What are the terms. Exceptions to the rules

This article is devoted to the question of what terms are in Russian. Some concepts from the list will also be analyzed for those students who are preparing to take the unified state exam.

The terms from it must be learned by heart in order to understand such a complex issue as the means of stylistic expressiveness in the Russian language. The reader will learn a lot of new and useful information, in particular about the authors of some words, without the existence of which a modern person cannot imagine his life.

Definition

First of all, you need to figure out which words are terms in the Russian language and which are not. It is worth saying that, unlike all other concepts, scientific definitions have features that distinguish them from all others.

Firstly, they have a clear interpretation, which, as a rule, is included in professional and other dictionaries.

Secondly, ideally, scientific terms in Russian should not have synonyms. Also, they cannot have other meanings than the main one.

Thus, the question of what terms are in the Russian language can be answered: it is glory, which have an extremely clear definition and are used mainly in professional industries.

Exceptions to the rules

However, there are words whose meaning may change depending on the area in which they are currently used. Further, as an example, the case will be given when in Russian the term has two meanings. So the word "economy" has the following definitions. Firstly, it is a branch of the existence of the state, and secondly, this is the name of the activity of a specialist in finance. But, ideally, a scientific definition should not have more than one definition, right? Yes it is. However, the words used in the professional lexicon become so accustomed to the everyday speech of workers in certain industries that they begin to exist and "behave" in the same way as it happens with ordinary vocabulary units.

This means that we can state the fact that nothing that is characteristic of ordinary words is alien to terms. They, like all their "relatives", acquire other meanings, change their original meaning, acquire a number of synonyms, and so on and so forth.

Next, a few more examples of what terms are in Russian will be given, examples of definitions that ideally meet the requirements for specific words will also be named. Those that deviate from these norms will also be considered.

Examples

If we take the word “magnesium” known to every chemist, then we can confidently say that this concept denotes the corresponding element in the periodic table. This word has no other definitions. And accordingly, this example of a term in Russian can be called ideal. That is, this word has no synonyms and other meanings, except for the main one.

If you turn to the dictionary of linguistic terms of the Russian language, then you can also find many similar words in it.

For example, if we consider the definition of the concept of "hyperbole", then in the dictionary entry one can read something like this: "A figure of stylistic expressiveness, which consists in the deliberate exaggeration of a particular phenomenon." Another example can be given: an epithet is a poetic definition that highlights a sign of a particular object or phenomenon.

Speaking about these linguistic terms of the Russian language, we can also call them ideal, since they have no synonyms and other meanings, with the exception of the main ones.

word formation rules

Discussing the question of what terms are in the Russian language, one should also mention that such words often have their own way of word formation, characteristic of their field of knowledge in which they are used.

For example, in astronomy, to designate different layers of space, it is customary to use names formed by adding the morpheme "-sphere" to any root. So, the term "atmosphere" is used to refer to oxygen, which is located in near-Earth space. Above it, as you know, is the stratosphere, mesosphere, and so on. Therefore, having heard an unfamiliar word, which includes this element, we can confidently assert that the meaning of this concept is close to already familiar words, which include the same morpheme.

However, it should be borne in mind that in different fields of science, the same prefixes and suffixes can be used to denote different phenomena. So, geologists use the suffix "-it" to form the names of the rocks they discover. Examples are the names of stones such as jadeite, malachite, jade, and so on. In medicine, this affix is ​​also used, but already as part of the word used to form the names of diseases.

Words such as tonsillitis, peritonitis and others belong to this cohort.

In the same way, in the literature on other scientific disciplines, one and the same lexeme can be found, used to denote different concepts that are not similar either in meaning or in any other way. Thus, the term “league” in music theory denotes a musical notation used to explain that a given passage of a piece must be played with a continuous stroke. In political science, this concept is used in the sense of "union, association", such as the League of Nations and other organizations.

Although these two terms have some common features: in both cases there is an indication of a union, but, one way or another, these are two different terms. And accordingly, we can talk about several meanings that this word has.

Although many experts argue that in this case it is necessary to talk not about ambiguity, but about the existence of this concept in several different scientific fields. If we consider this phenomenon from this point of view, it turns out that for each science this term is unique, that is, it has one single meaning that does not have synonyms.

How are terms formed?

There are at least three ways in which you can create a name for a newly discovered scientific or other phenomenon.

Such words are often formed in prefixed and suffixal ways from the roots of the Russian language.

The following concepts can serve as examples of such terms: driver (from the word "drive"), manager, cleaning lady, and so on.

Also, very often, when searching for a name for a new phenomenon, scientists stop at a foreign language term that has been used in academic circles by specialists from another state for quite some time.

Numerous legal and economic terms that are international, that is, used in many countries, can be cited as examples of such borrowings. These are such words as: inflation, corruption, amnesty and many others.

It is worth noting that there are hundreds of times more words that were pumped into our language from a foreign lexicon in scientific use than in the commonly used vocabulary.

This is explained, first of all, by the desire of scientists to cooperate with their foreign colleagues in order to conduct research that requires the work of a large number of specialists. But such a circumstance often causes the appearance of Russian-language analogues for such names. Moreover, there are many people who strive to cleanse their native language from foreign impurities. Therefore, it is not uncommon to find dictionary duplicates, one element of which is of foreign origin, and the other is Russian.

As an example, we can cite such pairs of words as: pilot - pilot, driver - driver and others.

The third option for the formation of terms in the Russian language is when the meaning of an already existing word acquires a new shade. So it was created, for example, the name of a part of the molecule - the nucleus.

Justified and unjustified terms

There is also such a criterion as the justification for using a particular name. This usually means the correspondence or inconsistency of this term with its content.

So the name of the technical means for moving around the Earth's satellite is called a lunar rover. This name fully justifies the functions that this machine performs.

If we turn to the question of whether the use of the name "atom" for small constituent parts of molecules is justified, then the answer to it will most likely be negative. After all, this word in Greek means "indivisible." This definition does not correspond to the real state of affairs. Atoms, as you know, in turn, contain protons, neutrons and electrons. In this case, the use of this term is due to historical reasons, namely: this word began to be used back in those days when the knowledge of chemistry was not as perfect as it is now. And since language is a fairly conservative phenomenon, the term, which has been used for a long time, continues to exist to this day.

About authors

Answering the question of what terms are in Russian, it is worth mentioning one more essential feature of these words. Unlike other vocabulary, scientific definitions most often have a specific author. History has preserved information about who first introduced this or that name into use. For example, it is known for sure that the name for extraterrestrial vehicles was proposed by Korolev.

It was he who began to call rockets spaceships.

More about aeronautics

There is also a legend that such fame as “airplane” and “pilot” was invented by the famous poet of the early 20th century Velimir Khlebnikov. But it is not so. Indeed, this famous futurist created a vocabulary for the then-nascent Russian aviation. In this small book, his recommendations were collected on how to name some objects and phenomena from this area. However, none of those words came into use.

Scientific style of speech

It's time to talk about in which texts you can most often find complex sentences with terms. In the Russian language in the senior classes of the general education school, they pass stylistics. This science studies, among other things, various types of speech. More often you can find references to five styles: scientific, journalistic, artistic, official business and colloquial. The first of them is characterized by the presence of numerous terms in the texts.

Along with this, scientific works contain a large number of complex sentences. The structure of these works, as a rule, is extremely clear and often follows an established pattern. The chapters of such works are usually numbered.

As examples of these works, one can cite term papers that every student faces.

From neologism to term

The list of terms of the Russian language, which is proposed to be learned by graduates of secondary schools in preparation for the unified state exam, also includes the word "neologism". This is the name of the names of objects and phenomena that have just appeared in the language. These lexical units have not yet become familiar to native speakers and are perceived by them as something unusual.

After some time, such words either become part of the common vocabulary, or turn into scientific terms if they exist within a certain field of knowledge.

There are the following types of neologisms:

1. Invented by a specific person or those whose authorship is uncertain.

2. Appeared as a result of word formation according to the laws of a certain language, or those that were borrowed from foreign dictionaries.

As mentioned earlier, most often the enrichment of the Russian language occurs at the expense of Latin and Greek. It is in this way that most of the linguistic terms that are presented in the list for preparation for the unified state exam in the Russian language were created.

He introduced into Russian such concepts as "atmosphere", "thermometer", "substance", "expertise" and many others.

Without these terms, it is impossible to imagine science at the present stage of development.

Conclusion

In this article, the question of what are the terms of the Russian language and their meanings was analyzed.

The material contains the characteristics that the words used in the scientific literature must meet. Ideally, each scientific term should be unique, that is, it cannot have synonyms and other meanings. But in reality, not all words used in certain areas of knowledge meet these requirements.

This is partly due to the fact that such phenomena of the Russian language as the desire of its speakers to find equivalents for all foreign words in their native speech and use the vocabulary of one field of knowledge, the lexicon characteristic of another science to enrich it, are not alien to terms.

Information about this lexical concept will be useful for students of secondary schools in preparation for the exam. As a rule, they are asked to memorize a list of Russian language terms with definitions. Some of the words from this list have been analyzed in this article. In addition, students may find it useful and general information about what terms are. This information is given in several chapters of this material. It will also be useful to study articles from encyclopedic dictionaries about this phenomenon and manuals, which contain words and terms in the Russian language.

TERM

TERM

1. In formal logic, a concept expressed by a word (philosophical). Three terms of the syllogism.

2. A word that is the name of a strictly defined concept. Precise, imprecise term. Good, bad term. New term. Philosophical terms. Technical terms. Special terms (denoting special concepts of individual branches of science, art, technology, industries, etc.). “... for the masses it is necessary to write without such new terms, which require special explanation ...” Lenin .

|| A special word and expression adopted to denote something in a particular environment, profession. Terms of card games. Chess terms.

Explanatory Dictionary of Ushakov. D.N. Ushakov. 1935-1940.

See what "TERM" is in other dictionaries:

- (from lat. terminus border, limit, end), 1) name with a touch of special. (scientific) of its meaning, specified in the context of c.l. theories or branches of knowledge. 2) In antiquity. philosophy, a concept that fixes stable and enduring aspects ... Philosophical Encyclopedia

- (lat. terminus). 1) an accepted conditional expression, a name characteristic of any science, craft. 2) term. 3) among the Romans: the god of borders, to whom the festival of terminalia was established. 4) border post, column. 5) in logic: the name of the concept, ... ... Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language

- (Terminus). Roman deity of borders, originally the god of the boundary and boundary stone. A temple was built for him by King Numa, and the feast of Terminalia was celebrated in his honor. (Source: "A Concise Dictionary of Mythology and Antiquities." M. Korsh. St. Petersburg, ... ... Encyclopedia of mythology

Term- TERM is a word that has a special, strictly defined meaning. Used in science and technology. In connection with the general history of science and technology, the most magnificent development of which is associated with the 19th and 20th centuries, the terms, by their origin, ... ... Dictionary of literary terms

See the word ... Dictionary of Russian synonyms and expressions similar in meaning. under. ed. N. Abramova, M .: Russian dictionaries, 1999. term name, word; differentiation, numerator, antilogarithm, continuum, quotient, determinant, extremum, factorial, ... ... Synonym dictionary

- (from Latin terminus border limit), a word or combination of words denoting a special concept used in science, technology, art. In modern logic, the word term is often used as a common name for nouns in the language of logico ... ...

- (from the Latin terminus border, limit), a word or combination of words denoting a special concept used in science, technology, art ... Modern Encyclopedia

- (lat. terminus limit border), in Roman mythology, the god keeper of boundary marks, was revered among the peasants. His feast of the terminalia was celebrated on February 23... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

- (lat. terminus limit, border) a word or phrase denoting empirical or abstract objects, the meaning of which is specified within the framework of scientific theory. Depending on the presence or absence of a denotation (referent) T. in the determined ... ... The latest philosophical dictionary

TERM, a, husband. A word or phrase is the name of a certain concept of some kind. special field of science, technology, art. Technical terms. Terms of mathematics. Dictionary of musical terms. | adj. terminological, oh, oh. Explanatory ... ... Explanatory dictionary of Ozhegov

Books

• 101 terms of tax law. Brief legislative and doctrinal interpretation, Reut Anna Vladimirovna, Paul Alexei Georgievich, Solovieva Natalia Alexandrovna, Pastushkova Lyubov Nikolaevna. The scientific and practical publication is a summary of tax, legal and economic views on 101 terms of tax law, including both terms enshrined in ...

Having a complex internal semantic structure, the term is a single, independent naming unit. Ovcharenko V.M. Terms, analytical name and nominative definition // In the book. Modern problems of terminology in science and technology. M., 1969. S. 41 - 42.

A term (including scientific and technical terms and terms of organizational and administrative documentation) is a unit of any specific natural or artificial language (word, phrase, abbreviation, symbol, combination of a word and letters-symbols, combination of a word and digits-symbols), which, as a result of a spontaneously formed or special conscious collective agreement, has a special terminological meaning, which can be expressed either in verbal form or in one form or another formalized form and quite accurately and fully reflects the main features of the corresponding concept that are essential at a given level of development of science and technology. A term is a word that is necessarily correlated with a certain unit of the corresponding logical-conceptual system in terms of content.

A. A. Reformatsky defines the terms "as unambiguous words, devoid of expressiveness." Reformatsky A. A. What is term and terminology. M., 1959. M. M. Glushko states that “a term is a word or phrase for expressing concepts and denoting objects, which, due to its strict and precise definition, has clear semantic boundaries and therefore is unambiguous within the corresponding classification system” . Glushko M. M. et al. Functional style of the public language and methods of its research. M., 1974. S. 33.

What is the linguistic nature of the term? Firstly, the term is an integral organic part of the lexical system of the literary language. Secondly, terms differ from other categories of words in their enormous information richness. In the scientific and technical term, the most precise, concentrated and economical definition of a scientific or technical concept is given.

The main requirement for a term is its unambiguity. In general terms, this requirement is implemented in two ways, since there are two categories of terms: 1) general scientific and general technical terms and 2) special (nomenclature) terms. General scientific and general technical terms express the general concepts of science and technology. Terms exist not just in the language, but as part of a certain terminology. Terminology, as a system of scientific terms, is a subsystem within the general lexical system of a language. Kapanadze L.A. On the concepts of "term" and "teminology" // Development of the vocabulary of the modern Russian language. M., 1965. P.75 - 86. According to A. A. Reformatsky, terminology is a system of concepts of a given science, fixed in an appropriate verbal expression. Reformatsky A. A. What is term and terminology. M., 1959. If in a common language (outside of this terminology) a word can be ambiguous, then, falling into a certain terminology, it acquires unambiguity.

The specificity of terms as a special lexical category of words is that they are created in the process of production and scientific activity and therefore function only among people who have the corresponding scientific and production realities, that is, a macro context. Therefore, unlike ordinary words, the unambiguity of which in speech communication is provided by the situation or the linguistic context, the unambiguity of the term is regulated by the extralinguistic macrocontext or the linguistic microcontext.

The term does not need context, like an ordinary word, because it is 1) a member of a certain terminology, which acts instead of context; 2) can be used in isolation, for example, in the texts of registers or orders in technology, 3) for which it must be unambiguous not in general in the language, but within the given terminology. Lotte D.S. Formation of a system of scientific and technical terms // Fundamentals of the construction of scientific and technical terminology M., 1961. P. 73.

Within the lexical system of the language, terms exhibit the same properties as other words, that is, they are characterized by both antonymy and idioms. For example, the term " valve"in mechanical engineering means "valve", in radio engineering "electronic lamp", in hydraulics "shutter"; term " power" in physics means "power", "energy", in mathematics - "degree", in optics - "lens magnification power".

The same term can be included in different terminologies of a given language, which is an interscientific terminological homonymy, for example:

reaction 1) in chemistry, 2) in philology, 3) in politics;

reduction 1) in philosophy, 2) in jurisprudence, 3) in phonetics;

assimilation 1) in ethnography, 2) in phonetics.

Gradually, the content of scientific knowledge begins to penetrate into the signs of the language we have chosen, to saturate and fill them. In language, a word, a phrase are already inseparable from their meaning, and here the content of scientific knowledge becomes an element of the language of science. Scientific knowledge, which has found its expression in a word, in a term, passes into a qualitatively new stage, being included in the semantic system and structure of a particular language of science, becoming a component of the lexico-semantic system of this language.

Greek ????, lat. terminus - border, limit, end) - 1) In the widest modern. the use of T. is a synonym for the word (and me n and, see Name), but with a touch of special (scientific) meaning; in other words, T. are words or combinations of words (complex, or descriptive, T., for example, "common least multiple"), the meanings of which are determined in the context of the corresponding scientific. theory (discipline) or in general in k.-l. branches of knowledge. In this sense, the problem of refining the term that often arises presupposes their definition, the elimination of homonyms, and the obligatory fixation of the universe of reasoning (see Universum). 2) In the philosophy of the Greek. ???? and lat. terminus were used in the sense of defining the essence, i.e. as something that fixes the stable and imperishable - the general, the one or the idea, as opposed to the fluid and continuously changing sensual being (cf. Aristotle, Met. I 6 987 b 6; Russian translation, M.-L., 1934). T. in this sense, i.e. as general definitions, or concepts, were considered as the basis of rational (true) Cognition. 3) In the logic of Aristotle, T. are the elements of the premise. "The terms of the premise - its subject and predicate - are the boundaries of the premise, its beginning and end. This is the meaning of the word ????, and we must be careful not to identify this logical word with such psychological and metaphysical words as "idea", " representation", "concept"..." (Lukasevich Ya., Aristotelian syllogistics from the point of view of modern formal logic, translated from English, M., 1959, pp. 36–37). In the meaning of the simplest (basic) elements of logico-mathematics. expressions the word "T." widely used in modern literature For example, in the languages ​​of applied logico-mathematics. Calculus T. is an analogue of the subject or complement of natural (spoken) languages, i.e. an expression (word) denoting (often "describing") k.-l. subject of the universe. (In Russian literature, in this case, instead of the word "T." they usually write term, i.e. French terme or English term are used without pen-water.) See also Art. Syllogism, Term. Lit.: Mill D.S., The system of syllogistic and inductive logic, trans. from English, M., 1914, p. 15–32; Chelpanov G. I., Textbook of logic, [M.], 1946, ch. 2; Aristotle, Analysts first and second, M., 1952, p. ten. M. Novoselov. Moscow.

Great Definition

Incomplete definition ↓

The most significant group in the special vocabulary are scientific and technical terms that form a variety of terminological systems.

Terminological vocabulary includes words or phrases used to logically accurately define special concepts, establish the content of concepts, their distinctive features. Consequently, for a term (as opposed to a non-term, i.e., any word in general), the main characteristic function is the function of definition, called the definitive (lat. Difinito – definition), and the very terminological disclosure of the content of the concept - a definition.

The emergence and functioning of such vocabulary is due to the development of science, technology, agriculture, art, etc.; it has a pronounced social character and is under the control of society.

Terminology is one of the most mobile, rapidly replenishing parts of the national vocabulary. The growth of scientific and technical knowledge has caused the emergence of a huge number of new concepts and, accordingly, their names. going on twofold process: a sharp increase in special terms accessible only to specialists, the number of which in each highly developed language is extremely growing and numbering in the millions, many times exceeding the generally accepted vocabulary, and at the same time, the intensive penetration of special terminology into the general literary language. Special terminology becomes the main source of replenishment of the vocabulary of the literary language.

The role of terminological vocabulary in the modern Russian language has grown incredibly. In this regard, data related to sports terminology are interesting: only 200 sports terms are placed in the dictionary of V.I. In this sense, the data of neological dictionaries are also indicative, in which more than half of the words (up to 80%) are terms.

Terminological vocabulary is opposed to common, firstly, its meaningful connection with the objects of a certain special area, Secondly, the fact that within the framework of special communication it has a very high frequency, and from the point of view of the vocabulary as a whole, it is only to a very small extent included in the sphere of sufficiently frequent vocabulary. At present, terminology has become a special scientific discipline, in the development of which, along with linguists, specialists in computer science, science of science, representatives of all sciences participate.

Terms constitute the most regulated part of the vocabulary of the language, in a certain sense - the most artificial, consciously created and providing for regulation. In this regard, they have a number of essential features, according to which the terms in the most general form are opposed to all other words (non-terms).

Consider these signs.

1. The meanings of terms are specific in the sense that they express scientific concepts that require a fairly precise definition in accordance with the level of development of a particular branch of knowledge. Consequently, the very nature of the term excludes or at least strongly limits the semantic indeterminacy (non-limitability), which is one of the essential features of the word. If the semantics of an ordinary word correlates with practical ideas about a particular object (“the closest” meaning, in the terminology of A. Potebnya), then the semantics of the term reflects the content of a scientific, deeper concept (“further meanings”).

Wed determination of the lexical meaning of a word midnight -"middle of the night, the time corresponding to twelve o'clock at night" (MAS, 3, 264) and the definition of the corresponding geographical term - "the moment at which the true Sun or the average Sun crosses the meridian above the horizon (i.e., is at the lower culmination)" (Encyclopedic Dictionary of Geographical Terms, 293). Another example - historicism(as a word) is interpreted as follows: "interest in the past, its reproduction in works of art." The Futurists... ridiculed the symbolists' exaggerated historicism(Bryusov) (MAS, 1, 690); historicism(as a term) - "a word that has come out of living word usage due to the fact that the object it denotes is already unknown to speakers as a real part of their everyday experience" (Dictionary of Linguistic Terms, 185).

In connection with the indicated functional and semantic features of the terms, they are always direct and neutral names, devoid of connotative components.

2. Terms always function as members of certain term systems. Within the terminology of a particular industry, they are naturally related to each other, and the content of one term is formed and comprehended against the background of others. In terminological systems, the features of the systematic nature of vocabulary are most clearly manifested, especially in the paradigmatic plan. This is manifested, in particular, in the presence of regular oppositions, cf.: archaisms– neologisms(antonyms); lexical archaisms– lexical neologisms, semantic archaisms– semantic neologisms(equivalent oppositions).

Semantic relationships in the terminology are identified and emphasized by the systematic design. So, the same suffixes are used in the names of language units (phoneme, lexeme, morpheme), in the titles of sections of linguistics (as in other sciences), a model of compound words is used with the element -logy (morphology, phonology, lexicology, phraseology, morphonology, accentology etc.). The names of atomic accelerators are created according to the model with the component -tron (bevatron, betatron, kosmotron, synchrotron, synchrophasotron, synchrocyclotron, phasotron, cyclotron); the names of the newly discovered components of a living cell are decorated with the element - soma (chromosome, ribosome, informasome, centrosome). The models by which the terms of one series are formed can be specialized within the framework of individual sciences. So, in geology with the help of the suffix -it names of minerals are formed from proper names (altaite, baikalite, voluevit, sparrowite, lomonosovite etc.), and in medical terminology, the homonymous suffix is ​​used to form the names of inflammatory diseases from the names of the organs of the human body (colitis, nephritis, gastritis, meningitis, cholecystitis, bronchitis, pleurisy etc.). It is in the use of certain models that the regularity of terms, the possibility of their artificial and conscious formation are clearly manifested.

3. The ideal requirement that can be made to the term is the requirement of unambiguity and lack of synonyms. Many highly specialized terms meet this requirement and thus fundamentally differ from ordinary words, potentially configured for ambiguity. In terminology, however, homonymy is allowed, but of a special type. In different term systems, the same lexemes can be used to denote different concepts. For example, the word reduction as a chemical term it means "liberation from oxidation", in biology it means "simplification of the body associated with the loss of function", in technology - "lowering the force of pressure or tension", in linguistics - "weakening the sonority of vowels", in medicine - "insertion a piece of bone instead of a damaged one", in history - the seizure of indigenous lands from feudal lords in Sweden in the second half of the 18th century. From a lexicological point of view, all these meanings can be considered as polysemy, but since each of these terms is included in its own terminological system and, functioning in it, does not correspond in any way with another that outwardly coincides with it, this phenomenon is more correctly defined as intersystem terminological homonymy.

An equally ideal requirement is the absence of synonymous doublets for terms. . The absence of synonymy, as well as the absence of ambiguity, is intended to provide terminological systems with special clarity and certainty. It would seem that in this area, where names are created artificially and often become the subject of discussion and choice, the above requirements for unambiguity and lack of synonymy are easily achievable. In reality, in any terminology, we encounter violations of these ideal requirements. Let us give as examples the facts already known to us. Term lexeme used in lexicology in two meanings - "generalized invariant" and "external shell of the word"; to indicate the minimum components of the meaning of the word along with the generally accepted term sema are used such as semantic feature, semantic factor, elementary significance, sense quantum and others. Polysemy of this kind is regular in linguistics, when the same term is used to designate the object of study and the corresponding branch of science, cf .: lexicography - 1. "A set of dictionaries"; 2. "The science of compiling dictionaries"; syntax - 1. "Types of sentences and the laws of their formation"; 2. "The science of the proposal."

In real-life terminologies, there are many terms that are characterized by the so-called categorical ambiguity, consisting in the fact that the content of the concept, expressed verbally in the term, consists of signs that simultaneously belong to several categories that have non-genus-species relationships with each other: process and value (pressure), process and phenomenon (the study) etc. For example, one of the types of terms that have it are nouns with the meaning of an action and its result: winding - 1) “the distribution of turns of something”, 2) “the cone-shaped or cylindrical shape of the product acquired as a result of winding”. Wed also the ambiguity of a number of other terms of textile production: overlap, processing, breakage etc.

One of the sources of ambiguity (turning into homonymy) in terminology there may be a development of terminological meanings in ordinary words, for example: nose in the meaning of "the front of the ship", face in the meaning of "grammatical category of the verb".

Even more often the rule of absence of synonyms is violated, cf.: console– prefix, spelling– spelling, punch card– punched card, efficiency– efficiency and under. The usual factors of synonymy are at work here: the coexistence of a Russian term with a foreign one, the replacement of a long term by a shorter one. And such synonymy is overcome in the same ways that exist in general in the vocabulary of the language, with the exception of stylistic demarcation.

The ambiguity of terms, as well as their synonymy (cf. in linguistics or linguistics: monosemy - uniqueness etc.), as well as homonymy (cf.: reaction - chem., reaction 2 – general-polit., or homonymy of the term element aero in words aerothermometer, where aero- "air", and dope varnishes, where aero 2 - truncated form from airplane, i.e. airplane varnishes) and antonymy (cf.: polysemy - monosemia, perfect form - imperfect species) are usually noted among the shortcomings of many modern terminologies.

4. The question of the motivation of the term deserves special consideration. As is known, a motivational sign (even if it exists) does not play a significant role in the process of functioning of commonly used words. And what about the terms? Is the quality of motivation necessary, is it useful for terms that are fundamentally oriented primarily to communication with non-linguistic objects? It is difficult to give a definite answer here. On the one hand, the meaning of a term should be determined by a scientific definition and not depend on the semantics of the means used to form it. This is fully met by foreign terms, conditional terms such as Newton's binomial, Bohr's assumption, black box(in cybernetics) or noise(in information theory), as well as abbreviated terms like ACS, AI K, Uranium-235. On the other hand, in any terminological system, we encounter derivative words that are connected by motivation relationships both within this system and outside it, for example: syllable– syllabic principle, sign– sign, variant– invariant, phrase– phraseology etc. Most of the Russian terminology is motivated, which, in principle, apparently, is not contraindicated for it. The only thing that is undesirable is the desire to exaggerate the meaning of the motivational feature in determining the content of the term. For example, the internal form of the term atom- "indivisible", this sign is absolutely incompatible with the modern understanding of the structure of the atom. Another example: it would be illegal within the framework of modern case theory to define the term case, associate it with the meaning of the verb fall, although there is an etymological connection.

Some researchers (for example, N. Z. Kotelova) are more categorical on this issue: “In a general explanatory dictionary, a word-term should be described only as a word, an element of a language system. Nothing linguistic is alien to terms. They are characterized (and even close as a way of measuring) antonymy, synonymy (the most common difference between synonyms as equivalent words is their difference in the method of nomination, in particular, the presence or absence of terminating the designation), polysemy. Forgetting the polysemy of the term often leads to difficult situations in science, compare, for example, the contradictory statements in scientific papers and textbooks about the ideality or materiality of consciousness, resulting from the uncontrolled use of the term consciousness in different (4–5) values. The linguistic properties of lexical meanings are inherent in concrete and terminological vocabulary, as well as in abstract and non-terminological ones.

Despite the specified specificity, terms, being nevertheless elements of the lexical system of the Russian language, basically obey its laws. So, the methods of formation of neologisms-terms are the same as for ordinary words, for example: computer memory(semantic way), Control block(compound name), sanding(suffix way), hydropower(phrasing). At the same time, within the framework of these general methods, features characteristic of terminology appear.

Terms are formed in different ways. Along with the process of creating new names, terminology of words already existing in the language is observed, i.e., their rethinking (transfer of the name), as a result of which secondary, specially terminological nominations arise.

The following methods are used to create new terms:

a) actually lexical, i.e. formation of words and phrases (shoemaker - railway, hole - physical, charger - physical, overscaling, maternal substance - physical, etc.); various kinds of loans (algorithm, bathyscaphe, cybernetics, laser, maser, scanner and scanner - honey.); a mixture of both (daughter atoms, light isotopes - physical, liquid shock absorber, neutron generation, force field – physical);

b) lexical and derivational, i.e. - the creation of terms using the existing in the Russian language or borrowed word-building elements, morphemes according to the models available in the language. The most productive among them are addition and affixation. So, different types of addition of bases and words are used. Addition of complete bases: cotyledon, oxygen-containing, nuclear-powered ship, smoke extractor, lunar rover, oil pipeline, current rotator etc.; addition of truncated stems (complex abbreviated words): hyperbaric apparatus, space navigation, hardware(metal products); state committee, trade union committee; use of foreign language elements; air, auto, aero, bio, video, zoo, geo, hydro, hyper, inter, iso, macro, micro, pan, para, radio, television , ultra-, electro- and etc.: aeronomy, biophysics, hydrometeorological service, zooplankton, isotherm, radio telescope, ultraacoustics, electrocoagulation and etc.; abbreviation: AMC(automatic interplanetary station), power lines(power line), MN(magnetic saturation), NOT(scientific organization of labor), UHF(high frequency ultraviolet rays); computer(electronic computer); mixed method, i.e. combination of complex partially dissected names and different derivational elements: hydro-sand-jet perforation, hydroponic greenhouses, radio-electronic industry.

Terms formed by addition can be indivisible lexicalized units (cosmology, biocybernetics, crank etc.), but can also be units of incomplete lexicalization, i.e. those that are not one indivisible lexeme (vector function, press scissors, donor atom, vacuum shield, alpha particle), as evidenced by the hyphenated spelling of words.

Very productive and different types of term formation by the method of affixation (prefix, prefix-suffix, mixed word formation): swirl, ground, transparency(property and value characterizing the property), reduction, adder, dielectric, milling(and milling), fluoridate, headset, nuclear (nuclear) etc.

No less productive is lexical and semantic way of replenishing terminological vocabulary, i.e., the creation of a term in the process of scientific (or technical) rethinking of well-known words. This process goes in two ways: 1) through a complete rethinking of the existing word and the subsequent separation of the newly created unit from the source word. Thus arose, for example, one of the terminological meanings of the word elementary combined elementary particle, i.e. "basic, complex, fundamental particle" (cf. one of the commonly used meanings of the word elementary -"simple, uncomplicated"); cf. also the terminological meaning of the word slow in the phrase slow processes - so in physics they call processes occurring in one millionth of a second, etc.; 2) by using the transfer of the name, taking into account the emerging associations. So the terminological meanings of the words arose snow (special) -"a special kind of image"; hole (special) -"defective electron"; neck (special) -“intermediate part of the machine shaft”, etc. When terminologising words with diminutive suffixes, their inherent evaluative, expressive-emotional properties are lost, for example: head(for bolts and rivets) tail(for tools, fixtures) paw(part of the frame of machines, near instruments), etc. This method allows, in some cases, to create terminological names with elements of expression in semantics: worm image, dead time, alien atom.

A significant role in the replenishment of terminological systems is played by foreign borrowings. For a long time, international scientific, technical, economic, cultural, historical, socio-political terms of Latin and Greek origin have been known in the language: acclimatization, agglutination, binary; humanity, dictatorship, internationalism, literature and other words from the Latin language; agronomy, dynamics, grammar, space, dramaturgy, democracy and other words from the Greek language. Many terms came from other languages.

In terminology, more often than in ordinary words, one can indicate the person who created (or proposed) this or that term. For example, the term biosphere introduced by V. I. Vernadsky, the 104th element of the Periodic Table was named kurchatov G. A. Flerov, term spaceship was proposed by S.P. Korolev. It is in the terminology that the percentage of foreign words (especially international ones) far exceeds the corresponding indicators in the field of common vocabulary. It is in it that the standard international elements of word composition, genetically related to the Greek-Latin tradition, are used with maximum activity. (air, video, hydro, meteo-n etc.; -count, -drome, -meter, -teka etc.). Only in terminology do we encounter such designations, which include the symbolism of other sciences, for example a-particles, y-radiation, BN-350(fast neutrons).

In addition to the terms themselves and terminological combinations, in science are widely used abbreviations and abbreviations, for example IR spectrum(infrared spectrum), IPS(information retrieval system), efficiency(efficiency), PC(punched card), PMT(photoelectronic multiplier), EMU(electronic simulation device); symbolic and formula designations of concepts (in particular, chemical elements): H - hydrogen, O - oxygen, H 2 O - water formula, etc.

It is impossible to clearly oppose terminology to common non-terminological vocabulary. Between them lies a wide band, in which terms exist as if in constant fluctuation between ideal requirements (uniqueness, neutrality, absence of synonyms) and the real laws of a living and dynamic lexical system.

It is in this “transitional” band that active interaction between terms and non-terms takes place, because real people in their specific speech activity use them in the same row. As a result of such interactions, systemic transitions of vocabulary from one sphere to another are carried out: terms into the sphere of general vocabulary (determinologization) and vice versa - replenishment of terms at the expense of general vocabulary resources (terminologization).

The most common and strongest trend is the expansion of the boundaries of the use of terminological vocabulary, the exit of terms beyond the narrow special spheres with subsequent possible rethinking and inclusion in the common vocabulary. The general prerequisites for such processes are: general education, expansion of the spheres of mass communication, an increase in the role of science in all spheres of public life, characteristic of the era of scientific and technological revolution - all this creates especially favorable conditions for active processes of interaction of terminological vocabulary with the popular (common) part of the vocabulary of the modern Russian language. These processes are especially clearly seen in the periodical press, especially in the newspaper page. According to the language of newspapers, it is possible to identify the main stages of this process.

The first stage is a general expansion of the use of terms both in ordinary correspondence and in special promotional materials. Wed at least the headlines of newspaper articles: The converter straightens his shoulders; Hydroponics at a new stage; Agronomist on a spring field: Houses off the assembly line; Stolen sovereignty; Design– not cosmetics etc. In the note “From Neptune’s Storerooms” (Pravda. 1986. April 27), dedicated to the algae museum, along with fairly well-known terms like iodine, vitamins, trace elements highly specialized terms are used: laminaria, fifeltsia, fucus, agar, mannitol, sodium alginite. In the correspondence “Living Water is Dead” (Uralsky Rabochiy. 1986. April 25), reporting on the clogging of the Nizhny Tagil Pond, in addition to fairly well-known terms such as rental, discharge, water intake, treatment facilities more special ones are also used: suspended solids, clarification pond, sludge, looped circulation, bottom sediments. Readers understand the meaning of such highly specialized terms approximately, relying on the “hint” of the context or internal form. Often, however, the authors themselves give an explanation of the term, for example: lysis of bacteria scientists call this word the dissolution of microorganisms - has long been known in science(Science and life).

The second stage of mastering the term associated with its rethinking. The term is used in an unusual context in an unusual, figurative sense, for example: tournament orbit; sowing starts; landfill of entrepreneurship; financial vampires; clerical virus; success algorithm; irresponsibility - plankton swindlers; common man - it is nitrogen in the state atmosphere, performing its neutral functions; this is - neutrino in the state atom. In all the examples given, the terms act as expressive speech means.

The third stage is the complete determinologization of the word , when the term loses both its special meaning and its expressiveness, it becomes one of the derived meanings, which are predominantly neutral in nature. For example, the word contact in addition to special terminological meanings (technical; geologist), there is a neutral, commonly used meaning "mutual communication; mutual understanding, agreement in work"; at the word reaction in addition to biological, chemical and physical terminological meanings, there are commonly used meanings "a state that occurs in response to some effect" and "a sharp change in well-being, which has the character of a transition from tension to weakness."

The reverse movement from the sphere of general vocabulary to terminology occurs in two types of phenomena, which we have already touched upon above. Firstly, this is the development of secondary terminological meanings in ordinary words, for example: the meaning of "interference in the communication channel" in the word noise as a computer science term; meaning "reduction of metal strength under the influence of variable loads" in the word fatigue as a technical term. Secondly, the occurrence of ordinary words in compound terms of the type subaquatic bath, stepless ride, soft landing, red book, REM sleep etc.

In the literary language, narrow professional words usually do not receive wide distribution, i.e., the scope of their use remains limited. Most often - this is colloquial speech of representatives of a particular profession. However, the so-called terminology of professional words and expressions often occurs. In this case, they become the only officially legalized name (see, for example, the above examples of terms for textile production).

At the same time, the spread of scientific and technical terminology and actually professional vocabulary, their intensive penetration into various spheres of life leads to the fact that in the language, along with the process of terminology of commonly used words, there is also a reverse process - mastering the literary language of terms, i.e. their determinology. The frequent use of philosophical, art history, literary criticism, medical, physical, chemical, industrial and technical and many other terms and terminological phrases has made them commonly used lexical units: argument, concept, consciousness; drama, concerto, contact, contour, tension, romance, style, resonance; analysis, glow, synthesis, soldering etc., as well as inclined plane, freezing point, boiling point, fulcrum, center of gravity etc. Many of these words and phrases in general literary use have a different, often figurative-metaphorical, lexical or phraseological meaning; compare: catalyst(special) - "a substance that accelerates, slows down or changes the course of a chemical reaction" and catalyst(trans.) - "a stimulator of something"; contact(special) - "contact of electrical wires" and contact(trans.) - "communication, interaction"; "consistency in work"; inclined plane(trans.) - "shaky, unstable life position", etc.