Countries of tropical and southern Africa. Tropical and southern Africa (black Africa)

Stages of development. After the end of World War II, there were only three independent states in this region: Ethiopia, Liberia and the Union of South Africa (SA), which was proclaimed the Republic of South Africa (SA) in 1960.

During the war and after its end, the economies of African countries developed very quickly. Foreign investment in the mining industry, transport and energy production, and agriculture has increased. If in 1938, African countries gave the metropolitan countries a tribute of 1 billion dollars a year, then in 1955 it increased to 5.44 billion dollars. In African countries, social changes occurred very quickly. There are more workers, townspeople, national entrepreneurs, and intelligentsia. The number of workers in the 50s exceeded 10 million people. Trade unions, public organizations and parties were formed in each country. African youth, having completed their studies in the cities of Europe and America, began to take part in the national liberation movement.

In the second half of the 20th century. The national liberation struggle of the peoples of Africa went through several stages:

Mid 40s - mid 50s. The period of the organization of national forces, the formation of socio-political groups, the beginning of the struggle;

Mid-50s - 1960 In Tropical Africa, Ghana (1957) and Guinea (1958) embarked on the path of independence. In 1960, a serious blow was dealt to the foundations of the colonial system; it became the Year of Africa: 17 states achieved freedom;

60s - 70s. The peoples of Guinea-Bissau, Angola, Mozambique, Zimbabwe won freedom in an armed struggle against the colonialists;

80 - 90s. Eradicating violent tactics and remnants of colonial power. Namibia, South Africa, Eritrea achieved freedom.

Thus, Africa was freed from colonial dependence and 52 sovereign states were formed.

Development problems. Many countries in the African region are classified as underdeveloped (Somalia, Chad, Central African Republic, Angola, Eritrea, etc.). During the period of independence, the economies of African countries began to develop noticeably. Gross domestic product growth reaches an average of 3-4% per year, but this figure is not typical for all countries. In 24 African countries the situation has not improved. This is due to several reasons. Firstly, tribal and semi-feudal relations in Africa were not completely destroyed. More than 100 million peasants use primitive tools. Secondly, the population grew rapidly. Ethnic, territorial and political conflicts, civil wars also hindered their development.

One of the richest countries in Africa is Nigeria with a population of about 115 million people. From the late 60s to the 90s, it experienced several military coups. After elections in March 1999, civil authority was established here. It was headed by O. Obasanjo.

At the beginning of the 21st century. Africa was gripped by the process of creating a multi-party system. Although the roots of authoritarianism and military dictatorships have not yet been completely torn out, the process of democratization of society is underway. Of course, due to various factors, it has its own characteristics. Firstly, the creation of many small political parties that bear the stamp of tribalism, clanism, confessionalism or even factionism. Thus, there were 30 parties in Nigeria, 47 in Mali, 122 in Madagascar, 176 in Cameroon, 70 in Togo, 78 in Chad, 160 in Benin, and 260 in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Many of them turned out to be unviable and soon disintegrated. Nevertheless, the emergence of parties reflecting the interests of certain groups remains strong. Secondly, many of them do not have clear program guidelines and do not have grassroots organizations, and have little connection with the masses. During the political struggle, they engage more in demagoguery or exposing each other’s mistakes and shortcomings.

Further, calling themselves democratic, if they come to power they begin to pursue a policy of authoritarianism. All this stems from the disunity of African society, the lack of political culture, and the weakness of parties in organizational terms. Sometimes the opposition manages to create united coalitions and even defeat ruling parties that have been in power for a long time. Thus, in Kenya, the national rainbow coalition led by M. Kibaki managed to defeat D. Arai Moi, who was president for 24 years (2002). But in Kenya, in 2007, a scandal occurred when the opposition led by R. Odinga challenged the results of the presidential elections. Only after bloody clashes in the country, with the assistance of the UN and OAU, was it possible to relieve tensions.

Zimbabwe- a relatively developed country even during the colonial period - during the 27 years of R. Mugabe's rule, it found itself far thrown back. At the beginning of 2008, the presidential elections, according to the opposition, brought them victory in the first round, but the authorities, through fraud, held the second round without the participation of the main opponent. Mugabe retained his post, but Western powers declared a boycott of the country. After much wrangling, with the assistance of the Union of Africa, the opposition leader was allowed to take the post of prime minister, and thus there was relative calm in the country.

For almost half a century, D. Ratsiraka was the president of Madagascar. In 2001, his rival M. Ravalomanana received more votes, nevertheless Ratsiraka tried not to cede power. Many Africans are experiencing food shortages and armed clashes have broken out. Only with the participation of drinking water from African countries was the conflict resolved and the winner became president. In 2006, Ravalomanani was again elected president.

At the same time, in some countries there are political parties with national programs (Botswana, Zambia, Kenya, Congo, Mali, Mozambique, Angola, Namibia, Tanzania, South Africa). Socialist slogans have disappeared from party programs, and instead they talk about the development of a market economy.

In April 2007, presidential elections were held in which Umar Yar'Adua won. That same year, on December 30, presidential elections were held in Kenya. The victory of the current head of state, Mwai Kibeki, was declared, but his rivals did not recognize it, which led to unrest in the country and the death of many people.

In South Africa, a split occurred in the ruling African National Congress. In the spring of 2009, its leader D. Zuma became president.

Foreign policy. African countries who have become independent belong to the “third world”. They participate in the non-aligned movement. With the participation of K. Nkrumah (Ghana), J. Nyerere (Tanzania), Emperor Haile Selasie (Ethiopia), K. Kaunda (Zambia), S. Toure (Guinea), M. Keita (Mali), L. Senghor (Senegal) , leaders of Arab countries G. A. Nasser (Egypt), Hassan II (Morocco), A. bin Bella (Algeria), etc. On May 25, 1963, the Organization of African Unity (OAU) was formed. In 1980-1990 economic cooperation gave rise to integration processes in the regions. There are several organizations operating on the mainland. African countries maintain close ties with their former metropolises.

In 2002 African states decided to create a Union of Africa with the aim of integrating their economies and, through cooperation, overcoming the acute socio-economic crisis. It is no secret that due to the neocolonial policies of the West, as well as the weakness of the political elite and the corruption of many leaders, African countries have not been able to overcome their backwardness. Although in the 60-90s there was an increase in production, Africa’s wealth ended up either in Western banks, or was eaten up by bureaucrats that had increased in numbers tens and hundreds of times, or were pocketed by corrupt regimes. In the Central African Republic (CAR), Liberia, Uganda, Mali, Congo, Chad, and Ethiopia, embezzlers ruled for many years. Figures such as Idi Amin (Uganda), Mengistu Haile Mariam (Ethiopia), Musa Traore (Mali) enjoyed the patronage of the USSR, and Mobutu Sese Seko (Congo), EK. T. Bokassa (CAR), X. Habré (Chad) was under the guardianship of the United States.

The continent suffers from tribal and religious tensions. In the 90s, a terrible clash between the Hutu and Tutsi tribes took place in Rwanda and Burundi, which spread to neighboring Uganda and Congo, where their fellow tribesmen live.

More than 1.5 million people died. Christian-Muslim massacres frequently rock Nigeria, Africa's most populous country (more than 100 million people).

The dominance of foreign companies, ineffective leadership, increased military spending and other factors led to a large ... debt in Africa: from 31.6 billion dollars in 1975 to 370 billion dollars by 2000. Although a number of developed Western countries began to write off some of them debt, but African countries bear almost half of the debt of all developing countries in the world. The World Health Organization (WHO) is alarmed by the rising incidence of AIDS in Africa.

In the mid-80s and 90s, there was a trend towards strengthening democracy in Black Africa. Odious regimes fell in Congo, Chad, Central African Republic, Ethiopia, Mali. Many embezzler dictators fled to other countries. Their names are covered in shame.

In 2003, dictatorship in Liberia was eliminated. Relative calm has been restored in Rwanda and Burundi.

In recent years, the activity of Islamic extremists has been intensifying in a number of African countries (Chad, Somalia, Nigeria, Senegal, etc.). In Ethiopia, Congo, Nigeria, separatist organizations are raising their heads. On the coast of Somalia, sea pirates pose a serious threat to merchant ships. Cases of black racism are on the rise in South Africa. There, local residents use violence against immigrants from neighboring countries.

Africa's problems attract the attention of great powers, the EU, and the UN. In 2004-2007 they wrote off the debts of the continent's poorest countries and reviewed and proposed new schemes for their development. In 2008, large sums were allocated to supply countries suffering from food shortages. The natural resources of Africa are arousing growing interest from both the former metropolises, the USA, China, Japan, Russia, and India, which is leading to a new round of rivalry between them. Kazakhstan still has diplomatic relations with South Africa.

LATIN AMERICA COUNTRIES

Main trends in the socio-economic and political development of Latin American countries in the first post-war decades. A characteristic feature of the development of Latin American countries has become the process of carrying out various economic, political, legal and sociocultural reforms. Depending on the level of economic and political development, these countries are divided into three groups.

The most developed countries in Latin America are Argentina, Uruguay and Chile, which took the path of capitalism earlier than others. This group includes Brazil and Mexico. Later, Venezuela and Colombia joined them. Their development is characterized by great dynamism. Overall, these seven countries account for 80-85% of the region's economy. They determine the appearance and level of its development.

The second group of countries are Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia and small states of Central America and the Caribbean. The manufacturing industry is less developed in them, agriculture predominates, and patriarchal remnants are more noticeable.

The third group consists of the least developed countries of the Central American subregion and the Caribbean (Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama, Belize, Haiti), as well as Paraguay. In these countries, agriculture dominates with significant patriarchal remnants, there remains a strong dependence on foreign monopolies, a low standard of living, poverty for the vast majority of the population, instability of political life, and the role of the army is significant (with the exception of Costa Rica). The dominance of the American trading and manufacturing company United Fruit Company (USFCO) in this subregion has become a feature of its economy.

A common feature of the economies of the countries in the region was the predominance of the agricultural and raw materials export economy. It has traditionally been associated with the bourgeois-landlord oligarchy and foreign capital. The implementation of agrarian reforms led to changes in the structure of production. The rapid growth of local industry due to a reduction in imports from the warring countries led to the development of “import-substituting industrialization.” In turn, the number of workers and employees at enterprises, which were replenished by migrant peasants, increased. The city becomes the center of political life.

The political situation in the region in the post-war period was characterized by instability and fragility of constitutional, democratic forms of government, party and political structures. The armed forces put pressure on constitutional governments and carried out coups d'etat, replacing one government with another.

The Catholic Church retains a significant role in the social life of the region. The region is home to about half of the world's Catholics. In areas with a compact Indian population, a significant weight of Indian traditional society and its communal structure remain.

National reformist movements in Latin America. In the post-war decade, nationalist and reformist parties were created. They used a revolutionary vocabulary that was accessible to the sentiments of the broad masses. The most popular national reformist parties included: in Peru - the Aprist People's Party, in Venezuela - Democratic Action, in Bolivia - the Nationalist Revolutionary Movement, in Mexico - the Institutional Revolutionary Party, in Costa Rica - National Liberation, etc.

The most massive national reformist movement was Peronism in Argentina. The most influential figure of that time was General Juan Domingo Pero, who became the President of Argentina after the war (1946-1955). Peron's policy was based on the ideas of justicialism and a special Argentine path of development. “Justicialism” (from Spanish - “justice”) was the concept of the unity of all layers of the Argentine nation under the slogan of “Greater Argentina”.

Being a military man, X. Peron chose an authoritarian method of governing the country. Along with the Peronist Party, the government also included trade unions. A number of radical reforms were carried out: railways, telephones, the Central Bank, and other enterprises were nationalized, and national capital was encouraged. Social legislation provided broad social rights to workers, their guarantee was the constitution adopted in 1949. But in September 1955, as a result of the military coup X. Peron was forced to flee the country.

Peronism played a positive role in national revival and development. This is evidenced by the return of X. Peron comes to power after a 17-year military regime in Argentina.

In Mexico, democratic reforms were carried out by the government of L. Cardenas, the goal of which was the national revival of the country. National reformism was firmly rooted in the Mexican labor movement. After the war, the Institutional Revolutionary Party became the leading and most popular and massive party in Mexico. Trade unions - the confederation of workers in Mexico - actively cooperated with the government and the party.

Reformist alternative. “Union for Progress.” Since the second half of the 50s, revolutionary and armed insurgent movements have gained momentum, the goal of which was a radical solution to numerous problems. These include crisis phenomena in the global economy, falling prices for exports of goods from Latin American countries, deterioration in the financial sector, rising prices, and high unemployment. The situation was complicated by the demographic explosion - population growth, which exacerbated social tensions.

In addition, the unfavorable political climate of dictatorial regimes served as a prerequisite for the rise of the revolutionary democratic movement. As a result, dictatorships in Peru, Colombia, Honduras, and Venezuela were overthrown. In Argentina, the military transferred powers to the constitutional president, Fropdisi. An anti-dictatorship movement developed in Nicaragua, Guatemala and Bolivia.

The “Union for Progress” program was the embodiment of the ideas of national reformism. This program for the economic, social and political modernization of Latin America was proposed by US President John Kennedy as part of the “new frontier” policy and adopted by the 19 Latin American republics in August 1961. It was planned to allocate $100 billion over 10 years. Of these, 20 billion dollars were provided by the United States and 80 billion by the Latin American countries themselves.

The rise of the anti-dictatorship struggle. Cuban revolution. The most striking events of the 50-80s in the fight against dictatorial regimes were the revolutions in Cuba, Chile, and Nicaragua.

The revolutionary struggle in Cuba against the dictatorial regime of F. Batista began in the 50s. The rebel troops were led by a young lawyer, Fidel Castro Ruz, the son of a wealthy landowner. He renounced his class, had enormous will, courage, and aroused universal admiration among the Cubans. The first attempt was an unsuccessful attack on a military barracks in Santiago on July 26, 1953.

The rebel army, whose leadership included famous revolutionaries, including the Castro brothers, Che Guevara, Valdez Menendez and others, fought a guerrilla war in the mountains in the east of the island. The Batista regime collapsed. On January 1-2, 1959, Havana was occupied by rebel army units. Revolutionary transformations and the construction of socialism began in the country. A totalitarian regime gradually emerged, based on a one-party system, the dominance of one ideology, and the cult of the leader.

In Cuba, the private sector in the countryside was liquidated, all small industrial enterprises, trade and services were nationalized. After the resolution of the Caribbean Crisis of 1962, Cuba's diplomatic and economic relations with the countries of the region were restored. Cuba entered the non-aligned movement. To this day, it remains one of the last socialist countries in the world.

In 2005-2007 F. Castro began to step away from power due to illness. In 2008, he resigned as a representative of the State Council. All his powers passed to his brother Raul Castro.

Revolutionary development in Latin American countries. The victory of the Cuban Revolution had a strong influence on the liberation movement in Latin America.

In the 60-70s, mass movements for national liberation were organized in Uruguay, Brazil, Argentina, and Mexico. As a result, leftist forces came to power in these countries. The elected presidents, in the interests of their countries, pursued an independent national course, including in international politics. Panama regained sovereignty over the canal zone through a treaty with the United States (1977).

The Chilean Revolution (1970-1973) was the apogee of revolutionary and democratic changes. In 1969, left-wing parties and organizations created the Popular Unity bloc led by socialist Salvador Allende. The victory in the presidential elections on September 4, 1970 allowed the formation of the Government of Popular Unity.

One of the first laws in the economic sphere was the Law on the Nationalization of Large Foreign Enterprises. Building socialism was the goal of transformation in Chile.

On September 11, 1973, a military coup took place, the Government of Popular Unity was overthrown, and Allende himself was killed. The military junta of General Augusto Pinochet (1973-1990) came to power in Chile.

The revolution in Nicaragua resulted in a Central American conflict, which became the object of confrontation between two superpowers - the USA and the USSR. The main prerequisites for the revolution were the backwardness syndrome - the costs of the dependent agro-export economic model and the anti-people policy of the Somoza clan. Revolutionary struggle in the form of guerrilla actions began in Nicaragua in the late 50s. In 1961, a single political organization was created - the Sandinista National Liberation Front (FSLN). In 1979, as a result of successful military operations, the Sandinistas overthrew the dictator.

After several years of internal difficulties of the transition period and the threat of external intervention from the United States and other neighboring states, in 1984 the Sandinistas, led by one of the leaders of the FSLN, D. Orth, again won the general elections. In 1990, presidential powers were transferred to V. Chamorro, a right-wing candidate. However, in 2000, D. Ortega was again elected president.

The policy of modernization of military regimes of the 70-80s. The overthrow of the Popular Unity government in Chile was not the only defeat of the democratic left. Leftist nationalist governments were overthrown in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Guatemala, Honduras, Uruguay, and Ecuador. In the mid-70s, the situation as a whole in the region changed: military dictatorial regimes of an authoritarian type (military juntas) were established.

Repressive regimes brutally dealt with leftist forces and the opposition. Gradually, general economic transformations forced them to evolve towards policy liberalization.

The peculiarities of authoritarian military regimes were influenced by changes in world development caused by scientific and technological revolution, the growth of internationalization of the economy, and the strengthening of neoliberal market regulation. The new role of the military in Latin America was explained by the growth in the number of proletarian and middle urban strata in society, which led to the replenishment of the officer corps with people from these low-income strata. Under the influence of scientific and technological revolution, educated officers were able to understand the reasons for the backwardness of their countries and adopted new doctrines to limit dependence on foreign capital and local oligarchy.

Thus, the military authorities of Argentina and Brazil, by reducing the public sector and strengthening the private sector, stimulated export production, actively attracting foreign capital. The impressive progress in the Brazilian economy was called the “Brazilian miracle”: every year for 7 years, the GDP growth rate was 11%. Economic reforms in Chile and stable GDP growth rates have led to talk of a Chilean “economic miracle”. The result of the evolution of the A. Pinochet regime in Chile were nationwide days of protest and a referendum in 1988. 53% of Chileans voted against the dictator, and in December 1989, the leader of the Christian Democratic Party, P. Eilwin, was elected president, to whom on March 11, 1990. A. Pinochet transferred power.

The fall of dictatorships and the restoration of democratic regimes (80s - early 90s). By the mid-80s, an evolution of military-authoritarian regimes took place. There was growing dissatisfaction in the countries that mass repressions continued, there was a lack of democratic freedoms, and human rights were violated. This was increasingly opposed by the opposition, which was supported by the broad masses of the people. Dictatorships were losing social and political support. The process of eliminating dictatorships has accelerated.

In 1983, the civil opposition candidate R. Alfonsin won the presidential elections in Argentina, which put an end to military rule. In 1985, in Brazil and Uruguay, the military transferred power to civilian presidents. In 1986, Haiti fell to the tyrannical dictatorship of the Duvalier family. At the same time, the dictatorships in Guatemala and Honduras fell, and in 1989 the Paraguayan dictator A. Stroessner was overthrown.

For the first time in the history of the continent, power passed almost everywhere to constitutional governments, and they restored democratic freedoms. However, states found themselves in difficult economic conditions. Modernization, continued under new conditions, failed to improve the socio-economic and political situation. At the same time, the financial, economic, scientific and technical dependence of the region increased, and contradictions between states intensified.

Modern problems of development of Latin American countries. Integration processes. Focus on external factors and financial and economic support from outside are a characteristic trend in the development of the economies of the countries of the region. Huge foreign debt is constantly growing. If in 1970 it amounted to 20 billion dollars, in the 80s - 400 billion, then by mid-2000 it increased to 770 billion dollars.

The main direction of the current political and economic efforts of Latin American governments is the search for an alternative. Soberly assessing their position in the world, they understand that alone the countries of the continent are doomed to complete lawlessness, especially in relations with the United States. Life itself forces them to improve the ways of regional integration. The general trend in the development of integration is to unite efforts in protecting common interests. A feature of economic integration in Latin America is the existence of several trade and economic groupings.

In the 60s, the largest integration associations were the Latin American Free Trade Association (LAST) and the Central American Common Market (CAOC). LAST includes 11 South American countries and Mexico. CAOR consists of Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua and Costa Rica.

In 1967, the states of the region signed the Treaty of Tlatelolco (named after the area of ​​the Mexican capital where it was signed) to create a nuclear-free zone. In the course of integration, subregional groupings emerged. In 1969, the Andean group (Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and Chile) appeared within LAST, and Venezuela joined it. In 1995, the Andean Group was transformed into the Andean Integration System.

In 1975, the Latin American Economic System was created, consisting of 25 states, with the aim of promoting their economic cooperation.

Brazil and Argentina entered into an Economic Union Agreement in 1986. In March 1991, it was transformed into the South American Common Market (MEREOSUR) within Brazil,

Argentina, Uruguay and Paraguay (70% of South America). On January 1, 1995, MERCOSUR became a Customs Union, where 90% of goods were exempt from customs duties.

There is another trend in the integration process of Latin American states. It lies in rapprochement and, in the future, integration with the United States, up to the creation of a common free trade zone with them in the Western Hemisphere.

Currently, integration associations in Latin America, especially MERCOSUR, are rapidly developing ties with the European Community. Over the past 10 years, trade turnover has increased fivefold.

In 2004-2008 in a number of countries (Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia, Mexico, etc.), anti-American politicians came to power as a result of elections. They are trying to get rid of the dominance of North American monopolies. This policy is actively supported by Cuba and especially Venezuela.

Lecture 42

Topic: INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS IN THE SECOND HALF OF THE XX - BEGINNING OF THE XXI centuries.

1. The division of the world into two warring blocs in the second half of the 1940s - early 1950s.

2. Confrontation between NATO and the Department of Internal Affairs.

3. Cold War politics.

4. Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe.

5. Problems of disarmament. The peace movement and the US-Soviet agreements.

6. Integration processes in the world.

7. International terrorism at the present stage.

1. The North Atlantic Alliance (NATO) was formed in 1949 by representatives of 12 countries: Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Great Britain and the United States of America. Greece and Turkey joined NATO in 1952, the Federal Republic of Germany in 1955, Spain in 1982. The Treaty of the North Atlantic Alliance, signed in Washington on April 4, 1949, provided for mutual defense and collective security, initially against the threat of aggression from Soviet Union. It was the first post-war union created by the United States of America. The reason for creating the treaty was the increasing scope of the Cold War.

NATO was developed in accordance with Article 51 of the United Nations Charter, which provided for the right of collective self-defense by regional organizations. This committed NATO member nations to the defense of all of Western Europe and the North Atlantic. In addition, the treaty was also developed with the aim of deepening the political, economic and social ties between its members.

The main body determining NATO policy is the North Atlantic Council, which meets in Brussels (until 1967, when meetings took place in Paris). The NATO Military Committee consists of senior military representatives from each NATO member country (except Iceland, which has no armed forces and is represented by a civilian, and France, which withdrew from the military alliance in 1966 while remaining a NATO member). The armed forces of NATO member countries include a peacetime designated commander who, in the event of war, will carry out local orders from the military committee.

In 1955, 6 years after the formation of NATO, the Warsaw Pact Organization (WTO) was founded, which included the European states of the socialist camp, except Yugoslavia, which traditionally adhered to a policy of non-alignment. Within the framework of the Department of Internal Affairs, a joint command of the Armed Forces and a Political Advisory Committee were created - a body coordinating the foreign policy activities of the countries of Eastern Europe. Representatives of the Soviet army played a decisive role in all military-political structures of the Department of Internal Affairs.

2. The creation of NATO was a consequence of the Cold War and therefore all its activities were aimed at a tough confrontation with the Soviet Union and other socialist countries. In 1949, the US atomic monopoly was eliminated, which led to a sharp increase in the tendency of competition and an increase in the production of weapons of mass destruction.

The first major international crisis after the Second World War, related to the Korean War, began a year after the formation of NATO in 1950. The US military command intended to use atomic weapons against the DPRK; it was restrained only by the fear of similar retaliatory measures from the USSR. In the current situation, the USSR considered it necessary to provide military-technical assistance to North Korea. In addition to the USSR, the PRC and other socialist countries provided assistance to the DPRK. By mid-1951, the situation in Korea had stabilized, peace negotiations began, as a result of which an armistice agreement was signed on July 27, 1953.

Thanks to the change of the top leadership of the USSR and the so-called Khrushchev Thaw, in 1954 a meeting of the foreign ministers of the USA, Great Britain, France and the USSR was held on a number of issues about collective security in Europe and a number of crises. By 1954, US military forces were stationed in 49 foreign countries. Since Western representatives promoted the defensive nature of NATO at the meeting, after the meeting the Soviet government came up with a proposal for the USSR to join NATO and conclude a treaty on collective security in Europe with the participation of the United States. All these proposals were rejected by the West. NATO refused all further initiatives of the Soviet Union to begin negotiations on concluding a non-aggression pact between NATO and the Warsaw Pact countries and declared these initiatives propaganda. At the same time, in 1955-1960. The USSR unilaterally reduced the number of its armed forces by almost 3 million people, bringing it to 2.4 million people.

After the creation of thermonuclear weapons in the 50s, the USSR directed its efforts to establish military-strategic parity with the United States, which occurred at the turn of the 60s-70s.

The most dangerous international crisis arose in the fall of 1962 in connection with the situation around Cuba. During World War II, the United States built 434 naval bases and 1,933 army and strategic air bases. American armed forces were located on all continents, American missiles with nuclear warheads deployed in Western Europe, Turkey and other countries were aimed at several dozen large cities of the USSR and socialist countries. After the revolution in Cuba and the coming to power of a socialist government there, the Soviet Union, taking advantage of Cuba's proximity to the United States, began deploying missiles there capable of carrying nuclear warheads. In response to this, the United States pulled its fleet to the island (one of the largest US military bases, Guantanamo Bay, is located on Cuban territory) and issued an ultimatum to withdraw Soviet troops from Cuba. At the negotiations that began, a compromise was reached and Soviet missiles were withdrawn from Cuba.

The leaders of the USA and the USSR during the Caribbean and Korean crises, despite mutual hostility, managed to avoid a direct military clash, which would likely have led to a nuclear war with all its consequences. Subsequently, the world community became aware that in the 50s. In the USA, secret plans were developed to start a war against the USSR, which included atomic bombing of dozens of Soviet cities. Violating international law, American military aircraft flew for several years at high altitudes in the airspace of the USSR for reconnaissance purposes,

With the end of the Cold War and the collapse of the Warsaw Pact in 1991, NATO's role in European military affairs became uncertain. The focus of NATO's activities in Europe has shifted towards cooperation with European organizations - such as the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) - with the aim of planning policies with "less threat to continental security". NATO is also working towards the inclusion of former Warsaw Pact countries and CIS countries.

Currently, NATO's role has changed somewhat. The European Union, which is based on NATO member states, seeks to limit US interference in European affairs. For its part, the United States, which today does not have a sufficiently strong political and military counterweight throughout the world and is practically unlimited in its actions, stated that it does not need the support of its policies from any interstate alliances and do not intend to bind themselves to any international obligations. In the first years of the 21st century. NATO leaders in continental Europe - Germany and France - pursued a policy of rapprochement with Russia and the creation of a European community capable of resisting US dictatorship.

3. The Cold War policy was proclaimed in W. Churchill’s keynote speech on March 5, 1946 in the American city of Fulton, in which he called for the creation of an Anglo-American alliance to fight “world communism led by Soviet Russia.” Beginning in 1946, there was talk of a “cold war” (as opposed to a nuclear “hot war”) between two blocs of countries. The essence of this policy was to aggravate international tension, create and maintain the danger of a “hot war” (“brinkmanship”). The goal of the Cold War was to suppress by economic and political methods the USSR as the most possible competitor of the United States in the struggle for world domination, to justify huge government expenditures on the maintenance of the army and the production of weapons, to justify the neocolonial policy of the United States and its fight against workers, anti-racist and liberation movements.

The Cold War consisted of: the formation of a system of military-political alliances (NATO, SEATO, CENTO, ANZUS, etc.) directed against the USSR and its allies. In contrast to these blocs, the countries of the socialist bloc were united under the leadership of the USSR into the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA, 1949) and the defensive Warsaw Pact Organization (WTO, 1955);

Creation of a wide network of military bases in all strategically important points of the world;

Accelerating the arms race, including nuclear and other types of weapons of mass destruction;

The use of force, the threat of force or the accumulation of weapons as a means of influencing the policies of other states (“nuclear diplomacy”, “politics from a position of strength”);

Use of economic pressure (discrimination in trade, etc.); intensification and expansion of subversive activities of intelligence services; encouraging putschs and coups d'etat;

Ideological propaganda (“psychological warfare”);

1. Using the map of peoples, determine the ethnic composition of the population of Tropical Africa.

In terms of ethnic diversity, the African region in question is second only to Asia. There are several hundred peoples here belonging to the large Negroid race. The largest of them are the Yoruba, Hausa, Fulbe, Ibo in West Africa, Amhara in Ethiopia, etc. Closely related Bantu peoples live in Central Africa.

2. What is the past of the countries of Tropical Africa?

In the recent past, all countries in this subregion were possessions of European powers (France, Germany, Belgium, Great Britain, Spain, Portugal, Italy). The process of decolonization of Africa began after the Second World War. Only since the 60s. XX century the formation of their state sovereignty began. 1960 was declared the Year of Africa - the year the largest number of colonies were liberated.

3. What are the features of the nature of the countries in the region?

The natural conditions of the region are so diverse that they cannot be assessed unambiguously. Thus, the relief is generally favorable for the economic development of the territory, but in most of its part, climatic conditions and uneven distribution of water resources negatively affect the lives of people and their economic activities. Large areas are occupied by arid regions, and vast areas are subject to periodic droughts (the Sahel zone south of the Sahara, some areas in Southern and Eastern Africa). In the equatorial belt, the amount of precipitation is so high that excessive moisture complicates the economic development of the territory. The nature of Africa is characterized by increased environmental vulnerability. Unlike the Asian and American tropics, where intensive agricultural systems developed, ultimately leading to the formation of stable cultural landscapes, in tropical Africa the centuries-old practice of fallow farming and pastoralism led to extremely negative anthropogenic changes in local landscapes.

4. What demographic problems are facing the countries of Tropical Africa?

In terms of the rate of natural population growth, Tropical Africa is ahead of all other regions of the world. The population dynamics of Tropical Africa is characterized by an exceptionally high birth rate - sometimes more than 30%. Only in the second half of the 20th century. Africa's population has more than tripled, leading to a sharp worsening of food and other social problems.

Many countries in Tropical Africa inherited from colonial times a discrepancy between state and ethnic borders; many closely related peoples found themselves “cut off” by state borders. The region ranks first in the world for illiteracy, has the highest infant mortality rate and the shortest life expectancy.

5. What are the specific features of the economies of the countries in the region?

In terms of economic structure, most countries are agricultural, some have developed mining industries, and only a few are developing manufacturing industries. When talking about the geography of the economy, one should keep in mind a few relatively developed territories - metropolitan regions, places of extraction and export of mineral raw materials.

The leading branch of agriculture is farming, which in many countries is monocultural in nature, associated with specialization primarily in one crop. Livestock farming, occupying one of the first places in the world in terms of livestock numbers, is characterized by extensiveness, low productivity and low marketability.

One of the reasons for the backwardness of agriculture is archaic agrarian relations. Communal land tenure and subsistence farming are preserved here, which are slowly transforming into small-scale peasant farming.

6. Why is agriculture in the countries of Tropical Africa monocultural?

The monocultural nature of agriculture in the countries of Tropical Africa is a direct consequence of their colonial past, in which it satisfied the specific food needs of the metropolises.

7. What explains the diversified nature of the South African economy?

The development of a diversified industry was facilitated by the exceptional wealth of mineral resources (gold, diamonds, uranium ore, platinum, etc.). Only 15% of South Africa's area is suitable for agriculture. However, it can be said that, unlike most other countries in Africa, where soil erosion occurs, this 15% is used wisely - in order to protect soils and efficiently conduct agriculture, advanced agricultural technologies from South Africa and leading countries of the world are used. Compared to other African countries, South Africa has a developed transport network. External transportation is carried out through major seaports - Durban, Port Elizabeth, Cape Town, which are connected by railways.

8. The national composition of the countries of Tropical Africa is different:

a) relative homogeneity; b) extreme diversity.

9. Determine which statements apply to the countries of Tropical Africa:

1) The region includes most of the world's least developed countries.

2) The leading industry is the automotive industry.

3) Large areas are occupied by arid regions.

4) The region is rich in mineral resources.

5) Rail transport is developed in the region.

b) The food problem is pressing for the countries of the region.

All except 2 and 5.

11. Give the economic and geographical characteristics of South Africa. To do this, use the text of the textbook, atlas maps, and periodical materials.

The Republic of South Africa is a state in the southern part of the African continent. In the north it borders with Namibia, Botswana and Zimbabwe, in the northeast - with Mozambique and Swaziland. Inside the territory of South Africa there is the enclave state of Lesotho.

South Africa is the most developed on the African continent and at the same time the only country that is not classified as a Third World country. GDP in 2009 amounted to $505 billion (26th place in the world). GDP growth was at 5%, in 2008 - 3%. The country is still not among the developed countries of the world, despite the fact that its market is actively expanding. In terms of purchasing power parity, it ranks 78th in the world according to the IMF (Russia 53rd), according to the World Bank 65th, according to the CIA 85th. It has a huge reserve of natural resources. Telecommunications, electricity, and the financial sector are widely developed.

Main import items: oil, food, chemicals; exports: diamonds, gold, platinum, machinery, vehicles, equipment. Imports ($91 billion in 2008) exceed exports ($86 billion in 2008).

Member of the international organization of ACP countries.

The total area of ​​Tropical Africa is more than 20 million km2, the population is 650 million people. It is also called “black Africa”, since the population of the subregion overwhelmingly belongs to the equatorial (Negroid) race. But the ethnic composition of individual parts of Tropical Africa differs quite greatly. It is most complex in West and East Africa, where at the junction of different races and language families the greatest “strip” of ethnic and political borders has arisen. The people of Central and Southern Africa speak numerous (with up to 600 dialects) but closely related languages ​​of the Bantu family (the word means "people"). The Swahili language is especially widespread. And the population of Madagascar speaks languages ​​of the Austronesian family.

There is also much in common in the economy and population settlement of the countries of Tropical Africa. Tropical Africa is the most backward part of the entire developing world, with 29 least developed countries within its borders. Nowadays, this is the only large region of the world where agriculture remains the main sphere of material production.

About half of the rural residents practice subsistence agriculture, the rest engage in subsistence farming. Hoe tillage predominates with the almost complete absence of a plow; It is no coincidence that the hoe, as a symbol of agricultural labor, is included in the image of the state emblems of a number of African countries. All major agricultural work is performed by women and children. They cultivate root and tuber crops (cassava or cassava, yam, sweet potato), from which they make flour, cereals, cereals, flatbreads, as well as millet, sorghum, rice, corn, bananas, and vegetables. Livestock farming is much less developed, including due to the tsetse fly, and if it plays a significant role (Ethiopia, Kenya, Somalia), it is carried out extremely extensively. In the equatorial forests there are tribes, and even nationalities, that still live by hunting, fishing and gathering. In the savannah and tropical rainforest zones, the basis of consumer agriculture is the fallow-type slash-and-burn system.

Areas of commercial crop production with a predominance of perennial plantings - cocoa, coffee, peanuts, hevea, oil palm, tea, sisal, and spices - stand out sharply against the general background. Some of these crops are cultivated on plantations, and some on peasant farms. They primarily determine the monocultural specialization of a number of countries.

According to their main occupation, the majority of the population of Tropical Africa lives in rural areas. Savannas are dominated by large villages near rivers, while tropical forests are dominated by small villages.

Tropical Africa is the least urbanized region of the world. Only eight of its countries have “millionaire” cities, which usually tower over numerous provincial towns like lonely giants. Examples of this kind include Dakar in Senegal, Kinshasa in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Nairobi in Kenya, Luanda in Angola.

Tropical Africa also lags behind in the development of its transport network. Its pattern is determined by “penetration lines” isolated from each other, leading from the ports to the hinterland. In many countries there are no railways at all. It is customary to carry small loads on the head, and over a distance of up to 30-40 km.

Finally, environmental quality is rapidly deteriorating in sub-Saharan Africa. It was here that desertification, deforestation, and depletion of flora and fauna assumed the most alarming proportions. Example. The main area of ​​drought and desertification is the Sahel zone, which stretches along the southern borders of the Sahara from Mauritania to Ethiopia across ten countries.

24. Basic patterns of population distribution in Australia: historical and natural prerequisites.

The distribution of the population across the continent is determined by the history of its development by Europeans and natural conditions. Coastal areas in the east and southwest of the continent have population densities 10 times or more greater than the average population density. The interior of the mainland is almost deserted. The bulk of the population lives in cities. Moreover, 2/3 of the population lives in large cities. In Sydney and Melbourne alone there are more than 6 million people. The Commonwealth of Australia is the only state in the world that occupies the territory of the entire continent, as well as the island of Tasmania and a number of other small islands. The Commonwealth of Australia belongs to the group of developed capitalist countries. This is an economically highly developed state, the formation of whose economy was facilitated by both historical and favorable natural factors.

Before the start of European colonization, 300 thousand aborigines lived on the mainland, and now there are 150 thousand of them. The Aborigines belong to the Australo-Polynesian race and ethnically do not form a single whole. They are divided into numerous tribes speaking different languages ​​(over 200 in total). Aboriginal people received civil rights in 1972.

The population is distributed extremely unevenly throughout the country, with its main centers concentrated in the east and southeast, northeast and south. Here the population density is 25-50 people. per 1 km2, and the rest of the territory is very sparsely populated, the density does not reach even one person per 1 km2. The deserts in the Australian outback are completely devoid of population. In the last decade, there have been shifts in the distribution of the country's population, thanks to the discoveries of new mineral deposits in the north and south. The Australian government encourages population movement to the center of the mainland, to poorly developed areas.

Australia occupies one of the first places in the world in terms of urbanization - 90% of the population. In Australia, cities are considered to be settlements with a population of over 1 thousand people, and sometimes less. The population lives in cities that are significantly distant from each other. Such settlement predetermined the uneven distribution of the manufacturing industry and the high cost of its products due to very significant transport costs.

The country's largest urban agglomerations are Sydney (3 million people), Melbourne (about 3 million people), Brisbane (about 1 million people), Adelaide (over 900 thousand people), Canberra (300 thousand people .), Hobart (200 thousand people), etc.

Australian cities are relatively young, the oldest are 200 years old, most of them were centers of colonies, and then became state capitals, performing several functions: administrative, commercial, industrial and cultural.

PECULIARITIES. The specificity of African history is the extreme unevenness of development. If in some territories during the end of the 1st – first half of the 2nd millennium, fully formed states, often very extensive, emerged, then in other lands they continued to live in conditions of tribal relations. Statehood, with the exception of the northern Mediterranean lands (where it existed since ancient times), in the Middle Ages extended only to the territory north and partially south of the equator, primarily in the so-called Sudan (the zone between the equator and the Tropic of the North).

A characteristic feature of the African economy was that throughout the continent land was not alienated from its owner, even under communal organization. Therefore, the conquered tribes were almost never enslaved, but were exploited by collecting taxes or tribute. Perhaps this was due to the peculiarities of land cultivation in a hot climate and the predominance of arid or waterlogged lands, which required careful and lengthy cultivation of each plot suitable for farming. In general, it should be noted that very harsh conditions for humans have developed south of the Sahara: a mass of wild animals, poisonous insects and reptiles, lush vegetation ready to strangle every cultural sprout, stupefying heat and droughts, excessive rainfall and floods in other places. Due to the heat, many pathogenic microbes have grown here. All this predetermined the routine nature of African economic development, which led to a slowdown in social progress.

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF WESTERN AND CENTRAL SUDAN. Agriculture predominated among the population's occupations. Nomadic cattle breeding as the basis of existence was characteristic of only a few tribes in the region. The fact is that tropical Africa was infected with the tsetse fly, a carrier of sleeping sickness that is fatal to cattle. Less vulnerable were goats, sheep, pigs and camels.

Agriculture was mainly shifting and shifting, which was facilitated by low population density and, consequently, the availability of free land. Periodic rainfalls (1–2 times a year) followed by a dry season (except in the equatorial zone) required irrigation. The soils of Sahel 1 and savannas are poor in organic matter, are easily depleted (stormy rainfalls wash away mineral salts), and in the dry season the vegetation burns out and does not accumulate humus. Fertile alluvial soils are located only in islands in river valleys. The lack of domestic animals limited the ability to fertilize the soil with organic matter. The small number of cattle made it impossible to use draft power. All this made it possible to cultivate the soil only manually - with hoes with iron tips and to fertilize the soil only with ash from burning vegetation. They didn't know the plow and the wheel.

Based on modern knowledge, we can conclude that the predominance of hoe farming and the non-use of draft power when cultivating the soil was a forced adaptation to natural conditions and did not necessarily indicate the backwardness of agriculture in Tropical Africa. But, nevertheless, this also slowed down the overall development of the population.

The craft developed in communities in which artisans occupied a privileged position and fully provided their communities with the necessary products. First of all, blacksmiths, potters, and weavers stood out. Gradually, with the development of cities, trade and the formation of urban centers, urban crafts appeared, serving the court, the army, and city residents. In the 15th-15th centuries. in the most developed areas (Western Sudan), associations of artisans of the same or related professions arose - similar to European guilds. But as in the East, they were not independent and were subordinate to the authorities.

In some states of Western Sudan in the XV-XVI centuries. elements of manufacturing production began to take shape. But the original development of African crafts and its organizational forms was delayed, and in many places interrupted, by European colonization and the slave trade.

SOCIO-POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE STATES OF WESTERN AND CENTRAL SUDAN. The population of the Sahel was characterized by an ancient tradition of exchange with the northern nomads - the Berbers. They traded agricultural and livestock products, salt and gold. Trade was "silent". The traders did not see each other. The exchange took place in forest clearings, where one party brought their goods and then hid in the forest. Then the other party came, inspected what was brought, left their goods of the appropriate value and left. Then the first ones returned and if they were satisfied with the offer, they took it and the deal was considered completed. Deception rarely happened (on the part of northern merchants).

The most developed trans-Saharan trade was in gold and salt. Placers of gold were discovered in the forests of Western Sudan, Upper Senegal, Ghana, and the Upper Volta basin. There was almost no salt in the Sahel and further south. It was mined in Mauritania, the oases of the Sahara, the salt lakes of modern Zambia and the upper reaches of the Niger. There, even houses were built from salt blocks covered with camel skins. Southern tribes of Western Sudan - Hausa Those who bought Saharan salt knew 50 types of its varieties.

It was here, in the north of Western Sudan in the 7th–8th centuries. Large shopping centers were formed, around which political associations were then formed.

The oldest state here was Ghana or Aukar, the first information about which dates back to the 8th century. Ethnic basis - nationality Soninka. In the 9th century The rulers of Ghana stubbornly fought with their northern neighbors, the Berbers, for control of trade routes to the Maghreb. By the beginning of the 10th century. Ghana achieved its greatest power, which relied on monopoly control over the trade of all of Western Sudan with the north, which contributed to economic prosperity. However, in the second half of the 11th century. Sultan of the Almoravid (Moroccan) state Abu Bekr ibn Omar subjugated Ghana, imposed tribute on it and took control of the country's gold mines. The king of Ghana converted to Islam. 20 years later, during the uprising, Abu Bekr was killed and the Moroccans were expelled. But Ghana's importance was not restored. New monarchies arose on its greatly reduced borders.

In the 12th century. The kingdom showed the greatest activity Soso, which conquered Ghana in 1203 and soon subjugated all trade routes in the region. Mali, located in the center of Western Sudan, becomes a dangerous rival to the kingdom of Soso.

The emergence of the state Mali(Manding) dates back to the 8th century. It was originally located on the Upper Niger. The bulk of the population was made up of tribes raspberry. Active trade with Arab merchants contributed to the penetration of Islam among the ruling elite by the 11th century. The beginning of the economic and political prosperity of Mali dates back to the second half of the 12th century. By the middle of the 13th century. under a prominent commander and statesman Sundiata Almost the entire territory of Soso with gold mining areas and caravan routes was subordinated. Regular exchanges are established with the Maghreb and Egypt. But the expansion of state territory led to the growth of separatism on the ground. As a result, from the second half of the 14th century. Mali is weakening and beginning to lose certain territories.

Active foreign policy had little effect on rural communities. They were dominated by subsistence farming. The presence of basic specialties in artisan communities did not create a need to trade with neighbors. Therefore, although local markets existed, they did not play a special role.

Foreign trade was conducted primarily in gold, salt, and slaves. Mali has achieved a monopoly in the gold trade with North Africa. Sovereigns, aristocracy, and service people participated in this trade. Gold was exchanged for Arab handicrafts and, especially, for salt, which was so necessary that it was exchanged for gold in a weight ratio of 1:2 (there was practically no salt in the Sahel and it was delivered from the Sahara). But a lot of gold was mined, up to 4.5–5 tons per year, which fully provided for the nobility and did not require special pressure on the peasants.

The main unit of society was the large patriarchal family. Several families made up the community. There was no equality in the communities. The ruling layer were the elders of patriarchal families, below were the heads of small families, then ordinary members of the community - free peasants and artisans, and even lower - slaves. But slavery did not last forever. In each subsequent generation, they acquired individual rights until they became freedmen, who even occupied important government posts. 5 days a week, ordinary community members, slaves and freedmen worked together to cultivate the land of the patriarchal family, and 2 days they worked on the individual plots allocated to them - vegetable gardens. The plots were distributed by the heads of large families - “lords of the land.” Part of the harvest, products from hunting, etc. went to their benefit. In essence, these “lords” were leaders with elements of feudal lords. That is, here we have a kind of feudal-patriarchal relationship. Communities were united into clans, the heads of which had their own military detachments of slaves and other dependent people.

The top of the ruling class consisted of the marked heads of patriarchal families who were part of the ruling clan. The lower group of the ruling layer were the leaders of the subordinate clans and tribes, who, however, retained internal autonomy. But a military-service stratum emerged from overseers, heads of slave guards, and freedmen in government positions. They often received land from the rulers, which allows them to be seen as a kind of nobility (at the stage of its inception). But this, as elsewhere, led to the growth of separatism and ultimately to the collapse of Mali.

Another reason for the collapse of the state was the noted gold trade. It covered the needs of the nobility and did not encourage increasing income through the development of other elements of the economy. As a result, the wealth from owning gold led to stagnation. Neighbors began to overtake Mali.

With the decline of Mali, a state grew on its eastern borders Songhai(or Gao - after the name of the capital). In the 15th century Songhai achieved independence and created its own state in the Middle Niger, all on the same trade routes. But numerous conquests caused uprisings, especially in the conquered lands of Mali and by the first half of the 16th century. Songhai fell into decline. In the position of the ruling class, in contrast to Mali, a significant role was played by large estates, on which slaves planted on the land worked. But the position of the descendants of slaves (prisoners of war) softened in each subsequent generation. The role of cities was significant in the state. Up to 75 thousand people lived in the capital, Gao, and more than 50 people worked in some weaving workshops in Timbuktu.

To the west, in the Upper Volta basin among the tribes Mosi in the 11th century Several state formations arose with a significant role of slavery in the estates, which is similar to the order in Songhai. Some of the noted states existed until the French arrived here in the 19th century.

In the extreme west of Africa, in the middle and lower reaches of Senegal in the 8th century. a state was formed Tekrur. Created from different ethnic groups, it is marked by constant clashes between different tribes, to which in the 9th century. Conflicts increased between supporters of local religions and emerging Muslims. This led to a constant change of dynasties.

A vast area west of Lake Chad inhabited by tribes Hausa , in the VIII-X centuries. covered by a network of individual city-states with a significant slave-owning system. Slaves were used in crafts and agriculture. Until the 16th century. Political fragmentation reigned in these lands.

In the 8th century a state arose east of Lake Chad Kanem, which in the XI-XII centuries. subjugates some tribes of the Hausa group.

The ancient center of African culture was the coast of the Gulf of Guinea, inhabited by tribes Yoruba . Of the states in this territory, the largest was Oyo, founded in the 9th-10th centuries. At its head was a monarch, limited by a council of nobles. The latter was the highest administrative and judicial body and handed down death sentences, including to the ruler himself. We have before us a kind of constitutional monarchy with a highly developed bureaucracy. Oyo was connected by trade with the northern lands and had significant income from this. A highly developed craft has developed in the cities and associations such as guilds are known.

To the south of the considered states of Western and Central Sudan in the XIII-XIV centuries. appeared Cameroon And Congo.

Customs. Most of the peoples of Western Sudan did not create their own written language. Some used elements of Arabic writing. The religion that predominated was pagan. Islam truly began to spread from the 13th-14th centuries, and began to reach the rural population from the 16th century. But even in Muslim times, not to mention earlier, monarchs were treated as pagan priests. It was believed that the king, by virtue of his position, controlled nature. The reproduction of subjects, animals and plants in his state depended on his health and the magical rituals he performed. The king determined the timing of sowing and other work.

Arab travelers made interesting observations about the life of Africans. According to Ibn Battuta (XIV century), they, more than any other people, express devotion and respect to their sovereign. For example, as a sign of respect for him, they take off their outer clothing and remain in rags, crawl on their knees, sprinkle sand on their heads and backs, and it’s amazing how the sand doesn’t get into their eyes. He also noted the almost complete absence of thieves and robbers, which made the roads safe. If a white man died among them, then his property was kept by a special local trustee until the arrival of relatives or others from the deceased’s homeland, which was important for merchants. But, the traveler regretted, in the courtyard of the king, girls and women walk with their faces open and naked. Many of them eat carrion - the corpses of dogs and donkeys. There are cases of cannibalism. Moreover, preference is given to blacks. White meat is considered unripe. In general, the food of the Malians, among whom Battuta visited, did not evoke any delight in him. Even at the ceremonial dinner, he complained, only millet, honey and sour milk were served. Usually they preferred rice. He wrote in detail about the “friends” of married men and women, that is, about fairly free extramarital affairs, and discussed how this relates to the Muslim religiosity of the inhabitants.

ETHIOPIA. In Eastern Sudan, in the northern part of the Abyssinian plateau, there was a kingdom Aksum. Its roots go back to the middle of the 1st millennium BC, when newcomers from South Arabia brought Semitic languages ​​to the Nile Valley. This state at the beginning of its history was associated with the Greco-Roman world. Its heyday occurred in the 4th century AD, when the power of the Aksumite kings extended not only to most of the Ethiopian lands, but also to the southern Arabian coast (Yemen and southern Hijaz - in the 5th century). Active ties with Byzantium contributed to the spread of Christianity among the upper strata of society around 333. In 510, the Iranians, led by Khusrow, ousted Aksum from Arabia. In the 8th century the onset of Arab expansion caused the gradual decline of Aksum. The population was pushed away from the sea and gradually moved to the barren interior lands of the Abyssinian plateau. In the XIII century. The Solomon dynasty, which existed until the 1974 revolution, comes to power.

The social system of medieval Ethiopia was characterized by the predominance of the feudal structure. The peasants who were part of the community were considered the holders of the land, the supreme owner of which was the king - negus. He, and during the period of fragmentation the rulers of the regions, had the right to the land together with the peasants sitting on it, on the terms of service. There was no serfdom, but landowners could require peasants to work for them every fifth day - a kind of corvee. Slavery also existed, but it was of an auxiliary nature.

CONCLUSIONS. In the considered part of Tropical Africa, except for Ethiopia, the formation of state formations began around the 8th century. Socio-economic relations were characterized by diversity. Depending on local conditions and stages of social development, slaveholding (earlier stage) or early feudal (later stage) relations prevailed. But the presence of a significant layer of communal peasants throughout the region contributed to the development of feudal elements as a leading trend. The considered type of social relations is generally closer to the medieval civilizations of the East. But, unlike them, there were no clearly defined social groups - classes - here until the 19th century. There was a peculiar ingrowth of the tribal system into the state, which constituted the specificity of African civilization.

The originality of this civilization was probably (there are different opinions) caused by the fact that the ruling strata here began to stand out not due to the emergence of a surplus product in routinely developing agriculture, but in the process of struggle for income from transit trade, which was most active in Western Sudan. The agricultural population did not need the items of this trade and did not participate in it. Therefore, in the village, clan-communal orders were preserved for a long time, on which the organized power of the clan aristocracy was superimposed from above.

The state here was formed without distinguishing social groups and private property. The ruling stratum was not only at first, but also for a long time, before the arrival of Europeans, large families - clans. Their heads became leaders. Their service people were relatives who, due to family ties, were not paid for their service in land. Therefore, private ownership of land did not arise. The lowest ruling stratum in communities are the heads of families, who at the same time became, as it were, administrators. In such conditions, naturally, the separation of the ruling stratum from the bulk of the population, its transformation into a special estate, and even more so into a class, happened very slowly and in many places has not been completed to this day. Stage by stage, this is a very protracted early stage in the formation of feudalism, which in Europe, for example, was overcome in 100-150 years.

It should be noted that feudalism in the considered part of Africa is not recognized by those researchers who understand by feudalism only the dominance of large feudal land ownership. The author of this manual, let me remind you, considers feudal society to be one that is characterized by the entire complex of socio-political and economic relationships of the Middle Ages (power based on personal domination, existing through various types of rent from peasant users sitting on the land). With this understanding, a society can be considered feudal, the life of which is determined by the subjective aspirations of the landowning nobility, who subordinated objectively existing economic and social laws to their will. The discrepancy between these two factors, the feudal class’s ignorance of these objectively existing laws, ultimately led to the disintegration of the feudal order.

Ethiopia is similar in origin and typologically to the Middle Eastern model.

O Area about 20 million km² O Population 650 million people. O The main field of activity is agriculture. O Tropical Africa is the most backward part of the entire developing world. O Country member of OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries) – Nigeria.

Problems of tropical Africa. O The most backward part of the entire developing world (29 countries) O Subsistence and low-income agriculture (droughts, tsetse fly). O Equatorial forests are dominated by hunting, fishing, and gathering. O Monocultural specialization of countries - cocoa, tea, coffee, peanuts, hevea, sisal, spices, oil palm (plantation or peasant farm). O Least industrialized region of the world (only one major mining region - the Copper Belt in DR Congo and Zambia). O Backward transport network. O The least urbanized region of Africa in the world (only 8 cities with millionaires, for example Kinshasa in DR Congo, Dakar in Senegal). O Deteriorating ecology (desertification, deforestation).

South Africa O Developed mining industry: gold, platinum, diamonds, uranium, iron ores, chrome ores, manganese ores, coal. O Developed manufacturing industry: ferrous metallurgy, mechanical engineering, chemical industry. O High level of agriculture: cereals, subtropical crops, fine-wool sheep breeding, cattle (European part - farms, African part - hoe farming).

South Africa A country with a dual economy: There are features of both developing and economically developed countries. Homework: prepare for the final test on the topic Africa - textbook page