Elementary perseverations are a characteristic feature. What is perseveration? The concept of perseveration in speech therapy and psychology

perseveration

(from lat. perseveratio - perseverance) - cyclic or persistent reproduction, often contrary to conscious intention, of any action, thought or experience. P. is distinguished in the motor, emotional, sensory-perceptual (see) and intellectual spheres. A tendency to P. is often observed in the clinic of local brain lesions, with speech, motor and emotional disorders; Items are also possible with distraction or states of acute overwork (see). It is assumed that P. is based on the processes of cyclic excitation of neural structures associated with a delay in the signal to terminate the action.

Brief psychological dictionary. - Rostov-on-Don: PHOENIX. L.A. Karpenko, A.V. Petrovsky, M. G. Yaroshevsky. 1998 .

perseveration

An involuntary, obtrusively repetitive cyclical repetition or persistent reproduction of some action, movement, idea, idea of ​​thought or experience, often contrary to conscious intention. The tendency of replayed performances to return.

There are motor, emotional, sensory and intellectual perseverations - in the spheres of motor, emotional, sensory-perceptual and intellectual, respectively.

A tendency to perseveration is often observed in the clinic of local lesions of the brain, with speech, motor and emotional disorders; perseveration is also possible with distraction or in states of acute overwork ( cm. ).

It is assumed that perseveration is based on the processes of cyclic excitation of neural structures associated with a delay in the signal to terminate the action.

Dictionary of practical psychologist. - M.: AST, Harvest. S. Yu. Golovin. 1998 .

perseveration Etymology.

Comes from lat. regseveratio - perseverance.

clinical disorder.

Obsessive reproduction of the same movements, thoughts, ideas.

motor perseveration,

sensory perseverations,

Intellectual perseverations.

Psychological Dictionary. THEM. Kondakov. 2000 .

PERSEVERATION

(from lat. perseveratio- perseverance) - obsessive repetition of the same movements, images, thoughts. There are motor, sensory and intellectual P.

Motor P. occur when the anterior parts of the cerebral hemispheres are affected brain and are manifested either in the repeated repetition of individual elements of movement (for example, when writing letters or when drawing); this form of P. occurs when the premotor parts of the cerebral cortex and underlying subcortical structures are affected and is called "elementary" motor P. (according to the classification BUT.R.Luria, 1962); or in the repeated repetition of entire programs of movements (for example, in the repetition of the movements necessary for drawing, instead of the movements of writing); this form of P. is observed with damage to the prefrontal sections cerebral cortex and called "systemic" motor P. A special form of motor P. is motor speech P., which arise as one of the manifestations of the efferent motor aphasia in the form of multiple repetitions of the same syllable, words in speech and writing. This form of motor P. occurs when the lower parts of the premotor cortex of the left hemisphere are damaged (in right-handers).

Touch P. arise when the cortical sections of the analyzers are damaged and manifest themselves in the form of an obsessive repetition of sound, tactile or visual images, an increase in the duration of the aftereffect of the corresponding stimuli.

intellectual P. arise when the cortex of the frontal lobes of the brain (usually the left hemisphere) is damaged and manifest itself in the form of a repetition of inadequate stereotyped intellectual operations. Intellectual P., as a rule, appear when performing serial intellectual actions, for example. with arithmetic counting (subtract 7 from 100 until there is nothing left, etc.), when performing a series of tasks on analogies, classification of objects, etc., and reflect violations of control over intellectual activity, its programming, characteristic of "frontal" patients. Intellectual P. are also characteristic of mentally retarded children as a manifestation inertia nervous processes in the intellectual sphere. See also about persevering images in the article . (E. D. Khomskaya.)

Big psychological dictionary. - M.: Prime-EVROZNAK. Ed. B.G. Meshcheryakova, acad. V.P. Zinchenko. 2003 .

perseveration

   PERSEVERATION (With. 442) (from Latin perseveratio - perseverance) - a compulsive repetition of a sensation, action, thought or experience. The term was proposed in 1894 by A. Neisser, although Aristotle pointed to the phenomena he denoted.

Phenomena of perseveration sometimes occur within the framework of a normal psyche, for example, during overwork. In young children, due to the inertness of nervous processes (preservation of excitation after the cessation of the stimulus), individual manifestations of perseveration also do not act as symptoms of pathology (the child often requires repeated repetition of the action he likes, etc.). Perseveration, however, can be one of the manifestations of speech, motor and emotional disorders, in particular with brain damage, as well as with severe mental retardation (in the form of monotonous movements and actions, repetition of words, etc.).

Popular psychological encyclopedia. - M.: Eksmo. S.S. Stepanov. 2005 .

See what "perseveration" is in other dictionaries:

perseveration- perseverance, repetition Dictionary of Russian synonyms. noun perseveration, number of synonyms: 2 repetition (73) ... Synonym dictionary

PERSEVERATION- (from Latin perseveratio perseverance) a stereotyped repetition in a person of any mental image, action, statement or state. It is observed, for example, with severe fatigue; may be a manifestation of a disease of the central nervous system ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

perseveration- (from lat. regseveratio perseverance) obsessive reproduction of the same movements, thoughts, ideas. Allocate motor, sensory and intellectual perseverations ... Psychological Dictionary

PERSEVERATION- (from Latin perseverantia - perseverance) perseverance, especially the persistent return of a representation that is in the mind, for example. constant recall of the melody. Philosophical encyclopedic dictionary. 2010 ... Philosophical Encyclopedia

PERSEVERATION- [it. Perseveration Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language

PERSEVERATION- (from lat. persevera tio perseverance, perseverance) eng. perseveration; German Perseveration. Cyclic repetition or persistent reproduction, often contrary to conscious intention, to. l. actions, thoughts or feelings. Antinazi. Encyclopedia ... ... Encyclopedia of Sociology

PERSEVERATION- PERSEVERATION, the inclination of certain ideas, movements, actions, etc. to regain consciousness. Each idea that has entered consciousness tends to reappear in consciousness (associations) and the more intense, the less ... ... Big Medical Encyclopedia

perseveration- (from Latin perseveratio perseverance), a stereotyped repetition in a person of any mental image, action, statement or state. It is observed, for example, with severe fatigue; may be a manifestation of a disease of the central nervous system ... ... encyclopedic Dictionary

perseveration- (lat. persevērātiō perseverance, perseverance) a steady repetition of a phrase, activity, emotion, sensation (depending on this, perseveration of thinking, motor, emotional, sensory perseverations are distinguished). For example ... Wikipedia

perseveration- a disorder of thinking, in which the formation of new associations is significantly (maximally) difficult due to the long-term dominance of one thought, representation. * * * (lat. persevero - hold on stubbornly, continue) 1. term C Neisser ... ... Encyclopedic Dictionary of Psychology and Pedagogy

Perseveration is a stable reproduction of any statement, activity, emotional reaction, sensation. From here, motor, sensory, intellectual and emotional perseverations are distinguished. The concept of perseveration, in other words, is a "stuck" in the human mind of a certain thought, a simple idea, or their repeated and monotonous reproduction as an answer to the previous last interrogative statement (intellectual perseveration). There are spontaneous and repeated repetitions of what has already been said, perfect, often denoted by the term iterations, and reproductions of the experienced, denoted by the term echomnesia.

What is perseveration

Perseveration is considered a very unpleasant manifestation of obsessive behavior. A characteristic feature is the reproduction of a certain physical action, phoneme, representation, phrase.

A typical example is a song that gets stuck in the head for a long time. Many subjects noticed that individual word forms or a melody were repeated aloud over a certain period. Such a phenomenon, of course, is a weak analogy of the considered deviation, but the meaning of perseverative manifestations is precisely this.

Individuals suffering from this disorder have absolutely no control over their own person at such moments. The importunate repetition appears absolutely spontaneously and also suddenly stops.

The deviation in question is found in the stable reproduction of an idea, manipulation, experience, phrase or representation. Such a repetition often develops into an obsessive uncontrollable form, the individual himself may not even detect what is happening to him. Thus, the concept of perseveration is a phenomenon caused by a psychological disorder, a mental disorder, or a neuropathological disorder of the behavioral and speech of an individual.

Such behavior is also possible with severe overwork or distraction, not only with mental ailments or neurological abnormalities. It is believed that the basis of perseveration is the processes of repeated excitation of neuronal elements, due to the delay in the signal about the end of the action.

The violation in question is often mistaken for a stereotype, however, despite the general tendency of a compulsive repetition, perseveration differs in that it is the result of associative activity and a structural component. Subjects suffering from perseveration undergo therapy with healers who first help to identify the root cause, after which they carry out a set of measures aimed at eliminating the reproducible thought, phrase, repetitive action from the daily life of this subject.

In order to prevent the formation of the described syndrome in adults, parents should carefully monitor the behavioral response of the baby for signs of perseveration. The following “attributes” of the violation in question can be distinguished: regular repetition of a crumb of one phrase that does not correspond to the topic of the conversation, characteristic actions (a baby, for example, can constantly touch a certain area on the body in the absence of physiological prerequisites), constant drawing of the same objects.

In the childhood period, there are specific manifestations of perseverations due to the peculiarities of the psychology of babies, their physiology, and the active change in life orientations and values ​​of crumbs at different stages of growing up. This gives rise to certain difficulties in differentiating the symptoms of perseveration from the conscious actions of the baby. In addition, manifestations of perseveration can camouflage more serious mental disorders.

For the sake of earlier detection of possible mental disorders in a child, one should carefully monitor the manifestations of perseverative symptoms, namely:

- systematic reproduction of one statement, regardless of the circumstances and the question asked;

- the presence of certain operations that are repeated invariably: touching a certain part of the body, scratching, narrowly focused activities;

- repeated drawing of one object, writing a word;

- invariably repeated requests, the need to fulfill which is very doubtful within the boundaries of specific situational conditions.

Reasons for perseveration

This disorder often arises as a result of physical effects on the brain. In addition, the individual has difficulty switching attention.

The main reasons for the neurological orientation of the described syndrome are:

- transferred localized brain lesions, resembling a lesion in aphasia (a disease in which the individual cannot pronounce verbal structures correctly);

- obsessive reproduction of actions and phrases appears as a result of aphasia that has already arisen;

- craniocerebral injury with lesions of the lateral segments of the cortex or the anterior zone, where the prefrontal bulge is located.

In addition to neurological causes associated with brain damage, there are psychological factors that contribute to the development of perseveration.

The persistence of the reproduction of phrases, manipulations arises as a result of stressors that affect subjects for a long time. This phenomenon is often accompanied by phobias, when a protective mechanism is activated by reproducing operations of the same type that give the individual a sense of security and reassurance.

If the presence is suspected, an overly scrupulous selectivity in the commission of certain actions or interests is also noted.

The described phenomenon is often found in hyperactivity, if the baby believes that he does not receive the proper, in his opinion, a fraction of attention. In this case, perseveration also acts as a component of protection, which compensates for the lack of third-party attention in the child. By such behavior, the baby seeks to attract attention to his own actions or himself.

Often considered a phenomenon manifests itself in scientists. constantly studying something new, striving to learn something important, and therefore gets hung up on a certain trifle, statement or action. Often the described behavior characterizes such an individual as a stubborn and persistent person, but sometimes such actions are interpreted as a deviation.

Intrusive repetition can often be a symptom, expressed in following a certain idea, which forces the individual to constantly perform specific actions (), or in the persistence of some thought (). Such a steady repetition can be seen when the subject washes his hands often unnecessarily.

Perseveration must be distinguished from other ailments or stereotypes. Phrases or actions of a repetitive nature are often a manifestation of an established habit, sclerosis, subjective intrusive phenomena, in which patients understand the strangeness, absurdity and meaninglessness of their own behavioral patterns. In turn, when persevering, individuals do not realize the abnormality of their own actions.

If an individual develops signs of perseveration, but at the same time there was no history of stress or trauma of the skull, this often indicates the occurrence of both psychological and mental variations of the disorder.

Types of perseveration

Based on the nature of the violation in question, there are, as already listed above, such variations of it: thinking perseveration, speech perseveration and motor perseveration.

The first type of the described deviation is distinguished by the "looping" of the individual on a certain thought or idea that arises in the course of communicative verbal interaction. A perseverative phrase can often be used by an individual to answer the above questions, while not having any relation to the meaning of the interrogative statement. Jamming in one view is expressed in the stable reproduction of a certain word or phrase. More often this is the correct response to the first interrogative sentence. The patient gives the primary answer to further questions. Steady efforts to return to the subject of conversation, which has not been discussed for a long time, are considered characteristic manifestations of perseveration of thinking.

A similar condition is inherent in atrophic processes occurring in the brain (or). It can also be found in traumatic and vascular disorders.

Motor perseveration is manifested by repeated repetition of physical operations, both simple manipulations and a whole set of various body movements. At the same time, perseverative movements are always reproduced clearly and evenly, as if according to an established algorithm. There are elementary, systemic and speech motor perseverations.

The elementary form of the described deviation is expressed in the repeated reproduction of individual details of the movement and arises as a result of damage to the cerebral cortex and underlying subcortical elements.

The systemic type of perseveration is found in the repeated reproduction of whole complexes of movements. It occurs due to damage to the prefrontal segments of the cerebral cortex.

The speech type of the pathology under consideration is manifested by repeated reproduction of a word, phoneme or phrase (in writing or in oral conversation). Occurs with aphasia due to damage to the lower segments of the premotor zone. At the same time, in left-handers, this deviation occurs if the right side is affected, and in right-handed individuals, if the left segment of the brain is damaged, respectively. In other words, the considered type of perseveration arises as a result of damage to the dominant hemisphere.

Even in the presence of partial aphasic deviations, patients also do not notice differences in the reproduction, writing or reading of syllables or words similar in pronunciation (for example, “ba-pa”, “sa-za”, “cathedral-fence”), they confuse letters that sound similar .

Speech perseveration is characterized by a steady repetition of words, statements, phrases in written or oral speech.

In the mind of a subject suffering from speech perseveration, it is as if a thought or a word “stuck” that he repeats repeatedly and monotonously during communicative interaction with interlocutors. At the same time, the reproduced phrase or word has nothing to do with the subject of the conversation. The patient's speech is characterized by monotony.

Treatment of perseveration

The basis of the therapeutic strategy in the correction of perseverative anomalies is always a systematic psychological approach based on the alternation of stages. It is not recommended to use one technique as the only method of corrective action. It is necessary to use new strategies if the previous ones did not bring results.

More often, the treatment course is based on trial and error, rather than being a standardized therapy algorithm. If pathologies of the brain of a neurological nature are detected, the therapy is combined with the appropriate drug exposure. From pharmacopoeial agents, weak sedative drugs of central action are used. Nootropics are necessarily prescribed along with multivitaminization. Speech perseveration also involves speech therapy.

Corrective action begins with testing, the results of which are assigned, if necessary, an examination. Testing consists of a list of elementary questions and solving certain problems, which often contain some trick.

The following are the main steps of a psychological assistance strategy, which can be applied sequentially or alternately.

The waiting strategy consists in waiting for changes in the course of perseverative deviations due to the appointment of certain therapeutic measures. This strategy is explained by the resistance to the disappearance of the symptoms of perseveration.

A preventive strategy implies preventing the occurrence of motor perseveration against the background of intellectual one. Since often perseverative thinking awakens the motor type of the considered deviation, as a result of which these two variations of the violation coexist in the aggregate. This strategy makes it possible to prevent such a transformation in a timely manner. The essence of the methodology is to protect the individual from those physical operations that he often talks about.

The redirection strategy consists in an emotional attempt or physical effort by a specialist to distract the sick subject from annoying thoughts or manipulations by abruptly changing the subject of the conversation at the moment of the current perseverative manifestation or nature of actions.

The limitation strategy implies a gradual decrease in perseverative attachment by limiting the individual in performing actions. Limiting allows annoying activity, but in a well-defined amount. For example, admission to computer entertainment for the allowed time.

The abrupt termination strategy is based on the active removal of perseverative attachments by shocking the patient. An example here is the sudden, loud phrases “This is not! All!" or visualization of the damage caused by obsessive manipulations or thoughts.

The strategy of ignoring consists in an attempt to completely ignore the manifestations of perseveration. The technique is very effective if the etiological factor of the deviation in question is attention deficit. An individual, not getting the expected result, simply does not see the point in further reproduction of actions.

The strategy of understanding is an attempt to know the true course of the patient's thoughts during the course of perseverative manifestations, as well as in their absence. Often such behavior helps the subject to put his own actions and thoughts in order.

The information provided in this article is for informational purposes only and cannot replace professional advice and qualified medical assistance. At the slightest suspicion of the presence of this disease, be sure to consult a doctor!

Every year the number of children suffering from general underdevelopment of speech increases. This type of impairment in children with normal hearing and intact intelligence is a specific manifestation of a speech anomaly, in which the formation of the main components of the speech system: vocabulary, grammar, and phonetics is impaired or behind the norm.

Most of these children, to one degree or another, have a distortion of the syllabic structure of the word, which is recognized as the leading and persistent in the structure of the speech defect of children with general underdevelopment of speech.

The practice of speech therapy work shows that the correction of the syllabic structure of a word is one of the priority and most difficult tasks in working with preschoolers with systemic speech disorders. It should be noted that this type of speech pathology occurs in all children with motor alalia, in whom phonetic speech disorders are not leading in the syndrome, but only accompany vocabulary disorders. The importance of this problem is also evidenced by the fact that the insufficient degree of correction of this type of phonological pathology at preschool age subsequently leads to the occurrence of dysgraphia in schoolchildren due to a violation of language analysis and synthesis of words and phonemic dyslexia.

Research by A.K. Markova on the features of assimilation of the syllabic structure of a word by children suffering from alalia shows that the speech of children is replete with pronounced deviations in the reproduction of the syllabic composition of a word, which are preserved even in reflected speech. These deviations are in the nature of one or another deformation of the correct sounding of the word, reflecting the difficulties in reproducing the syllabic structure. From this it follows that in cases of speech pathology, age-related disorders by the age of three do not disappear from children's speech, but, on the contrary, acquire a pronounced, persistent character. A child with a general underdevelopment of speech cannot independently master the pronunciation of the syllabic structure of a word, just as he is not able to independently learn the pronunciation of individual sounds. Therefore, it is necessary to replace the long process of spontaneous formation of the syllabic structure of a word with a purposeful and conscious process of teaching this skill.

Numerous studies carried out within the framework of the subject under consideration contribute to the clarification and concretization of the prerequisites that determine the assimilation of the syllabic structure of a word. There is a dependence of mastering the syllabic structure of a word on the state of phonemic perception, articulatory capabilities, semantic insufficiency, and the motivational sphere of the child; and according to recent studies - from the features of the development of non-speech processes: optical-spatial orientation, rhythmic and dynamic organization of movements, the ability to serially sequential information processing (G.V. Babina, N.Yu. Safonkina).

In the domestic literature, the study of the syllabic structure in children with systemic speech disorders is most widely represented.

A.K.Markova defines the syllabic structure of a word as an alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables of varying degrees of complexity. The syllabic structure of a word is characterized by four parameters: 1) stress, 2) the number of syllables, 3) the linear sequence of syllables, 4) the model of the syllable itself. The speech therapist must know how the structure of words becomes more complicated, how the structure of words becomes more complicated, and examine the thirteen classes of syllabic structures that are the most frequent. The purpose of this survey is not only to determine those syllabic classes that are formed in the child, but also to identify those that need to be formed. The speech therapist also needs to determine the type of violation of the syllabic structure of the word. As a rule, the range of these violations varies widely: from minor difficulties in pronunciation of words of a complex syllabic structure to gross violations.

Violations of the syllabic structure modify the syllabic composition of the word in different ways. Distortions are clearly distinguished, consisting in a pronounced violation of the syllabic composition of the word. Words can be deformed by:

1. Violations of the number of syllables:

The child does not fully reproduce the number of syllables of the word. When the number of syllables is reduced, syllables may be omitted at the beginning of the word (“on” - the moon), in its middle (“gunitsa” - caterpillar), the word may not be agreed to the end (“kapu” - cabbage).

Depending on the degree of underdevelopment of speech, some children reduce even a two-syllable word to a one-syllable one (“ka” - porridge, “pi” - wrote), others find it difficult only at the level of four-syllable structures, replacing them with three-syllable ones (“button” - button):

Omission of a syllable-forming vowel.

The syllabic structure can be reduced due to the loss of only syllable-forming vowels, while the other element of the word, the consonant, is preserved (“prosonik” - a piglet; “sugar bowl” - a sugar bowl). This type of violation of the syllabic structure is less common.

2. Violation of the sequence of syllables in a word:

Permutation of syllables in a word (“devore” - a tree);

Permutation of the sounds of neighboring syllables (“gebemot” - hippopotamus). These distortions occupy a special place, in which the number of syllables is not violated, while the syllabic composition undergoes gross violations.

3. Distortion of the structure of a single syllable:

This defect is singled out by T.B. Filichev and G.V. Chirkin as the most common when pronouncing words of various syllabic structures by children suffering from OHP.

Inserting consonants into a syllable (“lemon” - lemon).

4. Anticipations, i.e. likening one syllable to another (“pipitan” - captain; “vevesiped” - bicycle).

5. Perseverations (from the Greek word “I persist”). This is an inert stuck on one syllable in a word (“pananama” - panama; “vvvalabey” - sparrow).

The most dangerous perseveration of the first syllable, because. this kind of disruption of syllabic structure can develop into stuttering.

6. Contamination - compounds of parts of two words (“refrigerator” - refrigerator and bread box).

All of the listed types of distortions in the syllabic composition of a word are very common in children with systemic speech disorders. These disorders occur in children with speech underdevelopment at different (depending on the level of speech development) levels of syllabic difficulty. The delaying effect of syllabic distortions on the process of mastering speech is aggravated by the fact that they are highly persistent. All these features of the formation of the syllabic structure of a word interfere with the normal development of oral speech (accumulation of a dictionary, assimilation of concepts) and make it difficult for children to communicate, and also, undoubtedly, interfere with sound analysis and synthesis, therefore, interfere with learning to read and write.

Traditionally, when studying the syllabic structure of a word, the possibilities of reproducing the syllabic structure of words of different structures according to A.K. The complication lies in increasing the number and using different types of syllables.

Types of words (according to A.K. Markova)

Grade 1 - two-syllable words from open syllables (willow, children).

Grade 2 - three-syllable words from open syllables (hunting, raspberries).

Grade 3 - monosyllabic words (house, poppy).

Grade 4 - two-syllable words with one closed syllable (sofa, furniture).

Grade 5 - two-syllable words with a confluence of consonants in the middle of a word (bank, branch).

Grade 6 - two-syllable words with a closed syllable and a confluence of consonants (compote, tulip).

Grade 7 - three-syllable words with a closed syllable (hippopotamus, phone).

Grade 8 - three-syllable words with a confluence of consonants (room, shoes).

Grade 9 - three-syllable words with a confluence of consonants and a closed syllable (lamb, ladle).

Grade 10 - three-syllable words with two consonant clusters (tablet, matryoshka).

Grade 11 - monosyllabic words with a confluence of consonants at the beginning of a word (table, cabinet).

Grade 12 - monosyllabic words with a confluence of consonants at the end of the word (elevator, umbrella).

Grade 13 - two-syllable words with two consonant clusters (whip, button).

Grade 14 - four-syllable words from open syllables (turtle, piano).

In addition to the words that make up the 14 classes, the pronunciation of more complex words is also assessed: “cinema”, “policeman”, “teacher”, “thermometer”, “scuba diver”, “traveler”, etc.

The possibility of reproducing the rhythmic pattern of words, the perception and reproduction of rhythmic structures (isolated beats, a series of simple beats, a series of accented beats) is also being explored.

Name subject pictures;

Repeat the words reflected after the speech therapist;

Answer the questions. (Where do they buy groceries?).

Thus, during the examination, the speech therapist reveals the degree and level of violation of the syllabic structure of words in each case and the most typical mistakes that the child makes in speech, identifies those frequency classes of syllables whose syllabic structure is preserved in the child’s speech, classes of the syllabic structure of words that are rough are violated in the speech of the child, and also determines the type and type of violation of the syllabic structure of the word. This allows you to set the boundaries of the level available to the child, from which corrective exercises should be started.

Many modern authors deal with the correction of the syllabic structure of a word. In the methodological manual by S.E. Bolshakova “Overcoming violations of the syllabic structure of a word in children”, the author describes the reasons for the difficulties in forming the syllabic structure of a word, types of errors, and methods of work. Attention is paid to the development of such prerequisites for the formation of the syllabic structure of a word as optical and somato-spatial representations, orientation in two-dimensional space, dynamic and rhythmic organization of movements. The author suggests a method of manual reinforcement, which makes it easier for children to switch articulations and prevent omissions and substitutions of syllables. The order of mastering words with a confluence of consonants is given. The games of each stage contain speech material, selected taking into account speech therapy training programs.

The order of working out words with different types of syllabic structure was proposed by E.S. Bolshakova in the manual “Work of a speech therapist with preschoolers”, where the author suggests a sequence of work that helps clarify the contour of the word. (Types of syllables according to A.K. Markova)

The teaching aid “Formation of the syllabic structure of a word: speech therapy tasks” by N.V. Kurdvanovskaya and L.S. Vanyukova highlights the features of correctional work on the formation of the syllabic structure of a word in children with severe speech disorders. The material is selected by the authors in such a way that when working on the automation of one sound, the presence in the words of other sounds that are difficult to pronounce is excluded. The given illustrative material is aimed at the development of fine motor skills (pictures can be colored or shaded), and the order of its location will help the formation of a syllabic structure at the stage of onomatopoeia.

In his manual “Speech therapy work to overcome violations of the syllabic structure of words in children”, Z.E. Agranovich also offers a system of speech therapy measures to eliminate in children of preschool and primary school age such a difficult-to-correct, specific type of speech pathology as a violation of the syllabic structure of words. The author sums up all the correctional work from the development of speech-auditory perception and speech-motor skills and identifies two main stages:

Preparatory (the work is carried out on non-verbal and verbal material; the purpose of this stage is to prepare the child for mastering the rhythmic structure of the words of the native language;

Actually corrective (the work is carried out on verbal material and consists of several levels (the level of vowels, the level of syllables, the level of the word). The author assigns special importance at each level to “inclusion in the work”, in addition to the speech analyzer, also auditory, visual and tactile. The purpose of this stage – direct correction of defects in the syllabic structure of words in a particular child-logopath.

All authors note the need for specific targeted speech therapy work to overcome violations of the syllabic structure of the word, which is part of the general correctional work in overcoming speech disorders.

Conducting specially selected games in group, subgroup and individual speech therapy classes creates the most favorable conditions for the formation of the syllabic structure of a word in children with general underdevelopment of speech.

For example, the didactic game "Merry Houses".

This didactic game consists of three houses with pockets for inserting pictures, envelopes with a set of subject pictures for a variety of game options.

Option number 1

Purpose: to develop the ability to divide words into syllables.

Equipment: three houses with a different number of flowers in the windows (one, two, three), with pockets for inserting pictures, a set of subject pictures: a hedgehog, a wolf, a bear, a fox, a hare, an elk, a rhinoceros, a zebra, a camel, a lynx, a squirrel, cat, rhinoceros, crocodile, giraffe…)

Game progress: the speech therapist says that new houses have been made for animals in the zoo. The child is invited to determine which animals can be placed in which house. The child takes a picture of an animal, pronounces its name and determines the number of syllables in the word. If it is difficult to count the number of syllables, the child is offered to “clap” the word: pronounce it by syllables, accompanying the pronunciation with clapping. By the number of syllables, he finds a house with the corresponding number of flowers in the window for the named animal and puts the picture in the pocket of this house. It is desirable that the children's answers be complete, for example: "The word crocodile has three syllables." After all the animals have been placed in the houses, it is necessary to say the words shown in the pictures again.

Option number 2

Purpose: development of the ability to guess riddles and divide into syllables words-guesses.

Equipment: three houses with a different number of flowers in the windows (one, two, three), with pockets for inserting pictures, a set of subject pictures: a squirrel, a woodpecker, a dog, a hare, a pillow, a wolf).

Game progress: the speech therapist invites the child to listen carefully and guess the riddle, find a picture with the guess word, determine the number of syllables in the word (clapping, tapping on the table, steps, etc.). By the number of syllables, find a house with the appropriate number of windows and insert a picture into the pocket of this house.

Who deftly jumps on the trees

And climbs oaks?

Who hides nuts in a hollow,

Dry mushrooms for the winter? (Squirrel)

Who goes to the owner

She lets you know. (Dog)

Is it under the ear? (Pillow)

Knocking all the time

But they are not crippled

But only heals. (Woodpecker)

Doesn't offend anyone

And everyone is afraid. (Hare)

Who is cold in winter

Wandering angry, hungry. (Wolf)

You can simply use pictures whose names consist of a different number of syllables. The child takes a card, names the picture depicted on it, determines the number of syllables in the word and independently inserts it into the corresponding pocket of the house, depending on the number of flowers in the window.

Didactic foundations of speech therapy classes with stuttering children Didactic foundations of children's speech therapy

The system of correctional education and training of children with impaired speech activity is based on the general theory of learning (didactics), the object of study of which are patterns and principles, methods, organizational forms and means. To work with stutterers, it is necessary to observe didactic principles: individualization, collectivity, systematic and consistency, conscious activity, visibility, strength etc. The totality of these principles and the peculiarity of their implementation in relation to stuttering children determine all aspects of remedial education.

The course of speech therapy classes is a complete system of work with stutterers, integral in time, tasks and content, and is divided into periods (preparatory, training, fixing). In each period, a number of stages can be distinguished (for example, silence, conjugated, reflected speech, speech mode, etc.). Each stage of speech therapy work consists of interconnected classes.

To tasks preparatory period includes the creation of a sparing regime, preparing the child for classes, showing samples of correct speech.

The sparing regime is to protect the child's psyche from negative factors; create a calm environment, a friendly and even attitude; avoid fixation on incorrect speech; determine and maintain a daily routine; provide for calm and varied activities; not to allow noisy, outdoor games, overloads with classes.

It is necessary to calm the stuttering child, distract him from painful attention to his defect and relieve the tension associated with this. It is advisable, if possible, to limit the speech activity of a stutterer and thereby somewhat weaken the wrong speech stereotype.

To attract a child to classes, it is necessary to use radio broadcasts, tape recordings or records, conversations about literary works, draw the attention of a stutterer to the expressive speech of people around him, to positive examples, demonstrate tape recordings of children's speech before and after classes, especially in cases where they are aware of their existing stuttering.

The contrasts between bad speech at the beginning of classes and correct, free speech at the end of them makes children want to learn how to speak well. For this purpose, you can use the performances and dramatizations of children who have completed the course.

From the first lessons, the speech therapist works out with the child the necessary qualities of correct speech: loudness, expressiveness, slowness, the correct design of the phrase, the sequence of presentation of thoughts, the ability to confidently and freely hold on to the conversation, etc.

To tasks training period includes the child's mastery of all forms of speech that are difficult for him in various speech situations. Based on the knowledge, skills and abilities that the child acquired in the first period, they are working on educating the skills of free speech and correct behavior in various forms of speech and various speech situations.

In the most difficult cases of stuttering, the training period begins with conjugated-reflected speech. If all the requirements of correct speech are well and easily met at this stage, the speech therapist refuses to jointly pronounce phrases with the child and provides him with the opportunity to independently copy the phrase sample.

At the stage of conjugate-reflected speech, different texts are used: well-known fairy tales memorized, questions and answers, unfamiliar fairy tales, stories.

Speech classes are held in the office or at home with a speech therapist or with parents. The conditions become more complicated if strangers, peers are invited to the classes, who can be present silently or take part in the classes.

The next step in speech therapy work with a child is the stage of question-and-answer speech. During this period, the child is gradually freed from duplicating phrases according to patterns and makes the first progress in independent verbal communication. It is advisable to start with reflected answers, when an adult asks a question, answers it himself, and the child repeats the answer. Gradually, from short answers to questions, he moves on to more complex ones. The child, using previously received samples, learns to independently build complex sentences. To prevent the artificiality of speech exercises, they should be carried out on a wide variety of material related to the child’s daily life and program material: questions during the game, etc. It is useful to accompany questions with various types of activities organized in general education classes: observation of others, work, modeling , drawing, designing, playing with toys, etc.

The child's answers at first reflect his simple actions, simple observations made at the present time. (I am drawing a house. There is a vase of apples on the table.). Then - in the past tense, about a completed action or an observation made (I went to the zoo yesterday with my dad. We saw a rhinoceros there.). Finally - in the future tense, about the proposed action (We will go now to the children's park. Tanya and Vova are waiting for me there. We will play hide and seek.). In this case, the child proceeds from concrete comprehension and transmission of his direct observations and actions to generalizing conclusions, a description of the expected situations and actions.

A variety of activities help children to transfer the skills of correct speech into their daily lives.

If the child stumbles, you should ask him to repeat the phrase again, explaining that the answer was not pronounced loudly enough (or too quickly, or inexpressively). The child will repeat the phrase freely. If the speech spasm was strong and the child could not overcome it, it is advisable to ask a leading specific question that will allow him to change or streamline the construction of the phrase.

When choosing speech exercises, you need to know in which cases (difficult sounds, the beginning of a phrase, the situation) a child may have speech convulsions in order to be able to prevent them or come to the rescue in time. An indicator of a well-prepared and conducted lesson with a child is the complete absence of speech convulsions in him.

After the child learns to freely answer simple questions, retelling and storytelling are used in the classroom. Observing the sequence of transition from answering questions to retellings and stories, the speech therapist first invites the child to compose and pronounce simple independent phrases from the pictures, then ask questions about the new picture and answer them.

From simple phrases, you can move on to more complex ones, related in meaning, and then to retelling a well-known text of a fairy tale, story), unfamiliar (recently or just heard), to a description of facts from the life around you, to stories about your walk, excursion, activities etc.

According to the complication of speech forms, the classroom environment also becomes more complicated. They are held not only in the office or at home, but also outside them. In the office, preparations are being made for going out into the street, to public places, the upcoming excursion is being rehearsed, the speech therapist asks questions about imaginary or surrounding objects or phenomena. For example: “You see a house in front of you. How many floors does it have, what color is the roof? What flower grows in a flower bed? Who is sitting on the bench? Who is playing ball? Who is sitting on the branch? What's the weather like today? In the future, these questions become more complicated, the child talks about what he saw, heard or done, and, finally, participates in conversations.

After mastering the speech material, an excursion is made, on which the same questions are asked to the child.

In the process of studying outside the office, the child learns to calmly respond to the environment and people, not to be shy and correctly answer the questions of a speech therapist, peers, and ask questions himself. Classes outside the classroom are of great importance for the formation of correct speech in stuttering children. Underestimation of these activities usually leads to the fact that the child in the office, i.e., in the conditions familiar to him, can speak completely freely, and convulsions continue to persist in his speech outside the office.

To tasks fixing period includes automation of the correct speech and behavior skills acquired by the child in various situations and types of speech activity. These tasks are most actively implemented on the material of spontaneous speech that arises in a child under the influence of internal motives (addressing others with questions, requests, exchanging impressions).

The degree of participation of a speech therapist in speech classes with a stuttering child is gradually changing. At the first stages, the leader speaks more, at the last - the role of the speech therapist comes down mainly to correctly choosing the topic of the speech lesson, directing it and controlling the child’s independent speech activity .. Classes gradually take on the character of conversations about the day spent, the fairy tale he heard, the TV show he saw etc.

Creative games are used on themes from everyday life: "Guests and the hostess", "At the table", "At the doctor's office", "Shop", "Mother and daughter", etc., dramatization games based on the plots of famous fairy tales.

During the fixing period, the main attention of the speech therapist and parents is directed to how the child speaks outside of class. Therefore, one should not miss the opportunity to correct it when necessary, in a conversation on a walk, at home in preparation for dinner, during morning toilet, etc.

Perseveration in speech therapy

Perseveration is a psychological, mental and neuropathological phenomenon in which there is an obsessive and frequent repetition of actions, words, phrases and emotions. Moreover, repetitions are manifested both in oral and written form. Repeating the same words or thoughts, a person often does not control himself, leading a verbal way of communication. Perseveration can also manifest itself in non-verbal communication based on gestures and body movements.

Manifestations

Based on the nature of perseveration, the following types of its manifestation are distinguished:

• Perseveration of thinking or intellectual manifestations. Differs in "settlement" in the human creation of certain thoughts or his ideas, manifested in the process of verbal communication. A perseverative phrase can often be used by a person when answering questions to which it has absolutely nothing to do with. Also, a person with perseveration can say such phrases out loud to himself. A characteristic manifestation of this type of perseveration is the constant attempts to return to the topic of conversation, which has long been stopped talking about, or the issue in it has been resolved.
• Motor type of perseveration. Such a manifestation as motor perseveration is directly related to a physical disorder in the premotor nucleus of the brain or subcortical motor layers. This is a type of perseveration that manifests itself in the form of repeating physical actions repeatedly. It can be both the simplest movement and a whole complex of various body movements. At the same time, they are always repeated in the same way and clearly, as if according to a given algorithm.
• Speech perseveration. It belongs to a separate subspecies of the motor-type perseveration described above. These motor perseverations are characterized by constant repetitions of the same words or entire phrases. Repetitions can be expressed orally and in writing. Such a deviation is associated with lesions of the lower part of the premotor nucleus of the human cortex in the left or right hemisphere. Moreover, if a person is left-handed, then we are talking about the defeat of the right hemisphere, and if he is right-handed, then, accordingly, the left hemisphere of the brain.

Causes of manifestation of perseveration

There are neuropathological, psychopathological and psychological reasons for the development of perseveration.

The repetition of the same phrase, caused by the development of perseveration, may occur against the background of neuropathological causes. These most often include:

• Traumatic brain injury, in which the lateral region of the orbitofrontal region of the cerebral cortex is damaged. Or it is associated with physical types of damage to the frontal bulges.
• With aphasia. Perseveration often develops against the background of aphasia. It is a condition characterized by pathological deviations of previously formed human speech. Similar changes occur in the case of physical damage to the centers in the cerebral cortex responsible for speech. They can be caused by trauma, tumors or other types of influences.
• Transferred local pathologies in the frontal lobe of the brain. These may be similar pathologies as in the case of aphasia.

Psychiatrists, as well as psychologists, call perseveration psychological type deviations that occur against the background of dysfunctions occurring in the human body. Often, perseveration acts as an additional disorder and is an obvious sign of the formation of a complex phobia or other syndrome in a person.

If a person has signs of the formation of perseveration, but at the same time he did not endure severe forms of stress or traumatic brain injury, this may indicate the development of both psychological and mental forms of deviation.

If we talk about the psychopathological and psychological reasons for the development of perseveration, then there are several main ones:

• Tendency to increased and obsessive selectivity of interests. Most often, this manifests itself in people characterized by autistic deviations.
• The desire to constantly learn and learn, to learn something new. It occurs mainly in gifted people. But the main problem is that that person can get hung up on certain judgments or their activities. Between perseveration and such a concept as perseverance, the existing line is extremely insignificant and blurred. Therefore, with an excessive desire to develop and improve oneself, serious problems can develop.
• Feeling of lack of attention. It appears in hyperactive people. The development of their perseverative inclinations is explained by an attempt to attract increased attention to themselves or to their activities.
• Obsession with ideas. Against the background of obsession, a person can constantly repeat the same physical actions caused by obsession, that is, obsession with thoughts. The simplest, but very understandable example of obsession is the desire of a person to constantly keep their hands clean and wash them regularly. A person explains this by the fact that he is afraid of contracting terrible infections, but such a habit can develop into a pathological obsession, which is called perseveration.

It is important to be able to distinguish when one person simply has strange habits in the form of the same constant washing of hands, or whether it is an obsessive-compulsive disorder. Also, it is not uncommon for the repetition of the same actions or phrases to be caused by a memory disorder, and not by perseveration.

Features of treatment

There is no universally recommended algorithm for the treatment of perseveration. Therapy is carried out on the basis of the use of a whole complex of different approaches. One method, as the only method of treatment, should not be used. It is necessary to undertake new methods if the previous ones have not yielded results. Roughly speaking, treatment is based on constant trial and error, which ultimately allows you to find the best method of influencing a person suffering from perseveration.

The presented methods of psychological influence can be applied alternately or sequentially:

• Expectation. It is the basis in the psychotherapy of people suffering from perseveration. The bottom line is to wait for a change in the nature of the deviations that have arisen against the background of the use of various methods of influence. That is, the waiting strategy is used in conjunction with any other method, which we will discuss below. If there are no changes, switch to other psychological methods of influence, expect the result and act according to the circumstances.
• Prevention. It is not uncommon for two types of perseveration (motor and intellectual) to occur together. This makes it possible to prevent such changes in time. The essence of the technique is based on the exclusion of physical manifestations, which a person most often talks about.
• redirect. This is a psychological technique based on a sharp change in actions taken or current thoughts. That is, when communicating with a patient, you can drastically change the topic of conversation or move from one physical exercise, movement to another.
• Limiting. The method is aimed at consistently reducing a person's attachment. This is achieved by limiting repetitive actions. A simple but understandable example is to limit the time within which a person is allowed to sit at a computer.
• Abrupt termination. This is a method of actively getting rid of perseverative attachment. This method is based on the impact by introducing the patient into a state of shock. This can be achieved through harsh and loud phrases, or by visualizing how harmful the obsessive thoughts or movements, actions of the patient can be.
• Ignoring. The method assumes a complete disregard for the manifestation of the disorder in humans. This approach works best if the disturbances were caused by an attention deficit. If a person does not see the point in what he is doing, since there is no effect, he will soon stop repeating obsessive actions or phrases.
• Understanding. Another actual strategy by which the psychologist learns the patient's thought patterns in case of deviations or in the absence of them. Such an approach often allows a person to independently understand their thoughts and actions.

Perseveration is a fairly common disorder that can be caused by a variety of reasons. With perseveration, it is important to choose a competent treatment strategy. Medicamentous influence in this case is not applied.

Dyslexia and dysgraphia The general concept of dyslexia and dysgraphia

4. Perseverations, anticipations. A peculiar distortion of the phonetic content of words occurs in oral and written speech according to the type of phenomena of progressive and regressive assimilation and is respectively named: perseveration (stuck) and anticipation(preemption, anticipation): a consonant, and less often a vowel, replaces a displaced letter in a word.

Examples of perseverations in writing: a) c within the words: “magazim”, “collective farm”, “behind the tire” (collective farmer, car), b) within the phrase: “Udeda Modoz”; in) within the sentence: “The girl was feeding the cock ikurm.

Examples of anticipations in a letter: a) c within the limits of the word: “on the devye”, dod roof”, with native places, b) within a phrase, sentence: "Beetle streams".

The errors of these two types are based on the weakness of differential inhibition.

If in oral speech the words in the syntagma are pronounced together, on one exhalation, then in written speech the words appear separately. The discrepancy between the norms of oral and written speech introduces difficulties in the initial teaching of writing. Writing reveals such a defect in the analysis and synthesis of audible speech as a violation of the individualization of words: the child was unable to catch and isolate stable speech units and their elements in the speech stream. This leads to the continuous writing of adjacent words or to the separate writing of parts of the word.

1) when the prefix, and in non-prefixed words, the initial letter or syllable resembles a preposition, conjunction, pronoun (“and du”, began, “I am sleepy”, .look”, “with a howl” and etc.). Apparently here

there is a generalization of the rule on the separate writing of service parts of speech;

2) at the confluence of consonants, due to their lesser articulatory fusion, the word “b” breaks rat”, “asked”, for”,“l chelas" and etc.).

Numerous type errors “by the bed”, “by the table” etc. are explained by the phonetic features of the syllable section at the junction of the preposition and the next word.

home, up a tree." It is not uncommon for two or more independent words to be spelled together: “there were wonderful days”, “quietly around”.

Mistakes are peculiar boundary shifts words, including simultaneously merging adjacent words and breaking one of them, for example: udedmo Rza” - at Santa Claus."

Cases of gross violation of sound analysis find expression in the contamination of words:

Forming nouns with a suffix -search-,: hand - “arms”, leg - “legs”.

Violation of the function of word formation is found especially clearly when an adjective is formed from a noun, for example: a flower growing in a field - a log flower;

The bulk of specific errors at the level of phrases and sentences are expressed in the so-called agrammatisms, i.e. in violation of the connection of words: coordination and control. The change of words according to the categories of number, gender, case, time forms a complex system of codes that allows you to streamline the designated phenomena, highlight features and attribute them to certain categories. The insufficient level of language generalizations sometimes does not allow schoolchildren to catch categorical differences in parts of speech.

When composing a message from words, it is necessary to be able to retain the original elements in short-term memory - for their synthesis, and not store combinations of complete words in long-term memory.

According to N. Chomsky's theory about the existence of a deep grammar, which is the same in its foundation for different languages, this foundation is regulated by strict limits on the amount of short-term memory of a person. Narrowing the amount of RAM leads to errors in coordination and control in the operation of composing messages from words: “big white spot”, “the elder of the fishermen said. ”, “Pushkin was not satisfied with life in Chisinau” and etc.

Certain difficulties are presented by operating with homogeneous members of the sentence .

The inability to highlight the leading word in a phrase leads to coordination errors even when writing from dictation, for example: “The forest covered with snow was fabulously beautiful” .

Especially numerous errors in the use of management standards: “on the branches of trees”, “along the paths garden”, etc.

There are many approaches to the classification of dysgraphia. The most common is the classification of dysgraphies, which is based on the unformedness of certain operations of the writing process. This classification was developed by the Department of Speech Therapy of the Leningrad State Pedagogical Institute. A.I. Hercyn. The following types of dysgraphia are distinguished (19):

2) based on violations of phonemic recognition;

3) on the basis of a violation of language analysis and synthesis;

5) optical dysgraphia.

The child writes as he speaks. It is based on the reflection of incorrect pronunciation in writing, reliance on incorrect pronunciation. Relying on the incorrect pronunciation of sounds in the process of pronunciation, the child reflects his defective pronunciation in writing.

Articulatory-acoustic dysgraphia is manifested in substitutions, omissions of letters corresponding to substitutions and omissions of sounds in oral speech. Sometimes substitutions of letters in writing remain even after they are eliminated in oral speech. In this case, it can be assumed that during internal pronunciation there is not sufficient support for correct articulation, since clear kinesthetic images of sounds have not yet been formed. But substitutions and omissions of sounds are not always reflected in the letter. This is due to the fact that in some cases compensation occurs due to preserved functions (for example, due to a clear auditory differentiation, due to the formation of phonemic functions).

According to traditional terminology, this is acoustic dysgraphia.

It manifests itself in the substitutions of letters corresponding to phonetically close sounds. At the same time, in oral speech, the sounds are pronounced correctly. Most often, letters are replaced, denoting the following sounds: whistling and hissing, voiced and deaf, affricates and components included in their composition (h - t, h u, c t, c - With). This type of dysgraphia is also manifested in the incorrect designation of the softness of consonants in writing due to a violation of the differentiation of hard and soft consonants (“letter”, “lubit”, “lick”). Frequent mistakes are vowel substitutions even in stressed position, for example, o - at(cloud - “dot”), e - and(forest - “foxes”).

In the most striking form, dysgraphia based on violations of phonemic recognition is observed with sensory alalia and aphasia. In severe cases, letters are mixed, denoting distant articulatory and acoustic sounds (l - k, b - in, and - and). At the same time, the pronunciation of sounds corresponding to the mixed letters is normal.

There is no consensus on the mechanisms of this type of dysgraphia. This is due to the complexity of the process of phonemic recognition.

According to researchers (I. A. Zimnyaya, E. F. Sobotovich, L. A. Chistovich), the multilevel process of phonemic recognition includes various operations.

During perception, an auditory analysis of speech is carried out (analytical decomposition of a synthetic sound image, selection of acoustic features with their subsequent synthesis).

The acoustic image is translated into an articulatory solution, which is ensured by proprioceptive analysis, the preservation of kinesthetic perception and ideas. 3. Auditory and kinesthetic images are held for the time needed to make a decision.

The sound is correlated with the phoneme, the phoneme selection operation takes place.

On the basis of auditory and kinesthetic control, a comparison with the sample is carried out and then a final decision is made. In the process of writing, the phoneme is associated with a certain visual image of the letter.

Correct writing requires a finer auditory differentiation of sounds than oral speech. This is connected, on the one hand, with the phenomenon of redundancy in the perception of semantically significant units of oral speech. A slight insufficiency, auditory differentiation in oral speech, if it occurs, can be replenished due to redundancy, due to motor stereotypes and kinesthetic images fixed in speech experience. In the process of writing, in order to correctly distinguish and select a phoneme, a subtle analysis of all acoustic features of sound that are meaningful is necessary.

On the other hand, in the process of writing, the differentiation of sounds, the choice of phonemes are carried out on the basis of trace activity, auditory images, and presentation. Due to the fuzziness of auditory ideas about phonetically close sounds, the choice of one or another phoneme is difficult, which results in the replacement of letters in writing.

Other authors (E. F. Sobotovich, E. M. Gopichenko), who have studied writing disorders in mentally retarded children, attribute the substitution of letters to the fact that during phonemic recognition, children rely on articulatory signs of sounds and do not use auditory control.

In contrast to these studies, R. Wecker and A. Kossovsky consider the difficulties of kinesthetic analysis to be the main mechanism for replacing letters denoting phonetically close sounds. Their research shows that children with dysgraphia do not use enough kinesthetic sensations (speaking) when writing. They are not helped much by pronunciation both during auditory dictation and during independent writing. The exclusion of pronunciation (the method of L.K. Nazarova) does not affect the number of errors, i.e., does not lead to their increase. At the same time, the exclusion of pronunciation during writing in children without dysgraphia leads to an increase in writing errors by 8–9 times.

For correct writing, a sufficient level of functioning of all operations of the process of distinguishing and choosing phonemes is necessary. If any link (auditory, kinesthetic analysis, phoneme selection, auditory and kinesthetic control) is violated, the whole process of phonemic recognition becomes more difficult, which manifests itself in the replacement of letters with letter. Therefore, taking into account the disturbed operations of phonemic recognition, the following subspecies of this form of dysgraphia can be distinguished: acoustic, kinesthetic, phonemic.

It is based on a violation of various forms of language analysis and synthesis: the division of sentences into words, syllabic and phonemic analysis and synthesis. The underdevelopment of language analysis and synthesis is manifested in writing in distortions of the structure of words and sentences. common with this type of dysgraphia will be distortions of the sound-letter structure of the word,

The following errors are most typical: omissions of consonants during their confluence (dictation -"dikat", school -"cola"); omissions of vowels (dog - “dog”, at home - “dma”); permutations of letters ( trail -"prota", window -"kono"); adding letters (drag -"shuffled"); omissions, additions, permutation of syllables (room -"cat", cup -"kata").

For the correct mastery of the process of writing, it is necessary that the phonemic analysis be formed in the child not only in the external, speech, but also in the internal plan, according to the idea.

Violation of the division of sentences into words in this type of dysgraphia is manifested in the continuous spelling of words, especially prepositions, with other words (it's raining -"go grandfather" in the house -"in the house"); separate spelling of the word (white birch grows by the window“belabe will zaratet oka”); separate spelling of the prefix and the root of the word (come -“stepped on”).

Writing disorders due to the lack of formation of phonemic analysis and synthesis are widely represented in the works of R. E. Levina, N. A. Nikashina, D. I. Orlova, G. V. Chirkina.

(characterized in the works of R. E. Levina, I. K. Kolpovskaya, R. I. Lalayeva, S. V. Yakovlev)

It is associated with the underdevelopment of the grammatical structure of speech: morphological, syntactic generalizations. This type of dysgraphia can manifest itself at the level of a word, phrase, sentence and text and is an integral part of a wider symptom complex - lexical and grammatical underdevelopment, which is observed in children with dysarthria, alalia and in mentally retarded children.

In coherent written speech, children have great difficulties in establishing logical and linguistic connections between sentences. The sequence of sentences does not always correspond to the sequence of the described events; semantic and grammatical connections between individual sentences are broken.

At the sentence level, agrammatisms in writing are manifested in the distortion of the morphological structure of the word, the replacement of prefixes, suffixes (swept -"lashed" kids -"goats"); changing case endings (“many trees”); violation of prepositional constructions (over the table -"on the table"); case change of pronouns (about him -"near him"); number of nouns (“children are running”); violation of agreement (“white house”); there is also a violation of the syntactic design of speech, which is manifested in the difficulties of constructing complex sentences, omissions of sentence members, violation of the sequence of words in a sentence.

It is associated with the underdevelopment of visual gnosis, analysis and synthesis, spatial representations and is manifested in the substitutions and distortions of letters in writing.

Most often, graphically similar handwritten letters are replaced: consisting of the same elements, but differently located in space (v-d, t-sh); containing the same elements but differing in additional elements (i-sh, p-t, x-f, l-m); mirror spelling of letters (C, e.), omissions of elements, especially when connecting letters that include the same element (a, y-), superfluous (w -) and misplaced elements (x - , t -).

With literal dysgraphia, there is a violation of recognition and reproduction of even isolated letters. With verbal dysgraphia, isolated letters are reproduced correctly, however, when writing a word, distortions are observed, replacements of letters of an optical nature. Optical dysgraphia also includes mirror writing, which is sometimes noted in left-handers, as well as in organic brain lesions.

Thus, summarizing all that has been said, writing cannot be attributed only to speech or to the processes of visual perception and motor skills. Writing is a complex mental process that includes in its structure both verbal and non-verbal forms of mental activity - attention, visual, acoustic and spatial perception, fine motor skills of the hand, object actions, etc. The formation and flow of writing and written speech is impossible without the presence of inter-analyzer connections and the joint work of all levels of the organization of writing, which act depending on the task, change their hierarchy. Knowledge about the structure of writing and its psycho-physiological basis is necessary for a clearer understanding of the structural violation of writing, i.e. in which link the violation occurred and at what level of its organization, and the defects of what psychophysiological mechanisms underlie this or that type of violation. This knowledge is necessary for a clear understanding of the strategy and tactics of writing recovery.

Akhutina T.V., Pylaeva N.M. , Yablokova L.V. Neuropsychological Approach to the Prevention of Learning Difficulties: Methods for Developing Programming and Control Skills.

Inshakova O.B. Dysgraphia and the factor of family left-handedness. // Speech disorders: Clinical manifestations and methods of correction.

Kornev A.N. Reading and writing disorders in children.

Luria A.R. Essays on the psychophysiology of writing.

Luria A.R. Higher cortical functions of a person.

Glossary of speech therapy terms

Automation (sound) - the stage in the correction of incorrect sound pronunciation, following the setting of a new sound; aimed at the formation of the correct pronunciation of sound in connected speech; consists in the gradual, consistent introduction of the delivered sound into syllables, words, sentences and into independent speech.

Automated speech sequences are speech actions implemented without the direct participation of consciousness.

Agnosia is a violation of various types of perception that occurs with certain brain lesions. Distinguish between visual, tactile, auditory agnosia.

Agrammatism is a violation of the understanding and use of the grammatical means of a language.

Adaptation is the adaptation of an organism to the conditions of existence.

Acalculia is a violation of counting and counting operations as a result of damage to various areas of the cerebral cortex.

Alalia is the absence or underdevelopment of speech in children with normal hearing and initially intact intelligence due to organic damage to the speech areas of the cerebral cortex in the prenatal or early period of child development.

Alexia - the impossibility of the process of reading.

Amorphous words are grammatically invariable root words, "abnormal words" of children's speech - fragment words (in which only parts of the word are preserved), onomatopoeia words (syllable words with which the child denotes objects, actions, situations), contour words ( in which stress and the number of syllables are correctly reproduced).

Amnesia is a memory disorder in which it is impossible to reproduce the ideas and concepts formed in the past.

Anamnesis - a set of information (about the conditions of a person's life, about the events that preceded the disease, etc.) obtained during the examination from the person being examined and (or) those who know him; used to establish the diagnosis, prognosis of the disease and the choice of corrective measures.

Ankyloglossia is a shortened hyoid ligament.

Anticipation - the ability to anticipate the manifestation of the results of an action, "anticipatory reflection", for example, premature recording of sounds included in final motor acts.

Apraxia is a violation of voluntary purposeful movements and actions that are not the result of paralysis and cuts, but related to disorders of the highest level of organization of motor acts.

Articulation is the activity of the speech organs associated with the pronunciation of speech sounds and their various components that make up syllables, words.

Articulatory apparatus - a set of organs that provide the formation of speech sounds (articulation), includes the vocal apparatus, muscles of the pharynx, larynx, tongue, soft palate, lips, cheeks and lower jaw, teeth, etc.

Ataxia - disorder / lack of coordination of movements.

Atrophy - pathological structural changes in tissues associated with inhibition of metabolism (due to a disorder in their nutrition).

Asphyxia - suffocation of the fetus and newborn - cessation of breathing with continued cardiac activity due to a decrease or loss of excitability of the respiratory center.

An audiogram is a graphic representation of hearing data obtained using a device (audiometer).

Aphasia is a complete or partial loss of speech due to local lesions of the brain. See also the video tutorials "Forms of aphasia and methods of restoring speech."

The main forms of aphasia:

• acoustic-gnostic (sensory) - a violation of phonemic perception;
• acoustic-mnestic - impaired auditory-speech memory;
• semantic - a violation of the understanding of logical and grammatical structures;
• afferent motor - kinesthetic and articulatory apraxia;
• efferent motor - violation of the kinetic basis of a series of speech movements;
• dynamic - violations of the consistent organization of the utterance, planning of the utterance.

Afferent kinesthetic praxis is the ability to reproduce isolated speech sounds, their articulatory structures (postures), which are often also called speech kinesthesias or articules.

Aphonia - the absence of sonority of the voice with the preservation of whispered speech; the immediate cause of aphonia is the non-closure of the vocal folds, as a result of which air leaks during phonation. Aphonia occurs as a result of organic or functional disorders in the larynx, with a disorder of the nervous regulation of speech activity.

Bradilalia is a pathologically slow rate of speech.

Broca's Center is a section of the cerebral cortex located in the posterior third of the lower frontal gyrus of the left hemisphere (in right-handed people), which provides the motor organization of speech (responsible for expressive speech).

Wernicke Center - a region of the cerebral cortex in the posterior superior temporal gyrus of the dominant hemisphere, providing speech understanding (responsible for impressive speech).

Gammaism is a lack of pronunciation of sounds [Г], [Гг].

Hemiplegia is paralysis of the muscles of one half of the body.

Hyperkinesis - automatic violent movements due to involuntary muscle contractions.

Hypoxia is oxygen starvation of the body. Hypoxia in newborns is called fetal pathology that developed during pregnancy (chronic) or childbirth (acute) due to oxygen deficiency. The lack of oxygen supply to the fetus at the beginning of pregnancy can cause a delay or disturbance in the development of the fetus, and in the later stages affects the nervous system of the baby, which can significantly affect speech development.

The following factors can lead to the risk of developing hypoxia:

• the presence of anemia, STDs, as well as serious diseases of the respiratory or cardiovascular system in the expectant mother;
• disturbances in the blood supply to the fetus and in labor, preeclampsia, post-term pregnancy;
• fetal pathology and Rh-conflict of mother and baby;
• smoking and drinking alcohol by a pregnant woman.

Also, the green color of the amniotic fluid indicates oxygen deficiency.

If the doctor suspects hypoxia, he may decide that a caesarean section is necessary. A newborn with a severe degree of oxygen starvation is resuscitated, and with a mild degree, he receives oxygen and drugs.

Dysarthria is a violation of the pronunciation side of speech, due to insufficient innervation of the speech apparatus.

Dyslalia is a violation of sound pronunciation with normal hearing and intact innervation of the speech apparatus.

Dyslexia is a partial specific violation of the reading process, due to the lack of formation (violation) of higher mental functions and manifested in repetitive errors of a persistent nature.

Dysgraphia is a partial specific violation of the writing process, due to the immaturity (violation) of higher mental functions and manifested in repeated errors of a persistent nature.

Speech development delay (SRR) is a lag in speech development from the age norm of speech development at the age of up to 3 years. From 3 years and older, the lack of formation of all components of speech qualifies as OHP (general underdevelopment of speech).

Stuttering is a violation of the tempo-rhythmic organization of speech, due to the convulsive state of the muscles of the speech apparatus.

Onomatopoeia is a conditional reproduction of the sounds of nature and the sounds that accompany certain processes (laughter, whistling, noise, etc.), as well as the cries of animals.

Impressive speech - perception, understanding of speech.

Innervation - providing organs and tissues with nerves and, therefore, communication with the central nervous system.

A stroke is an acute cerebrovascular accident caused by a pathological process with the development of persistent symptoms of damage to the central nervous system. Hemorrhagic stroke is caused by a hemorrhage in the brain or its membranes, ischemic stroke is caused by a cessation or a significant decrease in blood supply to a part of the brain, thrombotic stroke is caused by blockage of a brain vessel by a thrombus, embolic stroke is caused by blockage of a brain vessel by an embolus.

Cappacism is a lack of pronunciation of sounds [K], [K].

Kinesthetic sensations are sensations of the position and movement of organs.

Compensation is a complex, multifaceted process of restructuring mental functions in case of violation or loss of any body functions.

Contamination is an erroneous reproduction of words, consisting in combining syllables related to different words into one word.

Lambdacism - incorrect pronunciation of sounds [L], [L].

Speech therapy is the science of speech disorders, methods of their prevention, detection and elimination by means of special training and education.

Speech therapy massage is one of the speech therapy techniques that contributes to the normalization of the pronunciation side of speech and the emotional state of persons suffering from speech disorders. Speech therapy massage is included in the complex medical and pedagogical system of rehabilitation of children, adolescents and adults suffering from speech disorders.

Logorrhoea is an unrestrained, incoherent speech stream, often representing an empty collection of individual words, devoid of logical connection. Seen in sensory aphasia.

Logorhythm is a system of motor exercises in which various movements are combined with the pronunciation of special speech material. Logorhythmics is a form of active therapy, overcoming speech and related disorders through the development and correction of non-speech and speech mental functions.

Localization of functions - according to the theory of systemic dynamic localization of higher mental functions, the brain is considered as a substrate, consisting of departments differentiated in their functions, working as a whole. Local - local, limited to a certain area, area.

Macroglossia - pathological enlargement of the tongue; observed with abnormal development and in the presence of a chronic pathological process in the tongue. At M. considerable disturbances of a pronunciation are observed.

Microglossia is a developmental anomaly, the small size of the tongue.

Mutism is the cessation of verbal communication with others due to mental trauma.

Speech disorders are deviations in the speaker's speech from the language norm adopted in a given language environment, manifested in partial (partial) disorders (sound pronunciation, voice, tempo and rhythm, etc.) and due to disorders in the normal functioning of the psychophysiological mechanisms of speech activity.

Neuropsychology is the science of the brain organization of the higher mental functions of a person. N. studies the psychological structure and brain organization of non-speech HMFs and speech function. N. studies violations of speech and other HMF, depending on the nature of brain damage (local, diffuse, interzonal connections), as well as the diagnosis of these disorders and methods of corrective and restorative work.

General speech underdevelopment (OHP) is a variety of complex speech disorders in which children have impaired formation of all components of the speech system related to its sound and semantic side, with normal hearing and intelligence.

Reflected speech is speech repeated after someone.

Finger games are a common name for activities for the development of fine motor skills in children. Finger games develop fine motor skills, and its development stimulates the development of certain areas of the brain, in particular speech centers.

Paraphasia - violations of speech utterance, manifested in omissions, erroneous replacement or rearrangement of sounds and syllables in words (literal paraphasia, for example, mokolo instead of milk, cheekbones instead of chair) or in replacing the necessary words with others that are not related to the meaning of the statement (verbal paraphasia) in oral and written speech.

Pathogenesis is the mechanism of development of a specific disease, pathological process or condition.

Perseveration - cyclic repetition or persistent reproduction, often contrary to the conscious intention of any actions, thoughts or experiences.

Prenatal period - pertaining to the period before birth.

Speech decay is the loss of existing speech skills and communication skills due to local brain damage.

Reflex - in physiology - a natural response of the body to a stimulus mediated by the nervous system.

Disinhibition is the termination of the state of internal inhibition in the cerebral cortex under the influence of extraneous stimuli.

Disinhibition of speech in children - activation of the development of speech in children with delayed speech development.

Disinhibition of speech in adults - restoration of speech function in speechless patients.

Rhinolalia is a violation of the timbre of the voice and sound pronunciation, resulting from excessive or insufficient resonation in the nasal cavity during speech. Such a violation of resonance occurs from the wrong direction of the gloto-expiratory jet due to either organic defects in the nasopharynx, nasal cavity, soft and hard palate, or disorders of the function of the soft palate. There are open, closed and mixed rhinolalia.

Rotacism - a disorder in the pronunciation of sounds [P], [Pb].

Sensory - sensitive, feeling, pertaining to sensations.

Sigmatism is a pronunciation disorder of whistling ([S], [Sb], [Z], [Zb], [Ts]) and hissing ([W], [W], [H], [Sch]) sounds.

A syndrome is a natural combination of signs (symptoms) that have a common pathogenesis and characterize a certain disease state.

Somatic is a term used to refer to various kinds of phenomena in the body associated with the body, as opposed to the psyche.

Conjugate speech is a joint simultaneous repetition by two or more persons of words or phrases spoken by someone.

Seizures are involuntary muscle contractions that occur with epilepsy, brain injuries, spasmophilia, and other diseases. Convulsions are characteristic of the state of excitation of subcortical formations, they can be caused reflexively.

Clonic convulsions are characterized by a rapid change in muscle contraction and relaxation. Tonic convulsions are characterized by prolonged muscle contraction, which causes a prolonged forced tense position.

Tahilalia is a violation of speech, expressed in the excessive speed of its pace (20-30 sounds per second), akin in nature to battarism. Unlike the latter, takhilalia is a deviation from normal speech only in relation to its tempo, while maintaining the phonetic design, as well as vocabulary and grammatical structure.

Tremor - rhythmic oscillatory movements of the limbs, head, tongue, etc. with damage to the nervous system.

Phonetic and phonemic underdevelopment is a violation of the formation of the pronunciation system of the native language in children with various speech disorders due to defects in the perception and pronunciation of phonemes.

Phonemic analysis and synthesis are mental actions to analyze or synthesize the sound structure of a word.

Phonemic hearing is a fine systematized hearing, which has the ability to carry out the operations of distinguishing and recognizing the phonemes that make up the sound shell of a word.

Phoniatrics is a branch of medicine that studies the problems of teeth and pathologies of the vocal cords and larynx, leading to voice disorders (dysphonia), methods of treatment and prevention of voice disorders, as well as ways to correct a normal voice in the desired direction. Violation of voice formation can also occur due to certain psychological disorders. The solution of some problems of phoniatry is closely related to the problems of speech therapy.

Cerebral - cerebral, belonging to the brain.

Expressive speech is an active oral and written statement.

Extirpation (larynx) - removal.

An embolus is a circulating substrate in the blood that does not occur under normal conditions and can cause blockage of a blood vessel.

A speech embolus is one of the most frequent words, part of a word or a short phrase before the disease, repeated many times by the patient when trying to speak. It is one of the speech symptoms of motor aphasia.

Etiology is the cause of a disease or pathological condition.

Efferent kinetic praxis is the ability to produce a series of speech sounds. The efferent articulatory praxis is fundamentally different from the afferent one in that it requires the ability to switch from one articulatory posture to another. These switches are complex in execution. They involve the mastery of intercalated fragments of articulatory actions - coarticulations, which are "ligaments" between individual articulatory poses. Without coarticulations, a word cannot be pronounced, even if every sound included in it is available for reproduction.

Echolalia is the involuntary repetition of audible sounds, words, or phrases.

Anxiety is common to all people to one degree or another, and many of us sometimes perform rituals of varying degrees of irrationality designed to insure us from trouble - bang our fist on the table or put on a lucky T-shirt for an important event. But sometimes this mechanism gets out of control, causing a serious mental disorder. Theories and Practices explains what tormented Howard Hughes, how an obsession differs from schizophrenic delusions, and what magical thinking has to do with it.

Endless Ritual

The hero of Jack Nicholson in the famous film "It doesn't get better" was distinguished not only by a complex character, but also by a whole set of oddities: he constantly washed his hands (and every time with new soap), ate only with his cutlery, avoided other people's touches and tried not to step on cracks on asphalt. All these "eccentricities" are typical signs of obsessive-compulsive disorder, a mental illness in which a person is obsessed with obsessive thoughts that make him repeat the same actions regularly. OCD is a real find for a screenwriter: this disease is more common in people with high intelligence, it gives the character originality, noticeably interferes with his communication with others, but at the same time is not associated with a threat to society, unlike many other mental disorders. But in reality, the life of a person with obsessive-compulsive disorder cannot be called easy: constant tension and fear are hidden behind innocent and even funny, at first glance, actions.

In the head of such a person, it’s as if a record is stuck: the same unpleasant thoughts regularly come to his mind, which have little rational basis. For example, he imagines that dangerous microbes are everywhere, he is constantly afraid of hurting someone, losing some thing, or leaving the gas on when leaving home. A leaky faucet or an asymmetrical arrangement of objects on a table can drive him crazy.

The flip side of this obsession, that is, obsession, is compulsion, the regular repetition of the same rituals, which should prevent impending danger. A person begins to believe that the day will go well only if, before leaving the house, he reads a children's rhyme three times, that he will protect himself from terrible diseases if he wash his hands several times in a row and use his own cutlery. After the patient performs the ritual, he experiences relief for a while. 75% of patients suffer from both obsessions and compulsions at the same time, but there are cases when people experience only obsessions without performing rituals.

At the same time, obsessive thoughts differ from schizophrenic delusions in that the patient himself perceives them as absurd and illogical. He is not at all happy to wash his hands every half an hour and zip up his fly five times in the morning - but he simply cannot get rid of the obsession in another way. The level of anxiety is too high, and rituals allow the patient to achieve temporary relief from the condition. But at the same time, in itself, the love of rituals, lists or putting things on the shelves, if it does not bring discomfort to a person, does not belong to the disorder. From this point of view, the aesthetes who diligently arrange carrot peels lengthwise in Things Organized Neatly are absolutely healthy.

Obsessions of an aggressive or sexual nature cause the most problems in OCD patients. Some become afraid that they will do something bad to other people, up to and including sexual violence and murder. Obsessive thoughts can take the form of individual words, phrases, or even lines of poetry - a good illustration can be an episode from the movie The Shining, where the protagonist, going crazy, starts typing the same phrase “all work and no play makes Jack a dull boy." A person with OCD experiences tremendous stress - he is simultaneously horrified by his thoughts and tormented by guilt for them, tries to resist them, and at the same time tries to make the rituals he performs go unnoticed by others. In all other respects, however, his consciousness functions perfectly normally.

There is an opinion that obsessions and compulsions are closely related to "magical thinking", which arose at the dawn of mankind - the belief in the ability to take control of the world with the help of the right mood and rituals. Magical thinking draws a direct parallel between a mental desire and a real consequence: if you draw a buffalo on the wall of a cave, tuning in to a successful hunt, you will certainly be lucky. Apparently, this way of perceiving the world is born in the deep mechanisms of human thinking: neither scientific and technological progress, nor logical arguments, nor sad personal experience proving the uselessness of magical passes, do not relieve us of the need to look for a relationship between random things. Some scientists believe that it is embedded in our neuropsychology - the automatic search for patterns that simplify the picture of the world helped our ancestors survive, and the most ancient parts of the brain still work according to this principle, especially in a stressful situation. Therefore, with an increased level of anxiety, many people begin to be afraid of their own thoughts, fearing that they can become reality, and at the same time believe that a set of some irrational actions will help prevent an undesirable event.

Story

In ancient times, this disorder was often associated with mystical causes: in the Middle Ages, people obsessed with obsessions were immediately sent to exorcists, and in the 17th century the concept was reversed - it was believed that such states arise due to excessive religious zeal.

In 1877, one of the founders of scientific psychiatry, Wilhelm Griesinger, and his student Karl-Friedrich-Otto Westphal found that the basis of "compulsive disorder" is a thought disorder, but it does not affect other aspects of behavior. They used the German term Zwangsvorstellung, which, being variously translated in Britain and the United States (as obsession and compulsion respectively), became the modern name for the disease. And in 1905, the French psychiatrist and neurologist Pierre Maria Felix Janet singled out this neurosis from neurasthenia as a separate disease and called it psychasthenia.

Opinions differed about the cause of the disorder - for example, Freud believed that obsessive-compulsive behavior refers to unconscious conflicts that manifest themselves in the form of symptoms, and his German colleague Emil Kraepelin attributed it to "constitutional mental illness" caused by physical causes.

Famous people also suffered from obsessional disorder - for example, the inventor Nikola Tesla counted steps while walking and the volume of food portions - if he could not do this, the dinner was considered spoiled. And entrepreneur and American aviation pioneer Howard Hughes was terrified of dust and ordered employees to "wash themselves four times, each time using a large amount of lather from a new bar of soap," before visiting him.

Defense mechanism

The exact causes of OCD are not clear even now, but all hypotheses can be divided into three categories: physiological, psychological and genetic. Supporters of the first concept associate the disease either with the functional and anatomical features of the brain, or with metabolic disorders (biologically active substances that transmit electrical impulses between neurons, or from neurons to muscle tissue) - first of all, serotonin and dopamine, as well as norepinephrine and GABA. Some researchers have noted that many patients with OCD had birth trauma at birth, which also confirms the physiological causes of OCD.

Supporters of psychological theories believe that the disease is associated with personality traits, character traits, psychological trauma and an incorrect reaction to the negative impact of the environment. Sigmund Freud suggested that the occurrence of obsessive-compulsive symptoms is associated with the protective mechanisms of the psyche: isolation, elimination and reactive formation. Isolation protects a person from anxiety-causing affects and impulses, forcing them into the subconscious, liquidation is aimed at combating repressed impulses that pop up - on which, in fact, the compulsive act is based. And, finally, reactive formation is a manifestation of patterns of behavior and consciously experienced attitudes that are opposite to emerging impulses.

There is also scientific evidence that genetic mutations contribute to OCD. They were found in unrelated families whose members suffered from OCD - in the serotonin transporter gene, hSERT. Studies of identical twins also confirm the existence of a hereditary factor. In addition, people with OCD are more likely to have close relatives with the same disorder than healthy people.

Maksim, 21 years old, suffering from OCD since childhood

It started for me around 7 or 8 years old. The neurologist was the first to report the likelihood of OCD, even then there was a suspicion of obsessive neurosis. I was constantly silent, scrolling through various theories in my head, like "mental chewing gum." When I saw something that caused me anxiety, obsessive thoughts about it began, although the reasons were very insignificant in appearance and, perhaps, would never have touched me.

At one time there was an obsessive thought that my mother might die. I turned over the same moment in my head, and it captured me so much that I could not sleep at night. And when I ride in a minibus or in a car, I constantly think about the fact that now we will have an accident, that someone will crash into us or we will fly away from the bridge. A couple of times the thought arose that the balcony under me would fall apart, or someone would throw me out of there, or I myself would slip in the winter and fall.

We never really talked to the doctor, I just took different medications. Now I am moving from one obsession to another and I am following some rituals. I constantly touch something, no matter where I am. I go from corner to corner throughout the room, adjusting the curtains, wallpaper. Maybe I am different from other people with this disorder, everyone has their own rituals. But it seems to me that those people who accept themselves as they are are more lucky. They are much better than those who want to get rid of it and are very worried about it.

Perseveration is a phenomenon that is characterized by a psychological, mental or neuropathological disorder of human behavior and speech. Perseveration manifests itself through the constant repetition of an action, phrase, idea, representation, or experience. This constancy sometimes turns into an annoying uncontrollable form, the person himself does not even notice this or is not aware of the phenomenon that is happening to him.

Such behavior in actions or speech is possible not only with mental or neurological abnormalities. There are frequent cases when perseveration was noted in a person with overwork or distraction.

Perseveration most often occurs with a physical impact on the brain. At the same time, a person has difficulty in switching attention from one object to another or from one action to another. The main neurological causes of perseveration are:

What psychological problems lead to perseveration?

In addition to neurological causes that are associated with physical damage to the brain or the influence of diseases on it, there are also psychological causes of perseveration.

Perseveration should be distinguished from other diseases or stereotypical human actions. Repetitive actions or words can be a manifestation of sclerosis, OCD (obsessive-compulsive disorder), a regular habit, subjective obsessions. With obsessive phenomena, patients realize that their behavior is a little strange, ridiculous, meaningless. With perseveration, there is no such awareness.

Symptoms

Depending on how perseveration manifests itself, experts distinguish between motor and mental (intellectual) forms.

With motor perseveration, a person constantly repeats the same movement. Sometimes a patient can see a whole system of repetitive actions. Such actions have a certain algorithm that does not change for a long time. For example, if there is difficulty in opening a box, a person constantly hits it on the table, but this does not lead to anything. He understands the pointlessness of such behavior, but repeats these actions. Children can constantly call a new teacher by the name of the former one, or look for a toy where it was stored before, but its storage location has long been changed.

Intellectual perseveration is characterized as an abnormal stuck-up of representations and judgments. It is expressed through the constant repetition of phrases or words. This form of the disease is easily diagnosed when the specialist asks a few questions, and the patient answers everything with the very first answer. In a mild form, perseveration can be observed when a person constantly returns to the discussion of a long-resolved issue, the topic of conversation.

Doctors draw the attention of parents to the need to monitor the behavior of their child, whether he has any even the most minor perseverations.

The Positives of Persistent Repetitions

It is believed that obsessive repetition of thoughts or actions characterize a person as sick or with deviations. But almost every one of us has experienced perseveration at least once in our lives. But in people without additional neurological or psychiatric dysfunctions, this condition is called careful analysis, experience, perseverance.

Sometimes repetition of thoughts or actions helps people adapt to a particular situation. Perseveration is useful or at least not pathological when:

• a person needs to understand something in detail;
• subdue strong emotions and overcome psychological trauma;
• a person tries to remember something for a long time;
• you need to see something new in an already known fact;
• take into account all the probabilities of the event.

Persistent repetition is useful during training, when it does not interfere with achieving goals. In other cases, this phenomenon requires correction or treatment.

Treatment

It is known that perseverations accompany some mental or neurological diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease, arteriosclerosis, genuin epilepsy, organic dementia, Down's syndrome, OCD, autism. If there is a history of such diseases, then first you need to treat the root cause of frequent repetitions with medication.

Medications for perseveration

As a symptom, perseveration is not treated, but due to drug therapy of the underlying disease, its intensity decreases. Often, neuroleptics are used for the above diseases. This is a group of drugs that have a calming effect.

With their constant use, a person does not react to external stimuli in the same way, that is, the excessive experience of situations disappears, which can cause an annoying repetition of actions or thoughts. Psychomotor agitation decreases, aggressiveness decreases, the feeling of fear is suppressed. Some antipsychotics are used as sedatives, while others, on the contrary, are used when you need to activate mental functions. Each drug is selected by the doctor individually.

Along with the use of drugs, it is important to provide psychotherapeutic support to a person, especially if perseverations are caused by stress and other psychological factors.

Psychotherapeutic help

Before conversations and the use of psychotherapy, psychological tools are used to diagnose the patient's condition. This is a technique that includes 7 subtests that help assess the degree of pathological manifestations in the behavior and thoughts of the patient. After that, the need for medical assistance and direction in psychotherapeutic work with him is determined.

In psychotherapeutic work with a patient, it is important to teach him new thinking and motor skills, as well as to create rational attitudes and maintain the existing positive characteristics of a person in order to overcome constant repetition in actions, conversation and thoughts. For this, the following methods and techniques can be used (their application can be done in sequence or alternately).

Persistent and annoying repetitions often interfere with a person's life. In this case, the help of a specialist is needed, who will determine the need for the use of medications, and also help to get rid of such a phenomenon as perseveration with the help of psychotherapeutic methods.

Timely and qualified assistance with persistent repetition of actions, ideas, thoughts and phrases will help a person better adapt to the reality around him.