Evidence of the relationship between humans and animals. The cellular structure of organisms as proof of their relationship, the unity of living nature Proof of the relationship of all living things

The cellular structure of organisms as evidence of their relationship, the unity of living nature. Comparison of plant cells and fungi.

Most living organisms known today are made up of cells (except viruses). The cell is the elementary structural unit of the living, according to the cell theory. The distinctive properties of the living are manifested starting from the cellular level. The presence of a cellular structure in living organisms, a single DNA code containing hereditary information realized through proteins, can be considered as proof of the unity of origin of all living organisms that have a cellular structure.

Plant and fungal cells have much in common:

1. The presence of a cell membrane, nucleus, cytoplasm with organelles.
2. Fundamental similarity of metabolic processes, cell division.
3. Rigid cell wall of considerable thickness, the ability to consume nutrients from the external environment by diffusion through the plasma membrane (osmosis).
4. Cells of plants and fungi are able to slightly change their shape, which allows plants to change their position in space to a limited extent (leaf mosaic, sunflower orientation to the sun, twisting of legume tendrils, traps of insectivorous plants), and some fungi to capture small soil worms - nematodes in the mycelium loops.
5. The ability of a group of cells to give rise to a new organism (vegetative reproduction).

1. The cell wall of plants contains cellulose, while that of fungi contains chitin.
2. Plant cells contain chloroplasts with chlorophyll or leukoplasts, chromoplasts. Fungi do not have plastids. Accordingly, photosynthesis is carried out in plant cells - the formation of organic substances from inorganic, i.e. an autotrophic type of nutrition is characteristic, and fungi are heterotrophs, dissimilation predominates in their metabolic processes.
3. The reserve substance in plant cells is starch, in fungi it is glycogen.
4. In higher plants, cell differentiation leads to the formation of tissues; in fungi, the body is formed by filamentous rows of cells - hyphae.

These and other features made it possible to single out fungi in a separate kingdom.

Living organisms are able to adapt to the action of adverse environmental factors. Plants living in conditions of high temperature and lack of moisture have leaves small or modified into spines, covered with a wax coating, with a small number of stomata. Animals in these conditions are helped to survive by adaptive behavior: they are active at night, and during the day, in the heat, they hide in holes. Organisms in arid habitats also have metabolic differences that conserve water.

Animals living in low temperatures have a thick layer of subcutaneous fat. Plants are characterized by a high content of dissolved substances in cells, which prevents their damage at low temperatures. The seasonality of life cycles also allows plants and migratory birds to exploit habitats with cold winters.

A striking example of fitness is the mutual evolutionary adaptations of herbivorous animals and plants, which serve them as food, predator and prey.

Using knowledge about nutritional standards and human energy expenditure (combination of products of plant and animal origin, norms and diet, etc.), explain why people who eat a lot of carbohydrates with food quickly gain weight.

Human nutrition should be varied, contain products of animal and vegetable origin, in order to provide the body with all the necessary amino acids, vitamins and other substances. Especially important is the presence of vegetable fiber in food, which contributes to normal digestion.

Energy intake with products should correspond to the body's costs (12000-15000 kJ per day) and depends on the nature of labor.

Carbohydrates are the main source of energy. Excess consumption of sweets and starchy foods with low physical activity leads to an increase in fat reserves. It helps to avoid overeating by following a diet, limiting the consumption of spicy and sweet foods, avoiding alcohol, and avoiding distractions while eating.

THEORY

The structure and functions of cell organelles

QUESTIONS AND TASKS

1. What is the function of carbohydrates in the cell

1) catalytic 2) energy 3) storage of hereditary information

4) participation in protein biosynthesis

1. What is the function of DNA molecules in a cell?

1) building 2) protective 3) carrier of hereditary information

4) absorption of sunlight energy

1. During biosynthesis in the cell,

1) oxidation of organic substances 2) supply of oxygen and removal of carbon dioxide

3) the formation of more complex organic in-in 4) the breakdown of starch to glucose

1. One of the tenets of the cell theory is that

1) the cells of organisms are the same in structure and function

2) plant organisms are made up of cells

3) animal organisms are made up of cells

4) all lower and higher organisms are made up of cells

1. Between concept ribosome and protein synthesis there is a certain connection. The same relationship exists between the concept cell membrane and one of the following. Find this concept.

1) transport of substances 2) ATP synthesis 3) cell division 4) fat synthesis

1. The internal environment of the cell is called

1) nucleus 2) vacuole 3) cytoplasm 4) endoplasmic reticulum

1. Located in the nucleus of the cell

1) lysosomes 2) chromosomes 3) plastids 4) mitochondria

1. What role does the nucleus play in the cell?

1) contains a supply of nutrients 2) communicates between organelles

3) promotes the entry of substances into the cell 4) ensures the similarity of the mother cell with the daughter

1. Digestion of food particles and removal of dead cells occurs in the body with the help of

1) Golgi apparatus 2) lysosomes 3) ribosomes 4) endoplasmic reticulum

1. What is the function of ribosomes in a cell?

1) synthesize carbohydrates 2) carry out protein synthesis

3) break down proteins to amino acids 4) participate in the accumulation of inorganic substances

1. In mitochondria, unlike chloroplasts,

1) synthesis of carbohydrates 2) synthesis of enzymes 3) oxidation of mineral substances

4) oxidation of organic substances

1. Mitochondria are absent in cells

1) cuckoo flax moss 2) city swallows 3) parrot fish 4) staphylococcus bacteria

1. Chloroplasts are found in cells

1) freshwater hydra 2) white fungus mycelium 3) alder stem wood 4) beet leaves

1. Cells of autotrophic organisms differ from heterotrophic cells by the presence in them of

1) plastid 2) membranes 3) vacuoles 4) chromosomes

1. Dense shell, cytoplasm, nuclear substance, ribosomes, plasma membrane have cells

1) algae 2) bacteria 3) fungi 4) animals

1. Endoplasmic reticulum in a cell

1) carries out the transport of organic substances

2) restricts the cell from the environment or other cells

3) participates in the formation of energy

4) preserves hereditary information about the signs and properties of the cell

1. Photosynthesis does not occur in fungal cells, because. they lack

1) chromosomes 2) ribosomes 3) mitochondria 4) plastids

1. They do not have a cellular structure, they are active only in the cells of other organisms

1) bacteria 2) viruses 3) algae 4) protozoa

1. In human and animal cells as an energy source are used

1) hormones and vitamins 2) water and carbon dioxide

3) inorganic substances 4) proteins, fats and carbohydrates

1. Which of the sequences of concepts reflects the body as a single system

1) Molecules - cells - tissues - organs - organ systems - organism

2) Organ systems - organs - tissues - molecules - cells - organism

3) Organ - tissues - organism - cell - molecules - organ systems

4) Molecules - tissues - cells - organs - organ systems - organism

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The cellular structure of organisms as evidence of their relationship, the unity of living nature. Most living organisms known today are made up of cells (except viruses). The cell is the elementary structural unit of the living, according to the cell theory. The distinctive properties of the living are manifested starting from the cellular level. The presence of a cellular structure in living organisms, a single DNA code containing hereditary information realized through proteins, can be considered as proof of the unity of origin of all living organisms that have a cellular structure. Plant and fungal cells have much in common: 1. The presence of a cell membrane, nucleus, cytoplasm with organelles. 2. Fundamental similarity of metabolic processes, cell division. 3. A rigid cell wall of considerable thickness, the ability to consume nutrients from the external environment by diffusion through the plasma membrane (osmosis). 4. Cells of plants and fungi are able to slightly change their shape, which allows plants to change position in space to a limited extent (leaf mosaic, sunflower orientation to the sun, twisting of legume tendrils, traps of insectivorous plants), and some fungi to capture small soil worms - nematodes in the loops of mycelium . 5. The ability of a group of cells to give rise to a new organism (vegetative reproduction).

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Differences: 1. The cell wall of plants contains cellulose, in fungi - chitin. 2. Plant cells contain chloroplasts with chlorophyll or leukoplasts, chromoplasts. Fungi do not have plastids. Accordingly, photosynthesis is carried out in plant cells - the formation of organic substances from inorganic ones, that is, an autotrophic type of nutrition is characteristic, and fungi are heterotrophs, dissimilation predominates in their metabolic processes. 3. The reserve substance in plant cells is starch, in fungi - glycogen. 4. In higher plants, cell differentiation leads to the formation of tissues; in fungi, the body is formed by filamentous rows of cells - hyphae. These and other features made it possible to single out fungi in a separate kingdom. The founders of the cell theory are the German botanist M. Schleiden and physiologist T. Schwann, in 1838–1839. who expressed the idea that the cell is the structural unit of plants and animals. Cells have a similar structure, composition, life processes. The hereditary information of cells is contained in the nucleus. Cells arise only from cells. Many cells are capable of independent existence, but in a multicellular organism their work is coordinated.

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Animal and plant cells have some differences: 1. Plant cells have a rigid cell wall of considerable thickness containing cellulose (fiber). An animal cell that does not have a cell wall has much greater mobility and is able to change shape. 2. Plant cells contain plastids: chloroplasts, leukoplasts, chromoplasts. Animals do not have plastids. The presence of chloroplasts makes photosynthesis possible. Plants are characterized by an autotrophic type of nutrition with a predominance of assimilation processes in the metabolism. Animal cells are heterotrophs, that is, they consume ready-made organic substances. 3. Vacuoles in plant cells are large, filled with cell sap containing reserve nutrients. Animals have small digestive and contractile vacuoles. 4. The reserve carbohydrate in plants is starch, in animals it is glycogen.

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Genes and chromosomes. Gene: definition and purpose A gene is a structural and functional unit of heredity in living organisms. Genes are the key to our "similarity" to our parents. Each gene contains a sample of one protein molecule and one RNA molecule (ribonucleic acid is part of the overall DNA code). This sample transmits the plan for the development of cells in all systems of the future organism. Any gene is designed to encode information. The structure of the gene and its features On each of the genes there are sections of molecules that are responsible for one or another part of the code. Their various variations give the body a program for encoding and reading its properties. In this case, it is appropriate to draw an analogy with a computer processor, in which all tasks are performed at the level of code formation and conversion. In addition, it has been established that one gene consists of many pairs of nucleotides. Depending on the task and the complexity of the transmitted information, the number of pairs varies and can range from several hundred to several thousand.

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A chromosome is a thread-like structure of the cell nucleus that carries genetic information in the form of genes, which becomes visible during cell division. The chromosome consists of two long polynucleotide chains that form a DNA molecule. The chains are spirally twisted one around the other. DNA is connected to proteins by histones. Genes are linearly arranged along the entire length of the DNA molecule. Chromosomes stain well with basic dyes during cell division. The nucleus of each human somatic cell contains 46 chromosomes, 23 of which are maternal and 23 paternal. Each chromosome can reproduce its exact copy between cell divisions, so that each new cell that forms receives a complete set of chromosomes.

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Violations in the structure and functioning of cells are one of the causes of diseases in organisms. A malignant tumor is a tumor, the properties of which most often (in contrast to the properties of a benign tumor) make it extremely dangerous for the life of the organism, which gave reason to call it "malignant". A malignant tumor is made up of malignant cells. Often, any malignant tumor is incorrectly called cancer (which is only a special case of a malignant tumor). In foreign literature, however, any malignant tumor is really called cancer. A malignant neoplasm is a disease characterized by the appearance of uncontrollably dividing cells capable of invasion into adjacent tissues and metastasis to distant organs. The disease is associated with impaired cell proliferation and differentiation due to genetic disorders.

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A common characteristic of malignant tumors is their pronounced cellular atypism (loss of cells' ability to differentiate with a violation of the structure of the tissue from which the tumor originates), aggressive growth with damage to both the organ itself and other nearby organs, a tendency to metastasize, that is, to the spread of tumor cells with the flow of lymph or blood throughout the body with the formation of new foci of tumor growth in many organs remote from the primary focus. In terms of growth rates, most malignant tumors are superior to benign ones and, as a rule, can reach significant sizes in a short time. There is also a type of malignant locally destructive tumors that grow with the formation of an infiltrate in the thickness of the tissue, leading to its destruction, but, as a rule, do not metastasize (basalioma of the skin). At the moment, a large number of factors are known that can trigger the mechanisms of carcinogenesis (substances or environmental factors that have this property are called carcinogens). Chemical carcinogens - these include various groups of polycyclic and heterocyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, aromatic amines, nitroso compounds, aflatoxins, others (vinyl chloride, metals, plastics, some fine-fiber silicates, etc.). Their common characteristic is the ability to react with the DNA of cells, thereby causing their malignant transformation.

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Carcinogens of physical nature: various types of ionizing radiation (α, β, γ radiation, x-ray radiation, neutron radiation, proton radiation, cluster radioactivity, ion fluxes, fission fragments), ultraviolet radiation, microwave radiation [source not specified 563 days], asbestos . Biological factors of carcinogenesis: various types of viruses (Epstein-Barr herpes-like virus (Burkitt's lymphoma), human papillomavirus (cervical cancer), hepatitis B and C viruses (liver cancer)), carrying specific oncogenes in their structure that contribute to the modification of the genetic material of the cell with its subsequent malignancy. Hormonal factors - some types of human hormones (sex hormones) can cause malignant degeneration of tissues sensitive to the action of these hormones (breast cancer, testicular cancer, prostate cancer). genetic factors. One of the conditions that can trigger the development of the disease is Barrett's esophagus. In general, acting on a cell, carcinogens cause certain violations of its structure and function (especially DNA), which is called initiation. The damaged cell thus acquires a pronounced potential for malignancy. Repeated exposure to a carcinogen (the same one that caused the initiation, or any other) leads to irreversible disruption of the mechanisms that control cell division, growth and differentiation, as a result of which the cell acquires a number of abilities that are not characteristic of normal body cells - promotion. In particular, tumor cells acquire the ability to divide uncontrollably, lose their tissue-specific structure and functional activity, change their antigenic composition, etc. Tumor growth (tumor progression) is characterized by a gradual decrease in differentiation and an increase in the ability to divide uncontrollably, as well as a change in the relationship between the tumor cell and the organism. leading to the formation of metastases. Metastasis occurs predominantly by the lymphogenous route (that is, with lymph flow) to regional lymph nodes, or by the hematogenous route (with blood flow) with the formation of metastases in various organs (lungs, liver, bones, etc.).

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The sizes of viruses are from 20 to 300 nm. Simple viruses (for example, tobacco mosaic virus) consist of a nucleic acid molecule and a protein shell - a capsid. More complex viruses (influenza, herpes, etc.), in addition to capsid proteins and nucleic acids, may contain a lipoprotein membrane, carbohydrates, and a number of enzymes. Proteins protect the nucleic acid and determine the enzymatic and antigenic properties of viruses. The shape of the capsid can be rod-shaped, filamentous, spherical, etc. Depending on the nucleic acid present in the virus, RNA-containing and DNA-containing viruses are distinguished. Nucleic acid contains genetic information, usually about the structure of the proteins of the capsid. It can be linear or circular, in the form of single or double stranded DNA, single or double stranded RNA.

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Questions: 1. In which area of ​​biology was the cell theory developed? 1) Virology 2) Cytology 3) Anatomy 4) Embryology 2. In what area of ​​biology did T. Schwann make his discoveries? 1) Cytology 2) anatomy 3) psychology 4) genetics 3. What science studies the chemical composition, structure and life processes of a cell? 1) Physiology 2) histology 3) embryology 4) cytology 4. In what area of ​​biology did M. Schleiden make his discoveries? 1) Cytology 2) anatomy 3) psychology 4) medicine 5. The role of cell theory in science is 1) discovery of the cell nucleus 2) elucidation of the mechanisms of cell division 3) discovery of the cell 4) generalization of knowledge about the structure of organisms 6. The first description of the cell was given by 1 ) A. Leeuwenhoek 2) R. Hooke 3) T. Schwann 4) M. Schleiden 7. How is one of the provisions of the cell theory formulated? 1) the cells of the body perform similar functions 2) the cells of organisms differ from each other in size 3) the cells of different organisms are similar in structure 4) the cells of unicellular and multicellular organisms have a different composition of chemical elements

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8. What science studies the structure and functions of cell organelles? 1) cytology 2) physiology 3) anatomy 4) genetics The essence of the cell theory is reflected in the following position: 1) viruses are the smallest cellular organisms that live on Earth 2) cells of all organisms perform similar functions 3) all cells have a nucleus 4) multicellular organisms develop from one original cell 11. The role of cell theory in biological science lies in 1) the fact that scientists began to actively use the microscope in their research 2) elucidation of the mechanisms of cell division 3) generalization of knowledge about the unity of the structure of organisms 4) the discovery of the cell itself 12. According to the theory of Schwann and Schleiden, the elementary unit of life is 1) Cell 2 ) DNA molecule 3) tissue 4) organism

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13. Set the chronological sequence of the emergence of scientific theories and discoveries in biology. Write down the corresponding sequence of numbers in your answer. 1) the evolutionary teachings of Ch. Darwin 2) the cellular theory of T. Schwann and M. Schleiden 3) the establishment of the structure of the DNA molecule by J. Watson and F. Crick 4) the theory of conditioned reflexes by I.P. Pavlova 14. Bacteriophages are classified as 1) Eukaryotes 2) protozoa 3) prokaryotes 4) viruses 15. The causative agent of what disease does not have a cellular structure? 1) tubercle bacillus 2) vibrio cholerae 3) measles virus 4) E. coli 16. The emergence of cell theory in the middle of the 19th century. associated with the development of 1) Genetics 2) medicine 3) microscopy 4) evolutionary theory 17. What is the causative agent of influenza? 1) Virus 2) fungus 3) bacteria 4) protozoa

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18. A representative of which group of organisms is shown in the figure? 1) Protozoa 2) unicellular algae 3) unicellular fungi 4) viruses organisms are similar in their functions 2) the cells of all organisms have a nucleus 3) all organisms consist of cells 4) only animals and plants consist of cells 21. Which of the scientists first discovered cells in a cork section and first used the term "cell"? 1) R. Hook 2) I.P. Pavlov 3) G. Mendel 4) N.I. Vavilov 22. The role of cell theory in science is 1) discovery of the cell nucleus 2) elucidation of the mechanisms of cell division 3) discovery of the cell 4) generalization of knowledge about the structure of organisms 23. The first description of the cell was given by 1) A. Leeuwenhoek 2) R. Hooke 3) T. Schwann 4) M. Schleiden 24. Any living cell of the body has the ability to 1) independent movement 2) the formation of gametes 3) the conduction of a nerve impulse 4) metabolism

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25.Cell theory is of fundamental importance for understanding 1) the processes of respiration and nutrition 2) the circulation of substances in the biosphere 3) the general principles of building bodies of living nature 4) the adaptability of organisms to the environment animals and plants 2) cells of all organisms are similar in their functions 3) all organisms consist of cells 4) cells of all organisms have a nucleus 27. The virus that causes 1) AIDS 2) chickenpox 3) whooping cough 4) influenza 28 irreversibly suppresses the human immune system. Pre-cellular forms of life include 1) Yeast 2) penicillium 3) Vibrio cholerae 4) influenza virus theory is the following: 1) a cell is an elementary unit of heredity 2) a cell is a unit of reproduction and development 3) all cells are different in their structure 4) all cells have a different chemical composition 31. What theory summarized the knowledge about the similarity of the chemical composition, structure and vital activity of all living bodies on Earth? 1) Molecular 2) reflex 3) cellular 4) evolutionary

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32. Shows the properties of living systems only in a foreign organism 1) tuberculosis bacillus 2) taiga tick 3) smallpox virus 4) liver fluke 33. The creators of the cell theory T. Schwann, M. Schleiden 1) discovered the cellular structure of organisms 2) proved the unity of living and inanimate nature 3) described the structure of cell organelles 4) summarized data on the cellular structure of organisms 33. One of the provisions of the cell theory is that 1) plant organisms consist of cells 2) animal organisms consist of cells 3) all lower and higher organisms consist from cells 4) the cells of organisms are the same in their structure and functions 34. They have a non-cellular structure, they show vital activity only in the cells of other organisms 1) bacteria 2) viruses 3) algae 4) protozoa 35. Viruses use 1) their own energy to reproduce 2 ) energy of light 3) energy of inorganic substances 4) energy of substances of host cells 36. How is one of the provisions of the cell theory formulated? 1) the cells of the body perform similar functions 2) the cells of organisms differ from each other in size 3) the cells of different organisms are similar in structure 4) the cells of unicellular and multicellular organisms have a different composition of chemical elements

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41. GENES AND CHROMOSOMES Cells of living organisms contain genetic material in the form of giant molecules called nucleic acids. With their help, genetic information is passed from generation to generation. In addition, they regulate most cellular processes by controlling protein synthesis. There are two types of nucleic acids: DNA and RNA. They consist of nucleotides, the alternation of which allows you to encode hereditary information about a wide variety of features of organisms of different species. DNA is "packed" into chromosomes. It carries information about the structure of all proteins that function in the cell. RNA controls the processes that translate the genetic code of DNA, which is a specific sequence of nucleotides, into proteins. A gene is a section of a DNA molecule that codes for one specific protein. Hereditary changes in genes, expressed in the replacement, loss or rearrangement of nucleotides, are called gene mutations. As a result of mutations, both beneficial and harmful changes in the traits of an organism can occur. Chromosomes are thread-like structures found in the nuclei of all cells. They are made up of a DNA molecule and a protein. Each type of organism has its own specific number and shape of chromosomes. The set of chromosomes characteristic of a particular species is called a karyotype. Studies of the karyotypes of various organisms have shown that their cells may contain double and single sets of chromosomes. A double set of chromosomes always consists of paired chromosomes, identical in size, shape and nature of hereditary information. Paired chromosomes are called homologous. So, all non-sex human cells contain 23 pairs of chromosomes, i.e. 46 chromosomes are presented as 23 pairs. Some cells may have a single set of chromosomes. For example, in the germ cells of animals, there are no paired chromosomes, there are no homologous chromosomes, but there are non-homologous ones. Each chromosome contains thousands of genes, it stores a certain part of hereditary information. Mutations that change the structure of a chromosome are called chromosomal mutations. Incorrect divergence of chromosomes during the formation of germ cells can lead to serious hereditary diseases. So, for example, as a result of such a genomic mutation as the appearance in each human cell of 47 chromosomes instead of 46, Down's disease occurs. Using the content of the text "Genes and Chromosomes", answer the questions. 1) What functions does the chromosome perform? 2) What is a gene? 3) Drosophila karyotype has 8 chromosomes. How many chromosomes are in the sex cells and how many are in the non-sex cells?

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42. PROKARYOTES AND EUKARYOTES Thanks to the electron microscope, it was possible to identify the main differences between the cells of prokaryotic organisms, which include bacteria and blue-green algae, and eukaryotic ones, which include representatives of other kingdoms of the organic world - plants, fungi, animals. Scientists believe that eukaryotic organisms arose later than prokaryotic ones. Bacteria and blue-green algae have all the properties of living beings. However, there are significant differences in the structure of these cells. The main one is the absence of a nucleus in prokaryotic cells. Their only DNA molecule is closed in a ring and is located in the nuclear (nuclear) region. The chromosomes of eukaryotic cells are located in the nucleus of the cell. Their combination forms the karyotype of the organism. In addition, in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells there are organelles: the endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondria, lysosomes and the Golgi apparatus. In plant cells, in addition, there are plastids and vacuoles filled with cell sap. Prokaryotic cells are surrounded by a cell wall, which includes the substance murein, under which there is a cell membrane. The cytoplasm of these cells contains small ribosomes. They have no other organelles. There is another difference between these types of cells - this is the way they reproduce. Bacterial cells simply divide in half. Before dividing, bacterial DNA doubles and the cell membrane grows between the two molecules. Eukaryotic cells divide by mitosis. After the uniform distribution of chromosomes, the formation of new nuclei and the division of the cytoplasm occur. Using the content of the text "Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes", answer the following questions. 1) What substance is included in the cell wall of a prokaryotic cell? 2) Suggest a synonym for the term "eukaryotic cell". 3) What happens during cell division?

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43. FEATURES OF A PLANT CELL A plant cell has all the organelles that are also characteristic of an animal cell: the nucleus, the endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes, mitochondria, the Golgi apparatus. However, it has significant structural features. First of all, it is a strong cell wall of considerable thickness. A plant cell, like an animal cell, is surrounded by a plasma membrane, but in addition to it, it is limited by a thick cell wall consisting of cellulose, which animals do not have. The cell wall has pores through which the channels of the endoplasmic reticulum of neighboring cells communicate with each other. Another feature of the plant cell is the presence of special organelles - plastids, where the primary synthesis of carbohydrates from inorganic substances occurs, as well as the conversion of carbohydrate monomers into starch. These are special two-membrane organelles that have their own hereditary apparatus and reproduce independently. There are three types of plastids, depending on the color. In green plastids - chloroplasts - the process of photosynthesis takes place. In colorless plastids - leukoplasts - starch is synthesized from glucose, and fats and proteins are also stored. In plastids of yellow, orange and red colors - chromoplasts - metabolic products accumulate. Thanks to plastids, in the metabolism of a plant cell, synthetic processes prevail over the processes of energy release. The third difference of the plant cell can be considered a developed network of vacuoles developing from the cisterns of the endoplasmic reticulum. Vacuoles are cavities surrounded by a membrane and filled with cell sap. It contains dissolved proteins, carbohydrates, vitamins, various salts. The osmotic pressure created in the vacuoles by dissolved substances leads to the fact that water enters the cell and tension of the cell wall is created - turgor. Turgor and thick elastic membranes of cells determine the strength of plants. Using the content of the text "Features of the plant cell", answer the following questions. 1) What is the cell wall of a plant cell? 2) What role do plastids play in the cell? 3) Why is a plant cell classified as a eukaryotic cell?

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3. In the table below, there is a relationship between the positions of the first and second columns. What concept should be entered in place of the gap in this table? cell center 2) mitochondria 3) ribosome 4) vacuole 4. In the table below, there is a relationship between the positions of the first and second columns. What concept should be entered in place of the gap in this table? 1) Gamete 2) cyst 3) spore 4) kidney Object Process Nucleus Information storage ... Cell division Object Process Zygote Cleavage ... Formation of outgrowth

CONTROL OF KNOWLEDGE ON THE RESULTS OF THE 1st HALF-YEAR

Class:ninth

Subject:biology

Program:I.N.Ponomareva (linear course)

Part 1. In the given tasks, choose ONE correct answer

1. Anya has an e-book "Atlas of the Human Body". What information from the above will she be able to find in it?

1) a diagram of the structure of the human skeleton

2) description of the work of the human heart

3) statistics of human diseases

4) deciphering the human genetic code.

2. Borya has a printed book "Key to Wild Plants". What information from the given will he exactly find in it?

1) list of endangered plants

2) descriptions and images of plants

3) methods of care and reproduction of plants

4) schemes of food chains and networks of natural ecosystems

3. Proof of the relationship of all living organisms is the presence in their cells:

1) cytoplasm

2) cell sap

3) lymph

4) tissue fluid

4. Proof of the relationship of all living organisms is the presence in their cells:

1) Golgi apparatus

2) genetic apparatus

3) cores

4) mitochondria

5. Which of the listed cultivated plants of the Grass family has a raceme inflorescence?

1) wheat

2) rye

3) barley

4) oats

6. What organ is NOT part of the plant shoot?

1) stem

2) sheet

3) kidney

4) root

7. The flower of a wind-pollinated plant, compared to the flower of a plant pollinated by animals, usually has:

1) larger size

2) not bright perianth

3) pronounced aroma

4) nectaries

8. Which of the following signs does NOT apply to the description of the lancelet?

1) the mouth is surrounded by tentacles

2) respiratory organ - gills

3) axial skeleton - chord

4) two circles of blood circulation

9. What class of type Arthropods does the scorpion belong to?

1) Shellfish

2) Arachnids

3) Insects

4) Crab

10. Which of the structural features of the human skull is associated with the presence of speech?

1) low forehead

2) developed supraorbital ridges

3) flat nose

4) protruding chin

11. The muscle is attached to the bone with the help

1) cartilage

2) ligaments

3) tendons

4) joints

12. For the formation of what kind of immunity is the measles vaccine administered to children?

1) natural acquired

2) natural congenital

3) artificial active

4) artificial passive

13. What tissue forms the outer layer of human skin, consisting of living and dead cells?

1) connecting

2) muscular

3) nervous

4) epithelial

14. Which of the following can serve as a prevention of flat feet?

1) staying on your feet for a long time

2) wearing tight shoes

3) regularly lifting heavy objects

4) walking barefoot on uneven ground

15. The normal pulse of a person aged 10-15 at rest is on average

1) 45-60 beats per minute

2) 65-75 beats per minute

3) 80-95 beats per minute

4) 100-120 beats per minute

16. HIV infection CANNOT be contracted

1) during sexual contact

2) during blood transfusion

3) through the clothes of a sick person

4) from mother to child

17. What role do decay bacteria living in the soil play in the Earth's biosphere?

1) form organic substances from inorganic

2) feed on organic matter of living organisms

3) contribute to the neutralization of poisons in the soil

4) decompose the dead remains of plants and animals to humus

18. The type of relationship in which organisms of one species live at the expense of nutrients or tissues of the organism of another species, without leading to its death, is called

1) symbiosis

3) freeloading

4) predation

19. The flowering of insects during evolution coincided with the flowering

1) algae

2) ferns

3) angiosperms

20. Which of the listed groups of plants in the course of evolution was the first to cease to depend on water during fertilization?

1) Angiosperms

2) Ferns

4) Mosses

Part 2. Choose 3 correct answers in the presented tasks and write them down in the correct sequence.

21. Which of the following tissues are classified as connective?

1) blood

2) cambium

3) bone

4) glandular

5) peel

6) lymph

22. Which of the following organisms is characterized by a heterotrophic type of nutrition?

1) chlamydomonas

2) fly agaric

3) cuckoo flax

4) cuckoo

5) earthworm

6) onion

23. How are mammals different from reptiles?

1) covered with hair

2) have pulmonary breathing

3) have an internal bone skeleton

4) maintain a constant body temperature

5) occupy ground-air and aquatic habitats

6) most have a uterus

24. Common raspberry is grown in gardens as a berry bush with tasty and healing fruits. Choose 3 statements related to the description given.

1) Throughout life, raspberries bloom.

2) For the formation of fruits, the plant needs pollination.

3) Raspberries can be found in forests.

4) Raspberry cross-pollination by insects.

5) Raspberries can be used for medicinal purposes.

6) Raspberry leaves have reticulate venation.

25. Gerbils are mammals of the order Rodents, the size of a house mouse, eating plant foods and living in colonies in burrows. Choose 3 statements related to the description given.

1) Does not hibernate.

2) In nature, it lives in deserts and semi-deserts.

3) Feeds the cubs with milk.

4) It has well-developed vibrissae - sensitive hairs on the muzzle.

5) Has one pair of enlarged incisors on each jaw.

6) It is an object of prey for small predators.

KEY TO PART 1

KEY TO PART 2

In compiling this work, the material of the OGE collection was used. Biology: typical examination options: 30 options / ed. V.S. Rokhlov. - M.: Publishing house "National education", 2018 (OGE. FIPI - school)

The commonality of man and vertebrates is confirmed by the common plan of their structure: the skeleton, the nervous system, the circulatory, respiratory, and digestive systems. The relationship between man and animals is especially convincing when comparing their embryonic development. In its early stages, the human embryo is difficult to distinguish from the embryos of other vertebrates. At the age of 1.5 - 3 months, he has gill slits, and the spine ends in a tail. For a very long time, the similarity of human embryos and monkeys remains. Specific (species) human features appear only at the latest stages of development.

Similarities between humans and animals

Rudiments and atavisms. Rudiments- organs that have lost their significance. Atavisms -"return to the ancestors". Rudiments and atavisms serve as important evidence of the kinship of man with animals. There are about 90 rudiments in the human body: coccygeal bone (remainder of a reduced tail); crease in the corner of the eye (remnant of the nictitating membrane); thin hair on the body (the rest of the wool); a process of the caecum - an appendix, etc. All these rudiments are useless for humans and are a legacy of animal ancestors. Atavisms (unusually highly developed rudiments) include an external tail, with which people are very rarely born; abundant hair on the face and body; polynipple, strongly developed fangs, etc.

The commonality of the structural plan, the similarity of embryonic development, rudiments, atavisms are indisputable evidence of the animal origin of man and evidence that man, like animals, is the result of a long historical development of the organic world.

The difference between man and animals

However, there are fundamental differences between humans and great apes. True upright walking and the associated structural features of the S-shaped spine with distinct cervical and lumbar curves, a low expanded pelvis, a chest flattened in the anteroposterior direction, the proportions of the limbs (elongation of the legs compared to the arms), an arched foot with a massive and adducted thumb, as well as the features of the muscles and the location of the internal organs. The human hand is capable of performing a wide variety of high-precision movements. The human skull is taller and more rounded, without continuous brow ridges; the brain part of the skull to a greater extent predominates over the facial part, the forehead is high, the jaws are weak, with small fangs, the chin protrusion is distinctly expressed. The human brain is approximately 2.5 times larger than the brain of great apes in terms of volume, 3-4 times in mass. A person has a highly developed cerebral cortex, in which the most important centers of the psyche and speech are located. Only a person has articulate speech, in this regard, he is characterized by the development of the frontal and parietal and temporal lobes of the brain, the presence of a special head muscle in the larynx and other anatomical features.

Man differs from animals in the presence of speech, developed thinking, and the ability to work. The decisive step on the way from monkeys to humans was bipedalism.

Primate evolution

Placental mammals arose at the very end of the Mesozoic era. A detachment of primates separated from primitive insectivorous mammals in the Cenozoic era. In the Paleogene, they lived in forests lemurs and tarsiers - tailed animals of small size. About 30 million years ago, small animals appeared that lived on trees and fed on plants and insects. Their jaws and teeth were the same as those of great apes. From them came gibbons, orangutans and subsequently extinct tree monkeys - dryopithecus. Dryopithecus gave three branches, which led to chimpanzee, gorilla and man.

The origin of man from monkeys leading an arboreal lifestyle predetermined the features of his structure, which in turn were the anatomical basis of his ability to work and further social evolution. For animals living on tree branches, climbing and jumping with the help of grasping movements, an appropriate structure of organs is necessary: ​​the first finger is opposed to the others in the hand, the shoulder girdle develops, allowing movements with a span of 180 *, the chest becomes wide and thickened in the dorsal-abdominal direction. It should be noted that in terrestrial animals the chest is laterally flattened, and the limbs can move only in the anteroposterior direction and are almost never retracted to the side. The clavicle is preserved in primates, bats, but does not develop in fast-running land animals. "Movement on trees in a variety of directions with varying speed, with a continuously re-emerging distance, a new orientation and a new sight before the jump led to an extremely high development of the motor parts of the brain. The need to accurately determine the distance when jumping led to the convergence of the eye sockets in the same plane and the appearance of binocular vision At the same time, life on the trees contributed to the limitation of fertility.The decrease in the number of offspring was compensated by careful care for him, and life in the herd provided protection from enemies.

In the second half of the Paleogene, in connection with the beginning of mountain-building processes, a cooling set in. Tropical and subtropical forests have receded to the south, and vast open spaces have appeared. At the end of the Paleogene, glaciers sliding down from the Scandinavian mountains penetrated far to the south. The monkeys, who did not retreat to the equator along with the tropical forests and switched to life on earth, had to adapt to the new harsh conditions and wage a difficult struggle for existence.

Defenseless against predators, unable to run fast - overtake prey or escape from enemies, deprived of thick wool that helps to keep warm, they could only survive thanks to a herd lifestyle and the use of hands freed from immobility.

9. Stages of human evolution:

Dryopithecus and tree monkeys, an extinct branch of primates, gave rise to modern chimpanzees, gorillas and humans. Climbing trees contributed to the opposition of the thumb, the development of the shoulder girdle, the development of the motor parts of the brain, binocular vision.

Australopithecus are ape-like animals. They lived in herds about 10 million years ago, walked on two legs, had a brain mass of 550 g and a weight of 20-50 kg. For protection and getting food, Australopithecus used stones, animal bones, i.e. had good motor coordination.

Their remains have been found in South Africa.

A skilled man - closer to a man than Australopithecus, had a brain mass of about 650 g, they knew how to process pebbles in order to make tools. They lived about 2-3 million years ago.

The oldest people arose about 1 million years ago. Several forms are known: Pithecanthropus, Sinanthropus, Heidelburg man, etc. They had powerful supraorbital ridges, a low sloping forehead and no chin protrusion. The mass of the brain reached 800-1000 g. They could use fire.

Ancient people - Neanderthals. These include people who appeared about 200 thousand years ago. The mass of the brain reached 1500 g. Neanderthals knew how to make fire and use it for cooking, used stone and bone tools, had a rudimentary, articulate speech. Their remains have been found in Europe, Africa and Asia.

Modern people are Cro-Magnons. Appeared about 40 thousand years ago. The volume of their cranium is 1600 g. There was no continuous supraorbital ridge. A developed chin protrusion indicates the development of articulate speech.

Anthropogenesis

Anthropogenesis(from Greek. anthropos- man and genesis- origin) - the process of historical and evolutionary formation of man. Anthropogenesis is carried out under the influence biological and social factors. Thanks to them, a person has: curves of the spine, a high arch of the foot, an expanded pelvis, a strong sacrum. The social factors of evolution include labor and social lifestyle. The development of labor activity reduced man's dependence on the surrounding nature, broadened his horizons and led to a weakening of the action of biological laws. The main feature of human labor activity is the ability to make tools and use them to achieve their goals. The human hand is not only an organ of labor, but also its product.

The development of speech led to the emergence of abstract thinking, speech. If the morphological and physiological characteristics of a person are inherited, then the abilities for collective work, thinking and speech are not inherited. These specific qualities of a person historically arose and improved under the influence of social factors and develop in everyone, a person only in society, thanks to education and training.