the child's mental development prompt some psychologists, educators, and parents to artificially accelerate mental development, to strive for the intensified formation in the child of such types of thinking that are more characteristic of schoolchildren. For example, attempts are being made to teach children to solve mental problems through abstract verbal reasoning. However, this path is incorrect, since it does not take into account the peculiarities of the preschool stage of the child's mental development with his characteristic interests and activities. He also does not take into account the sensitivity of preschoolers in relation to educational influences aimed at developing figurative, rather than abstract thinking. The main task of teaching at each age stage of mental development is not to accelerate this development, but to enrich it, to maximize the use of the opportunities that this particular stage gives.
The allocation of stages of mental development is based on external conditions and internal patterns of this development itself and constitutes a psychological age periodization.
§3.INTERNAL POSITION AND DEVELOPMENT
The existence of social relations is reflected in the personality, as is known, through the appropriation of socially significant values by a person, through the assimilation of social standards and attitudes. At the same time, both the needs and motives of each person carry the socio-historical orientations of the culture in which the person develops and acts. This means that a human being can rise in his development to the level of personality only in the conditions of a social environment, through interaction with this environment and appropriation of the spiritual experience that has been accumulated by mankind. A person gradually in the process of ontogenetic development forms his own internal position through a system of personal meanings.
The system of personal meanings. Psychology has identified a number of conditions that determine the basic laws of the mental development of the individual. The starting point in each personality is the level of mental development; this can include mental development and the ability to independently build value orientations, to choose a line of behavior that allows you to defend these orientations.
The individual being of a person is formed through an internal position, the formation of personal meanings, on the basis of which a person builds his worldview, through the content side of self-consciousness.
The system of personal meanings of each person determines individual variants of his value orientations. From the first years of life, a person learns and creates value orientations that shape his life experience. He projects these value orientations onto his future. That is why people's value-oriented positions are so individual.
Modern society has risen to that stage of development, at which the value of the personal principle in a person is realized, the comprehensive development of the personality is highly appreciated.
A. N. Leontiev pointed out that personality is a special quality that an individual acquires in society, in the totality of relations that are social in nature, in which the individual is involved65. Satisfaction of material needs by a person leads to their reduction only to the level of conditions, and not to the level of internal sources of personality development: a personality cannot develop within the framework of needs, its development involves a shift of needs to creation that knows no boundaries. This conclusion is of fundamental importance.
Psychologists who develop the theory of personality believe that a person as a person is a relatively stable psychological system. According to L. I. Bozhovich, psychologically
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a mature personality is a person who is able to be guided by consciously set goals, which determines the active nature of his behavior. This ability is due to the development of three aspects of personality: rational, volitional, emotional66.
For a holistic, harmonious personality, of course, the ability not only for conscious self-government, but also for the formation of motivating systems is important. Personality cannot be characterized by the development of any one side - rational, volitional or emotional. Personality is a kind of indissoluble integrity of all its aspects.
V. V. Davydov rightly pointed out that the socio-psychological maturity of the individual is determined not so much by the processes of organic growth as by the real place of the individual in society. He argues that in modern developmental psychology the question should be posed as follows: “How to form a holistic human personality, how to help it, in the words of F. M. Dostoevsky, “stand out”, how to give the educational process the most accurate, socially justified direction” 67.
Of course, this process should be built in such a way that every child gets a chance to become a real full-fledged, comprehensively developed personality. In order for a child to become a person, it is necessary to form in him the need to be a person. E. V. Ilyenkov wrote about this: “Do you want a person to become a person? Then put him from the very beginning - from childhood - in such a relationship with another person (with all other people), within which he not only could, but would be forced to become a personality ... It is a comprehensive, harmonious (and not ugly - one-sided) development of each person is the main condition for the birth of a person who is able to independently determine the path of his life, his place in it, his business, interesting and important for everyone, including himself.
The comprehensive development of the personality does not exclude the absence of conflict of the personality itself. Motivation and consciousness of the individual determine the features of its development at all stages of ontogenesis, where unity and struggle of opposites inevitably arise in the self-consciousness of the individual and its emotional-affective and rational manifestations69.
At the present stage of the cultural and historical development of society, as a result of the allocation of a special "place factor" in the system of social relations, the development of preschool children is determined in a special way. The whole system of preschool education is aimed at organizing the effective “appropriation” of the spiritual culture created by mankind by the child, forming a hierarchy of behavioral motives useful for society, developing its consciousness and self-awareness.
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As for the child's personality, which is in the process of development, in relation to it, we are talking only about the formation of the prerequisites necessary to achieve comprehensive development. The prerequisites at each stage of mental development create personal formations that have an enduring significance that determines the further development of the individual. It seems obvious to us that the development of a person goes in the direction of improving personal qualities that provide the possibility of successful development of the personality of the individual and at the same time in the direction of developing personal qualities that ensure the possibility of the existence of the individual as a unit of society, as a member of the team.
To become a man means to learn to express yourself in relation to other people, as befits a person. When we talk about the "appropriation" of the material and spiritual culture created by mankind, we mean not only the assimilation by a person of the ability to correctly use objects created by the labor of people, to successfully communicate with other people, but also the development of his cognitive activity, consciousness, self-awareness and motives behavior. We have in mind the development of personality as an active, unique, individual existence of social relations. At the same time, it is important to identify positive achievements and negative formations that arise at different stages of ontogenesis, to learn how to manage the development of the child's personality, understanding the patterns of this development.
Personal development is determined not only by innate characteristics (if we are talking about a healthy psyche), not only by social conditions, but also by an internal position - a certain attitude already developing in a small child to the world of people, to the world of things and to himself. These prerequisites and conditions of mental development deeply interact with each other, determining the internal position of a person in relation to himself and the people around him. But this does not mean that, having taken shape at a given level of development, this position cannot be influenced from outside at the next stages of personality formation70.
At the first stage, a spontaneous formation of personality, not directed by self-consciousness, takes place. This is the period of preparation for the birth of a self-conscious personality, when the child manifests polymotivation and subordination of his actions in obvious forms. The beginning of personality development is due to the following events in the life of the child. First of all, he distinguishes himself as a person (this happens throughout the entire early and preschool age), as the bearer of a certain name (proper name, pronoun "I" and a certain physical appearance). Psychologically, the “I-image” is formed from an emotional (positive or negative) attitude
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chiya to people and with the expression of his will (“I want”, “I myself”), which acts as a specific need of the child. Very soon, the claim to recognition (which has both a positive and a negative direction) begins to appear. At the same time, the child develops a sense of gender, which also determines the characteristics of personality development. Further, the child has a sense of himself in time, he has a psychological past, present and future, he begins to relate to himself in a new way - the prospect of his own development opens up for him. The understanding that a person among people must have duties and rights is of paramount importance for the formation of a child's personality.
Thus, self-consciousness is a value orientation that forms a system of personal meanings that make up the individual being of a person. The system of personal meanings is organized into a structure of self-consciousness, representing the unity of links developing according to certain laws.
The structure of a person's self-consciousness is formed by identification with forehead, proper name (value attitude to the body and name);
self-esteem, expressed in the context of a claim to recognition; presenting oneself as a representative of a certain gender (gender identification); self-representation in the aspect of psychological time (individual past, present and future); assessment of oneself within the framework of the social space of the individual (rights and obligations in the context of a particular culture).
The structural links of self-consciousness are filled with signs that have arisen in the process of the historically conditioned reality of human existence. The systems of signs of the culture to which a person belongs are a condition for his development and “movement” within this system. Each person in his own way assigns the meanings and meanings of cultural signs. Therefore, in the minds of every person, objective-subjective realities of the objective world, figurative-sign systems, nature, social space are represented.
It is this individualization of the meanings and meanings of cultural signs that makes each person a unique, unique individual. This naturally implies the need to appropriate the largest volume of culture: the paradoxical representation of the universal in an individual - the greater the volume of cultural units is represented in the self-consciousness of an individual, the more individual transformations of the meanings and meanings of social signs, the richer the individuality of a person.
Of course, here we can only talk about a possible correlation between the amount of appropriation and the individualization of a person. Of course, there are many different conditions and prerequisites that make up the possibility of individualization of a person.
The conditions in which a person develops largely determine how integral, creative, cheerful, active it will be. Therefore, it is so important for parents from the first days of life to create conditions for the development of the child .
Create your own space for your child
The ideal place for a little person to stay in the house should be a children's room. If in the first months of life a child needs the constant presence of parents, then after a while he will need his own space, where he will feel like a full owner. Even if you do not have the opportunity to allocate a separate room for the child, equip a children's corner where he will store his toys, books, where you can put a small table or desk.
One of the main conditions for child development is independence, so your task is to provide him with such an opportunity: from 2-3 months, give the baby time to play with toys on his own. Hang bright rattles, a carousel above the crib. Place all this at a height accessible to the baby so that he, touching the toys with handles, hears sounds. If the child is not capricious and is passionate about this activity, do not interrupt it.
As he gets older, he will be happy to play with objects of different textures. Teachers believe that the development of tactile sensitivity in the study of various materials from fabric to wood and fur affects the formation of the child's intellect, replenishing his life experience.
Fill his life with impressions
In addition to their own space for games, the child needs experiences for development. This is especially important for preschool children from about 3 to 7 years old. Psychologists say that during this period people get the most unforgettable and strong emotions. This is due to the fact that children's imagination is rapidly developing at this time, and new impressions actively feed it.
As you know, only that remains in memory. Since healthy children are impressionable by nature, be sure that the joy of traveling together, going to the zoo, planetarium and circus will remain with them forever.
It is important for preschoolers to learn new activities. Today, many art studios offer parents and children to attend joint drawing lessons. It is difficult to convey in words the delight of a child who managed to create a small picture the first time: a house on the edge of a winter forest or a beautiful peacock.
Some parents protest against their child attending a kindergarten, believing that "children are not taken care of" there. If you decide to devote your time to your child before school, then be sure to choose an alternative option for him to communicate with children: children's development centers, circles, sections. In addition to the fact that your baby will learn to communicate with peers there, holidays are held in these organizations, and in the sports sections, competitions, taking part in which, your child will be enriched with new impressions.
A bright moment in the life of a 6-7-year-old child can be a hike with adults in the forest with an overnight stay. Especially if you involve him in the preparation: let him mount fishing rods and tackle for fishing with his dad, collect a bowler hat and supplies with his mother.
And how many unforgettable impressions a child will get from swimming and the beach, night sounds and rustles, splashing of fish in the reeds, boating!
So, a change of scenery and a variety of impressions are the second important condition for the development of a child.
Create a creative environment
We have already talked quite a lot about the importance of creativity in a child's life. Computer games are no help in this matter: being a finished product, they do not develop fantasy and imagination.
The child "goes in cycles" in the images of a virtual game, closes in its framework and ceases to be interested in other activities, becomes asocial. Meanwhile, only situational and role play with peers is developing in essence, and the child loses interest in it. Regulate your child's computer activities to prevent such "distortions" and encourage communication with other children.
It is important that the activity gives the child satisfaction, positive emotions, then he himself will initiate classes. For example, you will see how he is waiting for a new visit to the developmental school or dreams of finishing a new craft in a circle.
Creativity is possible not only in specialized centers, but also at home in everyday life. For example, give your child the opportunity to decorate a room for the holiday, draw New Year's flags for a garland, design together with you the design of a birthday cake for grandma, etc. Encourage him to fantasize, make new proposals, help with their implementation.
Summing up what has been said, I would like to note that it is not so difficult to create conditions for the development of a child. Three main components: your own space, new experiences and a creative environment - and your child successfully develops as a person. But the most important component, “cementing” success, is your interest in its development, your support, praise, sincere joy even in its small victories.
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