A set of interrelated branches of the fuel industry and energy. Russian tech
The fuel and energy complex is a combination of various branches of industrial production engaged in the extraction of fuel resources, their further processing and transportation to consumers. The fuel and energy complex includes the fuel industry and the electric power industry.
general characteristics
The fuel and energy complex is the largest intersectoral system, an important component of heavy industry. The functional use of energy resources is one of the indicators of the level of development of civilization. Without electricity and fuel, the development of the economy and finances of any state is impossible.
The structure of the fuel and energy complex includes:
- fuel industry (coal, gas, oil, shale, peat);
- power industry .
Rice. 1. Coal industry.
Thermal power engineering is one of the factors in the location of the economy, since its complexes are located in close proximity to energy sources (oil and coal basins), powerful power plants. As a result, large industrial areas are growing around the fuel and energy complex, settlements and cities are being created. It becomes possible to transfer fuel to electricity over long distances. Thanks to this, areas that do not have their own energy sources are developing, and a more rational distribution of the economy is taking place.
Rice. 2. Development of industrial areas.
One of the most important tasks of thermal power engineering is to increase the efficiency of energy resources use, their careful saving. It is necessary to use coal, natural gas, oil wisely, since these natural resources are exhaustible.
Fuel industry
The fuel industry specializes in the extraction, enrichment, processing and consumption of all types of fuel (solid, liquid and gaseous). Includes the following basic industries :
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- The oldest fuel industry, the importance of which gradually began to decline in the middle of the twentieth century. This was facilitated by the development of more efficient fuels - gas and oil. The world coal industry is currently undergoing reconstruction. It is the base industry for the development of the electric power industry, metallurgy, and coke chemistry.
- Gas industry. The gas industry is well developed all over the world. This is facilitated by large reserves of natural gas, the low cost of its transportation, higher environmental "cleanliness" than that of oil or coal.
- Oil industry. Oil is widely used as a fuel and feedstock for the chemical industry. The economy of many countries is based on the export of oil, which is almost all sold. This type of fuel has a huge impact on the economies of the world and on international politics.
The fuel and energy complex of Russia includes all types of fuel and electric power industries. However, the extraction and export of oil and oil products is of the greatest importance in the country's economy.
Rice. 3. Oil industry of Russia.
Power industry
The world production of electrical energy is characterized by continuous sustainable growth rates. This is due to the active development of integrated automation, electronization, informatization of production throughout the world.
Electricity is produced at power plants of various types:
- Thermal power plants (TPP) - world leaders in the production of electrical energy, but at the same time very pollute the environment.
- Hydroelectric power plants (HPP) - they account for 20% of world electricity production.
- Nuclear power plants (NPP) - produce electricity by fission of atomic nuclei. Nuclear power plants are located only in economically developed countries. This method of energy generation is the most progressive and high-tech.
Recently, in the field of electric power industry, special attention has been paid to the development of alternative methods of generating electricity. In this case, inexhaustible natural raw materials are used: solar energy, the power of wind and sea tides, geothermal sources.
LOCATION OF THE FEC INDUSTRIES:
1 Fuel and energy complex: composition, importance in the economy, development problems. Fuel and Energy Complex and the Environment.
The fuel and energy complex (FEC) is a set of industries associated with the production and distribution of energy in its various types and forms.
The fuel and energy complex includes industries for the extraction and processing of various types of fuel (fuel industry), the electric power industry and enterprises for the transportation and distribution of electricity.
The importance of the fuel and energy complex in the economy of our country is very great, and not only because it supplies fuel and energy to all sectors of the economy, not a single type of human economic activity is possible without energy, but also because this complex is the main supplier of currency (40% - this is the share of fuel and energy resources in Russia's exports).
An important indicator characterizing the work of the fuel and energy complex is the fuel and energy balance (FEB).
The fuel and energy balance is the ratio of the production of various types of fuel, the energy generated from them and their use in the economy. The energy obtained by burning different fuels is not the same, therefore, to compare different types of fuel, it is converted into the so-called reference fuel, the calorific value of 1 kg. which is equal to 7 thousand kcal. When recalculated into standard fuel, the so-called thermal coefficients are used, by which the amount of the recalculated type of fuel is multiplied. So, if 1 ton of hard coal is equated to 1 ton of standard fuel, the coefficient of coal is 1, oil - 1.5, and peat - 0.5.
The ratio of different types of fuel in the fuel and energy balance of the country is changing. So, if until the mid-1960s coal played the main role, then in the 1970s the share of coal decreased, while oil increased (deposits of Western Siberia were discovered). Now the share of oil is declining and the share of gas is increasing (because it is more profitable to use oil as a chemical raw material).
The development of the fuel and energy complex is associated with a number of problems:
Stocks of energy resources are concentrated in the eastern regions of the country, and the main areas of consumption in the western. To solve this problem, it was planned to develop nuclear energy in the western part of the country, but after the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant, the implementation of this program slowed down. There were also economic difficulties with the accelerated extraction of fuel in the east and its transfer to the west.
Fuel production is becoming more and more expensive and therefore it is necessary to introduce more and more energy-saving technologies.
The increase in fuel and energy complex enterprises has a negative impact on the environment, therefore, during construction, a thorough examination of projects is required, and the choice of a place for them should take into account the requirements of environmental protection.
Fuel industry: composition, location of the main areas of fuel production, development problems.
The fuel industry is part of the fuel and energy complex. It includes industries for the extraction and processing of various types of fuel. The leading branches of the fuel industry are oil, gas and coal.
Oil industry. In its raw form, oil is almost never used, but during processing, high-quality fuel (gasoline, kerosene, diesel fuel, fuel oil) and various compounds that serve as raw materials for the chemical industry are obtained. In terms of oil reserves, Russia ranks second in the world.
The main base of the country is Western Siberia (70% of oil production). The largest deposits are Samotlor, Surgut, Megion. The second largest base is the Volga-Urals. It has been developed for almost 50 years, so the reserves are greatly depleted. Of the largest deposits, one should name Romashkinskoye, Tuimazinskoye, Ishimbayevsky. In the future, it is possible to develop new deposits on the shelf of the Caspian Sea, as well as the Barents, Kara and Okhotsk Seas.
Part of the oil is processed, but most of the refineries are located in the European part of Russia. Oil is transported here via oil pipelines, and part of the oil via the Druzhba pipeline is transported to Europe.
Gas industry. Gas is the cheapest type of fuel and a valuable chemical raw material. In terms of gas reserves, Russia ranks first in the world.
700 deposits have been explored in our country. The main gas production base is Western Siberia, and the largest fields are Urengoyskoye and Yamburgskoye. The second largest gas production base is Orenburg-Astrakhan. The gas of this region has a very complex composition; large gas processing complexes have been built for its processing. Natural gas is also produced in the Timan-Pechora basin (less than 1% of the total production), a deposit has been discovered on the shelf of the Baltic Sea. In the future, it is possible to create another base - the Irkutsk region, Yakutia, Sakhalin.
A unified gas pipeline system has been created for gas transportation. 1/3 of the produced gas is exported to Belarus, Ukraine, the Baltic countries, Western Europe and Turkey.
Coal industry. Coal reserves in Russia are very large, but extraction is much more expensive compared to other types of fuel.
Therefore, after the discovery of the largest oil and gas fields, the share of coal in the fuel balance decreased. Coal is used as a fuel in industry and at power plants, and coking coal is used as a raw material for ferrous metallurgy and the chemical industry. The main criteria for evaluating a particular coal deposit are the cost of production, the method of extraction, the quality of the coal itself, the depth and thickness of the seams.
The main mining areas are concentrated in Siberia (64%). The most important coal basins are the Kuznetsk, Kansk-Achinsk and Pechora.
Problems. The coal industry is in deep crisis. The equipment is outdated and worn out, the standard of living of the population of coal-mining regions is extremely low, the ecological situation is very unfavorable. this is the construction of gas and oil pipelines and new oil refineries near the consumer, but this is unsafe, and, above all, from an environmental point of view.
Thus, the most important direction of the Russian fuel industry is the introduction of new equipment and modern safe technologies.
Power industry: composition, types of power plants, factors and areas of their location. Power industry and environment.
The electric power industry is a branch of the fuel and energy complex, the main function of which is the generation of electricity. The development of other sectors of the economy largely depends on it, the production of electricity is the most important indicator by which the level of development of the country is judged.
Electricity is produced at power plants of various types, which differ in technical and economic indicators and location factors.
Thermal power plants (TPP). 75% of the energy produced in Russia is at such stations. They operate on different types of fuel, are built both in the areas of extraction of raw materials and at the consumer. The most widespread in the country are GRES - state-owned district power plants serving vast territories. Another type of thermal power plant is a combined heat and power plant (CHP), which, in addition to energy, generates heat (hot water and steam). CHP plants are built in large cities, since heat transfer is only possible over short distances.
Hydroelectric power plants (HPP). They take the 2nd place in Russia in terms of electricity generation. Our country has a large hydropower potential, most of which is concentrated in Eastern Siberia and the Far East. Hydroelectric power plants have many advantages: low cost, high power, use of renewable energy resources.
Cascades of HPPs have been built on the largest rivers: the Volga, the Yenisei, the Angara.
Nuclear power plants (NPP). Very effective, since 1 kg. nuclear fuel replaces 3000 kg. coal. Built in areas where a lot of electricity is consumed, and other energy resources are not enough. There are 9 large nuclear power plants in Russia: Kursk, Smolensk, Kola, Tver, Novovoronezh, Leningrad, Balakovo, Beloyarsk, Rostov.
Stations of different types are connected by power lines (TL) into the Unified Energy System of the country, which makes it possible to rationally use their capacities and supply consumers.
Plants of all types have a significant impact on the environment. Thermal power plants pollute the air, slags from coal-fired stations occupy vast areas. The reservoirs of lowland HPPs flood the fertile floodplain lands and lead to waterlogging of the lands. Nuclear power plants have the least impact on nature, provided they are properly built and operated. Important problems that arise during the operation of nuclear power plants are ensuring radiation safety, as well as the storage and disposal of radioactive waste.
The future lies in the use of non-traditional energy sources - wind, tidal energy, the Sun and the internal energy of the Earth. There are only two tidal stations in our country (in the Sea of Okhotsk and on the Kola Peninsula) and one geothermal station in Kamchatka.
3 Electricity is an energy industry that includes the production, transmission and sale of electricity. The electric power industry is the most important branch of the energy industry, which is explained by such advantages of electricity over other types of energy as the relative ease of transmission over long distances, distribution between consumers, and conversion into other types of energy (mechanical, thermal, chemical, light, etc.). A distinctive feature of electric energy is the practical simultaneity of its generation and consumption, since electric current propagates through networks at a speed close to the speed of light.
The Federal Law "On the Electric Power Industry" gives the following definition of the electric power industry:
Fuel industry. Electricity (grade 7)
Geography teacher: Musaeva N.M.
Topic: Fuel industry. Power industry.
Objectives: to reveal the structure, significance and role of the fuel industry and energy; to develop independence of work in working with a geography textbook and with additional literature; show the need for careful and rational use of fuel resources.
Equipment: Minerals map, atlases, drawings, a set of minerals (fuel), a textbook.
During the classes:
1. Opening speech of the teacher: “Guys! We started to study the topic “Economy”. Today we have a lesson on this topic “Fuel industry. Power industry''.
Without what is the development of the economy impossible?
Answer: The development of the economy is impossible without the use of minerals and natural resources.
Teacher: I offer you a test on the topic "Natural Resources".
Exhaustible: renewable, non-renewable, planned.
Renewable: land, water, mineral.
Inexhaustible: the energy of the Sun, the power of the wind, the energy of the earth's interior, atomic energy, mineral minerals.
Mineral, earth, plastic, water.
Fuel, ore, non-metallic, wood.
Coal, peat, oil, iron ore, combustible gas.
Coniferous forests, tropical forests, mixed forests, equatorial forests, arctic forests.
Meadows, quarries, pastures, hayfields.
Copper, iron, aluminum, lead.
In order to prepare work with a map to determine mineral deposits, I test the knowledge of students of a political map. I put questions in an entertaining way. Students determine the country, the student at the map shows it.
Map questions:
What is the largest country by area? (Russia)
The state that ranks 1st in the world in terms of population? (China)
What state occupies the whole continent? (Australian Union)
The state in which we live? (Republic of Belarus)
A large state occupying the north of North America? (Canada)
A country whose language is the state language for many peoples. It is spoken by 400 million people. You are also studying it. (Great Britain)
A highly developed island state where earthquakes occur very often? (Japan)
A state that occupies most of the Arabian Peninsula? (Saudi Arabia)
Name 4 economically developed states in Europe that are members of the G8? (Germany, France, Italy, UK)
Ι Ι. Checking homework: (checking is carried out frontally)
What is a farm?
What is an industry?
What industries do you know?
What sectors does the industry consist of?
ΙΙΙ. Learning new material.
Guys! No problem, perhaps, worries humanity today as much as fuel. Imagine that in winter the heating was suddenly turned off, the gas and electricity went out!!!
Conclusion: Human life is unthinkable without fuel.
Today we will talk with you about the fuel industry and the electric power industry. In a notebook, students write the topic: “Fuel industry. Electricity".
In this topic we will learn:
On the desk:
What industries does the fuel industry and the electric power industry consist of?
What areas are most provided with fuel resources?
How is oil, gas, coal used?
What types of power plants are there?
Why are fuel resources called pantries of the Sun?
Why can't we consider the earth's crust as a magic self-assembly tablecloth that can supply the treasures of the earth's interior in any quantity?
On the board: “People! Be careful owners of natural resources.” Under this motto will be the study of our topic.
^ Structure of the fuel industry.
Structure of the fuel industry and electric power industry
Assignment: The students, together with the teacher in notebooks, draw up a diagram “The structure of the fuel industry and the electric power industry”
^ Fuel industry and electric power industry
Fuel industry Power industry
Oil gas coal peat shale production line
electricity transmission
at power plants
Oil industry.
Modern economy cannot be imagined without oil.
a) a story about the origin of oil.
^ BLACK GOLD ADVENTURES
Oil and gas are rocks, although one of them is liquid, the other is gaseous. Together with peat, brown and hard coal, anthracite, combustible rocks form a special family called caustobioliths (from the Greek "Caustos" - combustible). All caustobioliths contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, but in different proportions. In coal, carbon dominates over hydrogen. In oil, their ratio is approximately equal. There is more oxygen in coal than in oil. Oil is only called oil when the hydrocarbon part is more than 50%. Now 425 hydrocarbon compounds have been discovered that are present in various types of oil and gas. Of course, chemists already understand the peculiarities of the composition of oil when they begin to produce it. When looking for oil, geologists use the ability of different types of oil to glow under the influence of ultraviolet rays. Light oils glow blue, heavy oils glow brown and yellow-brown. With this property, you can even find traces of oil in rocks. Well, the most common way to find and extract oil is to drill a well. Drilling begins in the place where, according to geologists, there should be oil. And they drill until a black fountain breaks out of the well.
In terms of its value, oil is quite commensurate with gold. In the history of mankind, it plays an enormous role, and it has become especially significant in the last century. Oil was already known in ancient Egypt - it was added to the composition for embalming mummies. In 220 B.C. one Chinese emperor ordered to drill the earth in the province of Sichuan in search of salt. When the hollow bamboo trunks plunged several tens of meters into the bowels, a fountain of black flammable liquid suddenly hit. Apparently, this was the first oil well. The oil collected at that time was used to light dwellings. In ancient times, oil was also used for military purposes. In the middle of the XVII century. The French missionary Joseph de la Roche discovered in the wilds of western Pennsylvania in America the mysterious "black water" that the Indians added to the paints used to paint their faces. It was oil, and from it Joseph de la Roche created a healing balm; used in many European countries. Only in the second half of the 19th century did its amazing capabilities become known. Then oil began to be called "black gold". Of all the variety of minerals, there are not yet those that could replace oil.
b) Question: Where do you think oil is used?
Teacher's story:
Liquid fuel is obtained: gasoline, diesel fuel, fuel oil, kerosene (a collection is being demonstrated) Fuel oil processing products: spindle oil, cylinder oil, machine oil, tar, petroleum jelly, paraffin, synthetic rubber, wax.
Show with the help of a textbook on the map the main areas of oil occurrence.
Coal industry.
a) The story of the origin of coal.
^ ORIGIN OF COAL
Ancient people discovered a way to get fuel by burning wood in fires. Also, perhaps by accident, they came across the "hot water" - oil. And to this day, these two sources of energy remain the main ones for man.
Coal is pure carbon. We know that coal is formed from the remains of plants over many years. But not always abundant vegetation leads to coal deposits. Coal is formed where the rate of sinking of the earth's crust is equal to the rate of accumulation of dying plants. Areas that sink faster are flooded with water. In stagnant lakes and swamps, organic matter rots and ultimately turns not into coal, but into sapropel (organic sludge), which is used as fertilizer. And only the coincidence of the rate of immersion with the rate of accumulation gives rise to coal. Plant remains receive oxygen, but to a limited extent due to the amount of moisture. They rot gradually. First, peat is formed, which turns into brown coal, then into hard coal, and finally into anthracite, the highest quality coal, almost entirely composed of carbon (up to 98%).
By the way, that 2% non-carbon in coal is extremely valuable. These are various microminerals that make coal a raw material for the chemical industry. After all, all those microelements that nourish plants during their lifetime remained in the coal.
b) Use of coal.
Task: Analyze fig. 133, textbook p. 100
c) The largest coal basins are:
Analyze Fig. 131 (textbook grade 7) “The largest coal basins”
Answer: Tunguska, Lensky, Kuznetsk (Russia); Karaganda (Kazakhstan); on the Great Plain of China (China); Appalachian (USA); in Australia; in Africa (South Africa); Donetsk (Ukraine); Ruhr (Germany)
Task: show these deposits on the map.
^ Gas industry.
a) The story of the teacher “Gas is the cheapest type of fuel, the “blue gold” of the planet.
What is included in the fuel and energy complex?
It is used in industry and for domestic needs of the population. Natural gas is an important source of raw materials for the production of nitrogen fertilizers, plastics, and synthetic fabrics (nylon, nitron).
b) Task: Analyze fig. 144 (page 105 of the textbook)
“Scheme of production, transportation and use of natural gas”.
Power industry.
Task: Write a definition in a notebook using a textbook: Electricity is ...
— The power industry is a branch of heavy industry that combines the production of electricity at power plants of various types and its transmission to the consumer.
Depending on the types of natural resources used to generate electricity, there are different types of power plants.
Task: analyze Figure 145 (p. 106, textbook).
"Types of power plants"
Tidal energy Fossil fuel energy
Falling water energy
E
nuclear power station
energy
wind Nuclear energy
Intraterrestrial heat Solar energy
Task: Using the text of the textbook, rewrite and fill in the table "Types of power plants"
Types of power plants
Type of energy source
Placement factors
IV. Consolidation and withdrawal.
Which of the listed countries, which produce most of the electricity at thermal power plants, have significant production volumes of the corresponding type of fuel?
China; 5. Turkey; a) oil
Brazil; 6. South Africa; b) natural gas
Poland; 7. Australia; c) coal
Mexico; 8. Spain.
Why is it important to be careful with fuel?
V. Homework (differentiated)
2.* Answer the questions:
a) What kind of raw materials do power plants in the Republic of Belarus use?
b) Which types of power plants pollute the environment the least?
c) Competition of connoisseurs: Which state in Asia occupies a leading position in the world in terms of proven reserves of natural gas?
VI. Reflection.
It is carried out according to the example of reflection “Mugs”
What industries are included in the fuel and energy complex?
Answers:
1. Fuel and energy complex - - a set of industries that carry out the extraction and processing of decomp. types of primary fuel and energy resources (coal, oil, gas, hydraulic
Fuel and energy complex
Nuclear, geothermal, biol. etc.), as well as converting these primary energy resources into thermal and electrical energy or into motor fuel. The fuel and energy complex includes interacting and interdependent subsystems: the fuel industry (coal, oil, gas, shale, peat) - the mining subsystem and the electric power industry, which converts fuel and energy resources into energy carriers. These subsystems are closely connected with power engineering, electrical engineering, nuclear industry and with all industries that consume fuel and energy. Through hydropower, the fuel and energy complex is connected with the country's water management. 2. Saving electricity affects not only large-scale enterprises, but also every house or apartment, and it is not only a matter of the constant increase in electricity prices. Everyone knows that even the most seemingly environmentally friendly power plants, such as hydroelectric power plants, still cause irreparable damage to nature. And there is no need to talk about nuclear power plants, everyone understands this, but nevertheless it is the energy of the atom that has remained the most used for many decades, despite its insecurity on a global scale.
Fuel and energy complex (FEC) of the Russian Federation is a complex system - a set of industries, processes, material devices for the extraction of fuel and energy resources (FER), their transformation, transportation, distribution and consumption of both primary FER and converted types of energy carriers. This applies to thermal and electrical energy.
The fuel and energy complex includes interacting and interdependent subsystems of the fuel industry (coal, oil, gas, shale, peat) - the mining subsystem and the electric power industry, which converts primary fuel and energy resources into energy and delivers them to consumers. These subsystems are closely connected with power engineering, electrical engineering, nuclear industry and with all fuel and energy consuming industries. Through hydropower, the fuel and energy complex is connected with the country's water management. The fuel and energy complex sectors are among the key sectors of industry, the scale and level of development of which largely determine the state of the entire economy of the country. The growth in the production of fuel and electricity for many years served as the main factor in the successful development of the world economy.
Energy- the branch of the fuel and energy complex that produces electricity and heat and delivers it to consumers. By its development, one can judge the economic power of the country.
Fuel and energy complex
In terms of electricity production, Russia ranks 4th in the world. More than 70% of electricity is produced at thermal power plants (TPP) running on gas, fuel oil, coal and peat, the rest of the energy - approximately equally - at hydraulic (HPP) and nuclear (NPP) stations. The electric power industry is the leading component of the power industry, which ensures the electrification of the country on the basis of the production and distribution of electricity. Electricity has a number of advantages over all widely used types of energy. These include the possibility of transmission over long distances, distribution between consumers and conversion to other types of energy. Electricity cannot be accumulated in large quantities, therefore, various methods are being developed for the accumulation of potential energy at various stages of the production of electrical energy.
The technological structure of the electric power industry includes the production of electricity, its transportation through power lines and distribution among consumers. The Russian electric power industry is about 600 thermal, 100 hydraulic and 11 nuclear power plants.
The dynamics of electricity production in Russia is presented in Table:
Electricity generation in Russia, billion kWh
| Year | Total | TPP | hydroelectric power station | nuclear power station |
| 470,2 804,9 1082,2 876,0 950,0 | 373,1 621,5 797,1 580,9 675,0 | 93,6 129,4 166,8 164,6 145,0 | 3,5 54,0 118,3 130,3 130,0 |
Currently, Russia accounts for approximately 10% of the world's electricity, but in per capita terms, the country is in the 2nd ten countries. The positive side of the thermal power industry in Russia is the predominance of oil and gas fuel, which is used by power plants in the European region and Western Siberia. Only in Eastern Siberia and the Far East coal-fired TPPs prevail.
The advantage of nuclear power plants is their independence from the location of fuel bases. Therefore, all large nuclear power plants are located in the European region of the country, which is deficient in terms of fuel. A small nuclear power plant operates in Chukotka. Currently, the following nuclear power plants operate in Russia: Kola (Murmansk region), Leningrad (Leningrad region), Kalinin (Tver region), Smolensk (Smolensk region), Obninsk (Kaluga region, its
importance in electricity generation is small), Novovoronezh (Voronezh region), Kursk (Kursk region), Volgodonsk (Rostov region), Balakovo (Saratov region), Beloyarsk (Sverdlovsk region), Bilibinsk (Chukotka Autonomous Okrug).
At present, a program has been adopted for the further development of nuclear energy as the most promising industry.
Russia is building several nuclear power plants abroad - in China, India, Iran. Hydro resources serve as an important source of energy for the regions of Eastern Siberia, where 5 powerful hydroelectric power stations operate on the Angara and Yenisei, as well as for the Volga region, where 10 stations of the Volga-Kama cascade operate. Russia transmits electricity to the CIS countries. The unified energy system between Russia, Ukraine, Kazakhstan is being restored; a new energy system is being formed that unites Russia, the Baltic countries, Poland, Belarus, with further access through it to the countries of Western Europe. Power lines are being designed in the east of the country - to South Korea, India, China, Japan based on the development of Siberian coal and the construction of a system of large thermal power plants.
The country's fuel balance - the composition and ratio of different types of fuel in its total consumption - in Russia consists of 50% natural gas, 30% oil and 20% coal. This is a very favorable structure both from economic,
and environmental positions compared, for example, with the United States, where coal accounts for up to 50% of fuel consumption. However, as the cost of export fuel - oil and gas - increases, the structure of the fuel balance may change.
There are currently two opposing views on the future of energy. One is that due to the limited oil and gas reserves, the environmental danger of nuclear fuel and the low efficiency of solar, wind
and other types of energy, only coal fuel is promising, the reserves of which are huge in the world. The problem is to find a more economical and environmentally friendly technology for its extraction and combustion.
Another view is that the era of coal has passed, after the exhaustion of gas-oil fuel, technical progress will find safe and economical ways to use inexhaustible types of energy - solar, hydrogen, nuclear, etc. The most promising is nuclear, the use of which at nuclear power plants is already technologically and economically more efficient compared to other energy sources.
Russia will be able to use both paths, having both huge reserves of coal and nuclear energy already mastered by it. In any case, at the present stage, given the diversity of its natural, economic, technical and infrastructure conditions, it applies a regional approach to the development of its fuel and energy complex. So, according to the provision of fuel and energy resources, the regions of Russia are divided into three groups:
Highly wealthy: Western and Eastern Siberia, the Far East;
Medium-income: Northern region, Volga region, North Caucasus;
Low-income: Central, Volga-Vyatka, North-Western, Central Black Earth, Ural regions.
At the same time, in Eastern Siberia and the Far East, the main source of energy is coal and hydropower, in Western Siberia - oil and coal, in the European region - oil products, natural gas, and, in the future, nuclear energy.
Read also:
Introduction
The fuel and energy complex is the basis of the modern economy of any country. At the same time, the fuel industry is one of the main environmental pollutants. Open pit coal mining and oil production, as well as the transfer of oil and oil products, have a particularly strong destructive effect on natural complexes.
The fuel and energy complex of Russia is the leader and engine of the country's economy. The principle of using advanced technologies in the cycle of production and processing of hydrocarbon raw materials has always been applied in the industry at all stages of its development. It is impossible to do without it even in modern conditions, when competition in the market is great and you have to look for the most effective forms of both the production and business processes themselves and their management.
The purpose of this work is to consider the fuel and energy complex of Russia.
To achieve this goal, it is necessary to perform the following tasks: to give the concept of the fuel and energy complex (FEC), to identify the share of industries in the fuel and energy complex, to identify the essence of the fuel balance of Russia, to find out the essence of the program Energy Strategy of Russia until 2020, "Energy Saving", to find out integration ties Russia and its place in energy trade.
1. The concept of "fuel and energy complex", its structure and significance
fuel energy balance
The fuel and energy complex (FEC) is a complex intersectoral system of extraction and production of fuel and energy (electricity and heat), their transportation, distribution and use.
The development of the fuel and energy complex largely determines the dynamics, scale and technical and economic indicators of social production, primarily industry. At the same time, proximity to sources of fuel and energy is one of the main requirements for the territorial organization of industry. Massive and efficient fuel and energy resources serve as the basis for the formation of many territorial production complexes, including industrial ones, determining their specialization in energy-intensive industries. From the point of view of the national economy, the distribution of resources across the territory is unfavorable. The main consumers of energy are located in the European part of the Russian Federation, and 80% of the geological reserves of fuel resources are concentrated in the eastern regions of Russia, which determines the distance of transportation and, in connection with this, an increase in the cost of production.
The fuel and energy complex has a large area-forming function: a powerful infrastructure is developing near energy sources, which favorably contributes to the formation of industry, the growth of cities and towns. But, the fuel and energy complex accounts for about 90% of greenhouse gas emissions, about half of all harmful emissions into the atmosphere and a third of harmful substances discharged into water, which, undoubtedly, cannot be positive.
The fuel and energy complex is characterized by the presence of a developed production infrastructure in the form of main pipelines (for transporting oil and oil products, natural gas, coal) and high-voltage power lines. The fuel and energy complex is connected with all sectors of the national economy, it uses the products of mechanical engineering, metallurgy, and is connected with the transport complex. Almost 30% of funds are spent on its development, 30% of all industrial products are provided by the fuel and energy sector.
The well-being of all Russian citizens is directly related to the fuel and energy complex, such problems as unemployment and inflation, because there are more than 200 large companies in the fuel and energy complex and more than 2 million people are employed in its industries.
The fuel and energy complex is the basis for the development of the Russian economy, an instrument for conducting domestic and foreign policy, 20% of GDP is formed by the fuel and energy complex, more than 40% of the country's budget and 50% of Russia's exports are formed through the sale of fuel and energy resources.
The basis of Russia's exports falls on the products of the fuel and energy complex. The CIS countries are especially dependent on oil and gas supplies from Russia. At the same time, Russia manufactures only half of the oil-producing equipment it needs and, in turn, depends on the supply of power equipment from Ukraine, Azerbaijan and other countries.
The condition and technical level of the operating capacities of the fuel and energy complex are now becoming critical. More than half of the equipment in the coal industry, 30% of gas compressor units have exhausted their design life, half of the equipment in oil production and more than 1/3 in the gas industry have over 50% wear. The wear of equipment in oil refining and electric power industry is especially high.
Anti-crisis measures in the sectors of the fuel and energy complex suggest in the coming years to restore the pre-crisis level and increase the production of fuel and energy resources. The regional strategy of Russia in the fuel and energy complex is aimed at developing market relations and maximizing energy supply to each region independently.
The implementation of state policy in the fuel and energy sector is carried out by the Ministry of Energy of the Russian Federation and its subordinate organizations.
The structure of the fuel and energy complex:
Fuel industry:
Oil, gas, coal, shale, peat.
The Russian oil industry includes oil producing enterprises, oil refineries and enterprises for the transportation and marketing of oil and oil products.
The Russian gas industry includes companies engaged in geological exploration, drilling of exploratory and production wells, production and transmission, underground gas storage facilities and other gas infrastructure facilities.
Coal is mined by mines and open pits (40% of total production).
The most productive and cheapest way of coal mining is open (in quarries), but at the same time, it significantly disturbs natural systems.
Power industry:
thermal power plants
nuclear power plants (NPP)
hydroelectric power plants (HPP)
Other power plants (wind, solar, geothermal stations)
electric and heat networks
independent boiler rooms
The structure of electricity produced is distributed as follows: thermal power plants - 68%, hydroelectric power plants - 18%, nuclear power plants - 14%.
Question: what industries are included in the fuel and energy complex?
The share of industries of the fuel and energy complex in the structure of industrial production in Russia, the largest countries of the world and the CIS
With 2.8% of the population and 12.8% of the world's territory, Russia has 12-13% of probable resources and about 12% of proven oil reserves, 42% of probable and 34% of natural gas reserves, about 20% of proven reserves of stone and 32% of reserves brown coal. The total production over the entire history of the use of resources is currently 17% of the forecast recoverable resources for oil and 5% for gas. The availability of proven fuel reserves for oil and gas production is estimated at several decades.
The leader in production growth among fuel and energy sectors in 2008 was oil production, where this figure reached 8.6%. Production volumes increased in the gas industry by 2.8%, in oil refining by 2.3%, in the power industry by 0.3% compared to the previous year.
Oil production is carried out in a large number of countries, according to recent years, their number is approaching 80.
The Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), which includes Iran, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, UAE, Qatar, Algeria, Libya, Nigeria, Gabon, Indonesia, and Venezuela, plays a leading role in the world oil industry (43% of all production).
The top ten oil producers are Saudi Arabia (412 million tons), USA (354), Russia (304.8), Iran (175), Norway (149.3), China (158.9), Venezuela (157.4 ), Mexico (162.6), United Arab Emirates and Great Britain (about 100 million tons) (as of 2008).
The role of the CIS countries, primarily Russia, Azerbaijan (Absheron Peninsula, shelf and bottom of the Caspian Sea), Turkmenistan (fields in the Uzboy region), Kazakhstan (fields Tengiz, Karachaganak, Mangyshlak Peninsula, Ural-Emba basin) is also very large in world oil production. Of the CIS republics, Tajikistan, Armenia, Georgia and Kyrgyzstan have reserves not exceeding 15 million tons. Among the CIS republics, the Russian Federation (19,481 million tons) and Kazakhstan (2,104 million tons) have the largest reserves. Then follow Azerbaijan (460), Turkmenistan (264), Uzbekistan (253).
Of significant importance is oil production in North America (USA, Canada, Mexico), in the North Sea on the shelf of Great Britain and Norway, in China and Southeast Asia (Bahrain, Malaysia, etc.).
The oil refining industry of the world is largely focused on the main consumers of oil and oil products - developed countries (concentrate more than 60% of its capacity). Particularly large is the share of the United States (21% of the world's refinery capacities), Western Europe (20%), Russia (17%), and Japan (6%).
About half of all oil produced is exported. In addition to OPEC member countries, whose share in world oil exports is 65%, its largest suppliers to the world market are also Russia, Mexico, and the UK.
Large quantities of oil are imported by the United States (up to 250 million tons), Japan, China and European countries (France, Germany, the Netherlands, etc.)
Gas industry. Russia concentrates 1/3 of the world's proven reserves of natural gas (47,600 billion cubic meters).
About 30% of the world's natural gas reserves are produced on the territory of the CIS republics (moreover, among them 80% - in Russia, far ahead of all other countries in the world in this indicator) and in the USA (25% of world production). Then, many times lagging behind the first two countries, Canada, the Netherlands, Norway, Indonesia, and Algeria follow. These states are also the largest exporters of natural gas.
The presence of significant explored reserves of natural gas, the low cost of its production, transportation and use contribute to the development of the industry. World natural gas production is constantly growing. Russia (589 billion m3, 24.4%), USA (531 billion m3, 22%), Canada (174 billion m3, 7.2%), Great Britain (104 billion m3) stand out sharply in terms of natural gas production. , 4.3%), Algeria (83 billion m3, 3.4%). The Netherlands (75 billion m3), Indonesia (66 billion m3, 2.7%), Iran (52 billion m3, 2.2%), Saudi Arabia (47 billion m3, 2.0%) are also of great importance. %).
Among the CIS countries, Turkmenistan has a high gas potential (Achakskoye, Shatlykskoye, Mayskoye and other fields), in terms of reserves and production of natural gas, the republic ranks second among the CIS countries, behind Russia; Kazakhstan (Karachaganak and others), Uzbekistan (Gazli, Mubarek and others), Azerbaijan (Karadag). There are small deposits in Ukraine (Dashavskoye and Shebelinskoye).
The world's largest producers of natural gas - Russia, the USA, Canada, the Netherlands, Great Britain - simultaneously consume natural gas in large quantities, therefore, in comparison with oil, the share of natural gas supplies for export is relatively small - only about 15%. Its largest exporters are Russia (about 30% of world exports), the Netherlands, Canada, Norway, and Algeria. The United States, being one of the largest consumers of natural gas, uses not only its own, but also gas from other countries - Canada, Algeria, etc. Along with the United States, Japan and most European countries import gas (especially in large quantities - Germany, France, Italy) . Natural gas is exported via gas pipelines (from Canada and Mexico to the USA, from Russia and Turkmenistan to the CIS countries and Europe, from Norway and the Netherlands to Europe) or by sea in liquefied form (from Indonesia to Japan, from Algeria to Western Europe). and USA).
The provision of the world economy with natural gas at the current level of its production (2.2 trillion cubic meters per year) is 71 years.
The coal industry is very promising in the global energy supply (coal resources have not yet been truly explored, their general geological reserves significantly exceed those of oil and natural gas). Modern world coal production is at the level of 4.5-5 billion tons. Among the main coal-producing countries are representatives of almost all regions of the world. The exception is the coal-poor countries of Latin America, whose share in world coal production is extremely small. The largest coal miners in the world are China (1,160 million tons), the USA (930), Germany (270), Russia (245), India (240), Australia, Poland, South Africa (approximately 200 million tons), Kazakhstan , Ukraine (approximately 100 million tons each). The largest coal mining basins in the world are Appalachian (USA), Ruhr (Germany), Upper Silesian (Poland), Donetsk (Ukraine), Kuznetsk and Pechora (Russia), Karaganda (Kazakhstan), Fushun (China). Open pit coal mining is effective in the USA, Australia, and South Africa.
Approximately one tenth of the world's coal production (mainly coking) is exported annually. The largest coal exporters are Australia, USA, South Africa, Poland, Canada, Russia. The main importers are Japan, South Korea, Italy, Germany, Great Britain. Australia supplies coal mainly to Japan and South Korea. The USA and South Africa work for the European and Latin American markets. The distribution of Russian coal (Pechora and Kuznetsk basins) abroad is limited by its weak competitiveness (due to the high cost of production, remoteness from the main consumers, etc.) with local and imported fuel from other countries.
World electricity production is approximately 13.5 trillion. kWh. Most of the world's electricity production falls on a small group of countries, among which stand out the United States (3600 billion kWh), Japan (930), China (900), Russia (845), Canada, Germany, France (about 500 billion kWh). The gap in electricity production between developed and developing countries is large: developed countries account for about 65% of all generation, developing countries - 22%, countries with economies in transition - 13%.
In general, in the world, more than 60% of all electricity is generated at thermal power plants (TPPs), about 20% - at hydroelectric power plants (HPPs), about 17% - at nuclear power plants (NPPs) and about 1% - at geothermal, tidal, solar, wind power plants. However, there are large differences across the world in this respect. For example, in Norway, Brazil, Canada and New Zealand, almost all electricity is generated by hydroelectric power plants. In Poland, the Netherlands and South Africa, on the contrary, almost all electricity generation is provided by thermal power plants, and in France, Sweden, Belgium, Switzerland, Finland, and the Republic of Korea, the electric power industry is mainly based on nuclear power plants.
3. Fuel balance of Russia, its characteristics, changes at the present stage
Fuel and energy balance - the balance of obtaining, converting and using (consumption) of all types of energy: mineral, organic raw materials, kinetic energy of water flows, ebbs and flows, wind, solar energy, energy of geothermal sources, etc. The fuel and energy balance is an important tool analysis of the functioning of the energy sector of the country's economy. It reflects the ratio of production of various types of fuel and generated energy and their use in the national economy. The proportions in the extraction of various resources, the production of energy and their distribution among various consumers, is characterized by fuel and energy balances (TEB). The fuel and energy balance is the ratio of the extraction of different types of fuel and the generated electricity (income) with their use in the national economy (expenditure). In order to calculate this balance, different types of fuel with different calorific value are converted into standard fuel, the calorific value of which is 7 thousand tons.
kcal.
Conversion to reference fuel*
Type of fuel, 1 ton. Unit (ton) of standard fuel, tons of standard fuel
LOCATION OF THE FEC INDUSTRIES:
1 Fuel and energy complex: composition, importance in the economy, development problems. Fuel and Energy Complex and the Environment.
The fuel and energy complex (FEC) is a set of industries associated with the production and distribution of energy in its various types and forms.
The fuel and energy complex includes industries for the extraction and processing of various types of fuel (fuel industry), the electric power industry and enterprises for the transportation and distribution of electricity.
The importance of the fuel and energy complex in the economy of our country is very great, and not only because it supplies fuel and energy to all sectors of the economy, not a single type of human economic activity is possible without energy, but also because this complex is the main supplier of currency (40% - this is the share of fuel and energy resources in Russia's exports).
An important indicator characterizing the work of the fuel and energy complex is the fuel and energy balance (FEB).
The fuel and energy balance is the ratio of the production of various types of fuel, the energy generated from them and their use in the economy. The energy obtained by burning different fuels is not the same, therefore, to compare different types of fuel, it is converted into the so-called reference fuel, the calorific value of 1 kg. which is equal to 7 thousand kcal. When recalculated into standard fuel, the so-called thermal coefficients are used, by which the amount of the recalculated type of fuel is multiplied. So, if 1 ton of hard coal is equated to 1 ton of standard fuel, the coefficient of coal is 1, oil - 1.5, and peat - 0.5.
The ratio of different types of fuel in the fuel and energy balance of the country is changing. So, if until the mid-1960s coal played the main role, then in the 1970s the share of coal decreased, while oil increased (deposits of Western Siberia were discovered). Now the share of oil is declining and the share of gas is increasing (because it is more profitable to use oil as a chemical raw material).
The development of the fuel and energy complex is associated with a number of problems:
Stocks of energy resources are concentrated in the eastern regions of the country, and the main areas of consumption in the western. To solve this problem, it was planned to develop nuclear energy in the western part of the country, but after the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant, the implementation of this program slowed down. There were also economic difficulties with the accelerated extraction of fuel in the east and its transfer to the west.
Fuel production is becoming more and more expensive and therefore it is necessary to introduce more and more energy-saving technologies.
The increase in fuel and energy complex enterprises has a negative impact on the environment, therefore, during construction, a thorough examination of projects is required, and the choice of a place for them should take into account the requirements of environmental protection.
Fuel industry: composition, location of the main areas of fuel production, development problems.
The fuel industry is part of the fuel and energy complex. It includes industries for the extraction and processing of various types of fuel. The leading branches of the fuel industry are oil, gas and coal.
Oil industry. In its raw form, oil is almost never used, but during processing, high-quality fuel (gasoline, kerosene, diesel fuel, fuel oil) and various compounds that serve as raw materials for the chemical industry are obtained. In terms of oil reserves, Russia ranks second in the world.
The main base of the country is Western Siberia (70% of oil production). The largest deposits are Samotlor, Surgut, Megion. The second largest base is the Volga-Urals. It has been developed for almost 50 years, so the reserves are greatly depleted. Of the largest deposits, one should name Romashkinskoye, Tuimazinskoye, Ishimbayevsky. In the future, it is possible to develop new deposits on the shelf of the Caspian Sea, as well as the Barents, Kara and Okhotsk Seas.
Part of the oil is processed, but most of the refineries are located in the European part of Russia. Oil is transported here via oil pipelines, and part of the oil via the Druzhba pipeline is transported to Europe.
Gas industry. Gas is the cheapest type of fuel and a valuable chemical raw material. In terms of gas reserves, Russia ranks first in the world.
700 deposits have been explored in our country. The main gas production base is Western Siberia, and the largest fields are Urengoyskoye and Yamburgskoye. The second largest gas production base is Orenburg-Astrakhan. The gas of this region has a very complex composition; large gas processing complexes have been built for its processing. Natural gas is also produced in the Timan-Pechora basin (less than 1% of the total production), a deposit has been discovered on the shelf of the Baltic Sea. In the future, it is possible to create another base - the Irkutsk region, Yakutia, Sakhalin.
A unified gas pipeline system has been created for gas transportation. 1/3 of the produced gas is exported to Belarus, Ukraine, the Baltic countries, Western Europe and Turkey.
Coal industry. Coal reserves in Russia are very large, but extraction is much more expensive compared to other types of fuel.
Therefore, after the discovery of the largest oil and gas fields, the share of coal in the fuel balance decreased. Coal is used as a fuel in industry and at power plants, and coking coal is used as a raw material for ferrous metallurgy and the chemical industry. The main criteria for evaluating a particular coal deposit are the cost of production, the method of extraction, the quality of the coal itself, the depth and thickness of the seams.
The main mining areas are concentrated in Siberia (64%). The most important coal basins are the Kuznetsk, Kansk-Achinsk and Pechora.
Problems. The coal industry is in deep crisis. The equipment is outdated and worn out, the standard of living of the population of coal-mining regions is extremely low, the ecological situation is very unfavorable. this is the construction of gas and oil pipelines and new oil refineries near the consumer, but this is unsafe, and, above all, from an environmental point of view.
Thus, the most important direction of the Russian fuel industry is the introduction of new equipment and modern safe technologies.
Power industry: composition, types of power plants, factors and areas of their location. Power industry and environment.
The electric power industry is a branch of the fuel and energy complex, the main function of which is the generation of electricity. The development of other sectors of the economy largely depends on it, the production of electricity is the most important indicator by which the level of development of the country is judged.
Electricity is produced at power plants of various types, which differ in technical and economic indicators and location factors.
Thermal power plants (TPP). 75% of the energy produced in Russia is at such stations. They operate on different types of fuel, are built both in the areas of extraction of raw materials and at the consumer. The most widespread in the country are GRES - state-owned district power plants serving vast territories. Another type of thermal power plant is a combined heat and power plant (CHP), which, in addition to energy, generates heat (hot water and steam). CHP plants are built in large cities, since heat transfer is only possible over short distances.
Hydroelectric power plants (HPP). They take the 2nd place in Russia in terms of electricity generation. Our country has a large hydropower potential, most of which is concentrated in Eastern Siberia and the Far East. Hydroelectric power plants have many advantages: low cost, high power, use of renewable energy resources.
Cascades of HPPs have been built on the largest rivers: the Volga, the Yenisei, the Angara.
Nuclear power plants (NPP). Very effective, since 1 kg. nuclear fuel replaces 3000 kg. coal. Built in areas where a lot of electricity is consumed, and other energy resources are not enough. There are 9 large nuclear power plants in Russia: Kursk, Smolensk, Kola, Tver, Novovoronezh, Leningrad, Balakovo, Beloyarsk, Rostov.
Stations of different types are connected by power lines (TL) into the Unified Energy System of the country, which makes it possible to rationally use their capacities and supply consumers.
Plants of all types have a significant impact on the environment. Thermal power plants pollute the air, slags from coal-fired stations occupy vast areas. The reservoirs of lowland HPPs flood the fertile floodplain lands and lead to waterlogging of the lands. Nuclear power plants have the least impact on nature, provided they are properly built and operated. Important problems that arise during the operation of nuclear power plants are ensuring radiation safety, as well as the storage and disposal of radioactive waste.
The future lies in the use of non-traditional energy sources - wind, tidal energy, the Sun and the internal energy of the Earth. There are only two tidal stations in our country (in the Sea of Okhotsk and on the Kola Peninsula) and one geothermal station in Kamchatka.
3 Electricity is an energy industry that includes the production, transmission and sale of electricity. The electric power industry is the most important branch of the energy industry, which is explained by such advantages of electricity over other types of energy as the relative ease of transmission over long distances, distribution between consumers, and conversion into other types of energy (mechanical, thermal, chemical, light, etc.). A distinctive feature of electric energy is the practical simultaneity of its generation and consumption, since electric current propagates through networks at a speed close to the speed of light.
The federal law "On the electric power industry" gives the following definition of the electric power industry:
The electric power industry is a branch of the economy of the Russian Federation, which includes a complex of economic relations that arise in the process of production (including production in the mode of combined generation of electric and thermal energy), transmission of electric energy, operational dispatch control in the electric power industry, marketing and consumption of electric energy with the use of production and other property facilities (including those included in the Unified Energy System of Russia) owned by the right of ownership or on another basis provided for by federal laws to electric power industry entities or other persons. The electric power industry is the basis for the functioning of the economy and life support.
The electric power industry is a section of the energy sector that ensures the electrification of the country on the basis of a rational expansion of the production and use of electrical energy.
The history of the Russian, and perhaps, the world electric power industry, dates back to 1891, when the outstanding scientist Mikhail Osipovich Dolivo-Dobrovolsky carried out the practical transmission of electric power of about 220 kW over a distance of 175 km. The resulting transmission line efficiency of 77.4% was sensationally high for such a complex multi-element design. Such a high efficiency was achieved thanks to the use of a three-phase voltage, invented by the scientist himself.
In pre-revolutionary Russia, the capacity of all power plants was only 1.1 million kW, and the annual electricity generation was 1.9 billion kWh. After the revolution, at the suggestion of V. I. Lenin, the famous GOELRO plan for the electrification of Russia was launched. It provided for the construction of 30 power plants with a total capacity of 1.5 million kW, which was completed by 1931, and by 1935 it was overfulfilled by 3 times.
In 1940, the total capacity of Soviet power plants amounted to 10.7 million kW, and the annual electricity generation exceeded 50 billion kWh, which was 25 times higher than the corresponding figures in 1913. After a break caused by the Great Patriotic War, the electrification of the USSR resumed, reaching a production level of 90 billion kWh in 1950.
In the 50s of the XX century, such power plants as Tsimlyanskaya, Gyumushskaya, Verkhne-Svirskaya, Mingachevirskaya and others were put into operation. By the mid-60s, the USSR ranked second in the world in terms of electricity generation after the United States [
Main technological processes in the electric power industry
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Generation of electrical energy
Electricity generation is the process of converting various types of energy into electrical energy at industrial facilities called power stations. Currently, there are the following types of generation:
Thermal power industry. In this case, the thermal energy of combustion of organic fuels is converted into electrical energy. The thermal power industry includes thermal power plants (TPPs), which are of two main types:
Condensing (CPP, the old abbreviation GRES is also used);
Cogeneration (thermal power plants, thermal power plants). Cogeneration is the combined generation of electrical and thermal energy at the same station;
IES and CHP have similar technological processes. In both cases, there is a boiler in which fuel is burned and, due to the heat released, steam is heated under pressure. Next, the heated steam is fed into a steam turbine, where its thermal energy is converted into rotational energy. The turbine shaft rotates the rotor of the electric generator - thus the rotational energy is converted into electrical energy, which is fed into the network. The fundamental difference between CHP and IES is that part of the steam heated in the boiler goes to heat supply needs;
Nuclear energy. It includes nuclear power plants (NPPs). In practice, nuclear power is often considered a subspecies of thermal power, since, in general, the principle of generating electricity at nuclear power plants is the same as at thermal power plants. Only in this case, thermal energy is released not during the combustion of fuel, but during the fission of atomic nuclei in a nuclear reactor. Further, the scheme for generating electricity does not fundamentally differ from a thermal power plant: steam is heated in a reactor, enters a steam turbine, etc. Due to some design features, nuclear power plants are unprofitable to use in combined generation, although separate experiments in this direction were carried out;
Hydropower. It includes hydroelectric power plants (HPP). In hydropower, the kinetic energy of water flow is converted into electrical energy. To do this, with the help of dams on rivers, a difference in the levels of the water surface is artificially created (the so-called upper and lower pools). Water under the action of gravity overflows from the upstream to the downstream through special channels in which water turbines are located, the blades of which are spun by the water flow. The turbine rotates the rotor of the generator. Pumped-storage stations (PSPPs) are a special type of hydroelectric power station. They cannot be considered generating capacities in their pure form, since they consume almost as much electricity as they generate, but such stations are very effective in unloading the network during peak hours;
Alternative energy. It includes methods of generating electricity that have a number of advantages compared to the "traditional" ones, but for various reasons have not received sufficient distribution. The main types of alternative energy are:
Wind power - the use of the kinetic energy of the wind to generate electricity;
Solar energy - obtaining electrical energy from the energy of sunlight;
Common disadvantages of wind and solar energy are the relative low power of generators with their high cost. Also, in both cases, storage capacities are required for night (for solar energy) and calm (for wind energy) time;
Geothermal energy is the use of the natural heat of the Earth to generate electrical energy. In fact, geothermal stations are ordinary thermal power plants, where the source of heat for heating steam is not a boiler or a nuclear reactor, but underground sources of natural heat. The disadvantage of such stations is the geographical limitations of their application: it is cost-effective to build geothermal stations only in regions of tectonic activity, that is, where natural heat sources are most accessible;
Hydrogen energy - the use of hydrogen as an energy fuel has great prospects: hydrogen has a very high combustion efficiency, its resource is practically unlimited, hydrogen combustion is absolutely environmentally friendly (the product of combustion in an oxygen atmosphere is distilled water). However, hydrogen energy is currently not able to fully satisfy the needs of mankind due to the high cost of producing pure hydrogen and the technical problems of its transportation in large quantities;
It is also worth noting alternative types of hydropower: tidal and wave energy. In these cases, the natural kinetic energy of sea tides and wind waves, respectively, is used. The spread of these types of electric power industry is hindered by the need for too many factors to coincide in the design of a power plant: not just a sea coast is needed, but a coast on which the tides (and sea waves, respectively) would be strong and constant enough. For example, the coast of the Black Sea is not suitable for the construction of tidal power plants, since the differences in the water level of the Black Sea at high and low tide are minimal.
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Transmission and distribution of electrical energy
The transmission of electrical energy from power stations to consumers is carried out through electric networks. The electric grid economy is a natural monopoly sector of the electric power industry: the consumer can choose from whom to buy electricity (that is, the power supply company), the power supply company can choose among wholesale suppliers (electricity producers), however, the network through which electricity is supplied is usually one, and the consumer technically cannot choose the grid company. From a technical point of view, the electrical network is a collection of power lines (TL) and transformers located at substations.
Power lines are metal conductors that carry electricity. At present, alternating current is used almost everywhere. The power supply in the vast majority of cases is three-phase, so the power line, as a rule, consists of three phases, each of which can include several wires. Structurally, power lines are divided into overhead and cable.
Overhead power lines are suspended above the ground at a safe height on special structures called supports. As a rule, the wire on the overhead line has no surface insulation; insulation is available at the points of attachment to the supports. Overhead lines have lightning protection systems. The main advantage of overhead power lines is their relative cheapness compared to cable ones. Maintainability is also much better (especially in comparison with brushless cable lines): no excavation is required to replace the wire, visual inspection of the line condition is not difficult. However, overhead power lines have a number of disadvantages:
wide right-of-way: it is forbidden to erect any structures and plant trees in the vicinity of power lines; when the line passes through the forest, the trees along the entire width of the right-of-way are cut down;
exposure to external influences, such as falling trees on the line and theft of wires; despite lightning protection devices, overhead lines also suffer from lightning strikes. Due to vulnerability, two circuits are often equipped on the same overhead line: main and backup;
aesthetic unattractiveness; this is one of the reasons for the almost universal transition to cable transmission in urban areas.
Cable lines (CL) are carried out underground. Electric cables have different designs, but common elements can be identified. The core of the cable is three conductive cores (according to the number of phases). Cables have both outer and core insulation. Usually transformer oil in liquid form, or oiled paper, acts as an insulator. The conductive core of the cable is usually protected by steel armor. From the outside, the cable is covered with bitumen. There are collector and brushless cable lines. In the first case, the cable is laid in underground concrete channels - collectors. At certain intervals, exits to the surface in the form of hatches are equipped on the line - for the convenience of penetration of repair teams into the collector. Brushless cable lines are laid directly in the ground. Brushless lines are significantly cheaper than collector lines during construction, but their operation is more expensive due to the unavailability of the cable. The main advantage of cable transmission lines (compared to overhead lines) is the absence of a wide right-of-way. Under the condition of a sufficiently deep foundation, various structures (including residential ones) can be built directly above the collector line. In the case of a collectorless laying, construction is possible in the immediate vicinity of the line. Cable lines do not spoil the urban landscape with their appearance, they are much better than air lines are protected from external influences. The disadvantages of cable transmission lines include the high cost of construction and subsequent operation: even in the case of brushless laying, the estimated cost per linear meter of a cable line is several times higher than the cost of an overhead line of the same voltage class. Cable lines are less accessible for visual observation of their condition (and in the case of brushless laying, they are not available at all), which is also a significant operational disadvantage.
FUEL INDUSTRY
2.1. General characteristics of the fuel industry
This part of the fuel and energy complex includes industries for the extraction and processing of various types of mineral fuels. The leading roles here belong to three industries - oil, gas and coal, and their total weight is steadily growing (most recently due to the share of gas). The development of Russia's fuel industry can rely on its own fuel reserves. From the point of view of the economy as a whole, the location of Russia's fuel and energy resources is unfavorable - most of them are located in the eastern regions of the country. However, the advantage is the concentration of reserves in large deposits.
In the fuel industry of Russia, the decline in energy production continues. The level of production is significantly affected by the process of advanced withdrawal of production capacities in comparison with their commissioning. Along with this, the reasons for the decrease in the level of production are: a lag in geological exploration and the difficult financial situation of enterprises in the industry, whose consumer debt reached 1.3 trillion by September 1, 1993. rub. The total fuel production accounts for (in %, 1992): oil - 37, gas - 47.9, coal - 14, peat - 0.2, shale - 0.1 and firewood - 0.8. The sharp decline in oil production led to structural changes in the fuel balance. If earlier oil was in the first place, then since 1990 gas has taken the first place. The share of oil (+ gas condensate) in the total production of fuel resources decreased in 1993 to 36% against 42% in 1990, gas - increased to 50% against 42%, coal - practically did not change.
2.2. coal industry
Coal is the most common type of fuel that ensures the development of energy for a long time. In 1993, compared with 1992, coal production in Russia decreased by 17 million tons and amounted to 320 million tons.
The level of production is significantly affected by the process of advanced withdrawal of production capacities in comparison with their commissioning. For 1991-1992 capacities for the extraction of 58 million tons of coal per year were withdrawn, and 14 million tons were put into operation; 60% in 1991 to 54% in 1993. The rapid growth of railway transport tariffs has led to a narrowing of the domestic market for coal and curbing its export supplies.
The CIS has 60% of the world's coal reserves, 95% of which are beyond the Urals. In the Commonwealth, 30 coal basins and 150 deposits are being developed. Coal predominates both in reserves and in production.
In terms of coal production, Russia ranks third in the world after China and the USA and first in the CIS (56.1% of the Commonwealth's production, then Ukraine and Kazakhstan. The dynamics of coal production in Russia in general, as well as by types and methods of extraction are presented in Table 2.18 , 2.19.
The main Russian coal mining area - Kuznetsky the pool is located mostly in the Kemerovo region. It was discovered in 1721, has been widely developed since the 1920s, mainly coal is mined. The second most important coal basin is the Pechora (three main centers are Vorkuta, Inta and Khalmer Yu). Located in Komi and the Nenets Autonomous District, industrial development began in 1934.
The largest coal reserves, estimated at 2.3 trillion. t., has the Tunguska coal basin, but its deposits are practically not developed.
Table 2.18
Coal mining in Russia, million tons /3/
Table 2.19
Coal mining in Russia, million tons
Important coal basins are also: the Russian part of the Donetsk basin (Rostov region, extraction of coking coal; PA "Rostovugol" / Mines /), the Taimyr, Lena basin of the right bank (Sangarskoye deposit), Zyryansky, South Yakutsk (coking coal, fully open-cast mining ; the main enterprise is PO "Yakutugol" / Neryungri /), Cheremkhovsky. Separate deposits: Kizel (Ural region; coking coal; Kizelugol / Kizel /), Norilsk (coking coal), Sredne-Sakhalinskoe (partially open-pit mining; Sakhalinugol / Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk /) Partizanskoe, Galimskoe, Bukachacha, Urgalskoe ( the last five - the Far East region).
The most important brown coal basin in Russia is the Kansko-Achinsk. It has been developed since 1905, located between the Yenisei and Angara rivers in the Krasnoyarsk Territory, Kemerovo and Irkutsk regions.
The second most important Russian lignite basin is the Moscow region. The basin is already significantly outdated as a mining area (it has been carried out here since 1855).
Other basins and brown coal deposits: Chelyabinsk basin, Anadyr basin, Kopeysk (partially open pit), Gusinoozersk, Kharanor (Transbaikalia, fully open pit), Irkutsk (partially open), Lena deposits on the left bank, Artem, Raychikhinsk (fully open), Yuzhnosakhalinskoye (partially open) (the last three - the Far East region).
The total volume of hard and brown coal production in Russia by economic regions (Table 2.20).
Table 2.20
Total volume of coal production, million tons
The main directions of coal transportation are the lines: Donbass - Center, Kuzbass - Center, Kuzbass - Ural, Pechora - Center.
2.3. oil shale industry
Oil shales occupy the last place in the fuel balance of Russia. They are mined near St. Petersburg, in the Russian part of the Baltic shale basin, as well as in the Volga region (Ozinskoye, Obschesyrtovskoye and Kashpirovskoye deposits are poorly used). Shale production indicators are presented in Table. 1.3.
2.4. Peat industry
The CIS has 60% of the world's peat reserves. The total area of territories where development is possible is 72 million hectares (mostly swampy areas of the European part of the former USSR). Russia and Belarus are leaders in peat extraction among the Commonwealth countries.
2.5. Power industry
2.5.1. General characteristics of the electric power industry
The energy industry is part of the fuel and energy industry and is inextricably linked with another component of this gigantic economic complex - the fuel industry.
The Russian electric power industry plays a huge role in ensuring the normal functioning of the country's economy. The country ranks second in the world after the United States in terms of electricity production, the Unified Energy System, which was “inherited” from the USSR, and several local regional systems operate. The main consumer of electricity is industry (about 60%). There, electricity is used as a driving force and for a number of technological processes. The fact that the products of the electric power industry cannot be accumulated, but transmitted through power lines, significantly expands the geography of the location of enterprises. Location of enterprises of the electric power industry itself depends on the location of fuel and energy resources and consumers. The electric power industry is a branch of industry engaged in the production of electricity at power plants and its distribution to consumers. Electricity production in Russia has a high degree of centralization (the share of electricity produced at public power plants) - 98.1% in 1992. The balance of fuel used at Russian power plants is as follows - oil and gas account for 73%, coal - 27%. From the point of view of world practice, this balance is incorrect; in the world, these indicators are approximately reversed.
Energy is the basis for the development of productive forces in any state. Energy ensures the uninterrupted operation of industry, agriculture, transport, and utilities. Stable development of the economy is impossible without a constantly developing energy sector.
The Russian power industry is 600 thermal, 100 hydraulic, 9 nuclear power plants. Their total capacity as of October 1993 is 210 million kW. In 1992, they generated about 1 trillion kWh of electricity and 790 million Gcal of heat. The products of the fuel and energy complex make up only about 10% of the country's GDP, but the share of the complex in exports is about 40% (mainly due to the export of energy resources).
In 1992, over 2% of all electricity produced in the country was exported to Europe and Asia. The total length of power lines was 2.5 million kilometers. More than 1.10 million people are employed in the power industry.
Over the past 80 years, industrial electricity production has increased more than a thousand times ( see table 1), a unified energy system and about a hundred regional energy systems were created. The fruits of the gigantomania of the Soviet era have been embodied in this industry more than anywhere else. Many of the giants of the electric power industry are located unevenly, economically and geographically wrong, but this does not reduce the value of such facilities - now they cannot be transferred or repurposed.
Table 1. Growth dynamics of the electric power industry in Russia (1985-1992)
The current task of the Russian electric power industry is the correct and expedient use of the resources of existing enterprises in this industry, which is impossible without effective cooperation with other industries.
2.5.2. Russian power industry
An important feature of the Russian electric power industry is the existence of power systems united in the Unified Energy System. This makes it possible to more efficiently distribute electricity throughout the country. Another feature of the location of the Russian electric power industry is the high concentration of enterprises in areas with low and medium supply of fuel and energy resources: the Volga region, the Urals, the Central region, etc. Electricity generation by thermal power plants in 1993 amounted to 663 billion kWh, which is 7 % less than in 1992, and HPPs generated more by 1% - 174 billion kWh. The share of TPPs in the total electricity production decreased from 71% to 69%, HPPs - increased from 17% to 18%, NPPs - decreased by 0.4% and amounted to 12% (Tables 3.1, 3.2).
Table 3.1
Power plant capacity and electricity generation in Russia
Table 3.2
Electricity generation by economic regions, billion kWh .
Energy system - a group of power plants of different types and capacities, united by power lines and controlled from a single center.
UES is a single control object, the power plants of the system operate in parallel. An objective feature of the power industry products is the impossibility of their storage or accumulation, so the main task of the power system is the most rational use of the industry's products. Electrical energy, unlike other types of energy, can be converted into any other type of energy with minimal losses, and its production, transportation and subsequent conversion are much more profitable than direct production of the required type of energy from an energy carrier. Industries that often do not use electricity directly for their processes are the largest consumers of electricity.
UES of Russia is the most complex automated complex of power stations and networks, united by a common mode of operation with a single dispatch control center (CS). The main grids of the UES of Russia with a voltage of 330 to 1150 kV unite 65 regional power systems from the western border to Lake Baikal into parallel operation. The UES structure allows functioning and management at 3 levels: inter-regional (CDU in Moscow), inter-regional (unified dispatching departments) and regional (Local control departments). Such a hierarchical structure, combined with intelligent emergency control and the latest computer systems, allows you to quickly localize an accident without significant damage to the UES and often even to local consumers. The central dispatching center of the UES in Moscow fully controls and manages the operation of all stations connected to it.
The Unified Energy System is distributed over 7 time zones and thus allows smoothing peaks loads of the electrical system due to the “pumping” of excess electricity to other areas where it is lacking. Eastern regions produce much more electricity than they themselves consume. In the center of Russia, however, there is a shortage of electricity, which so far cannot be covered by transferring energy from Siberia to the west. The convenience of the UES can also include the possibility of placing a power plant far from the consumer. The transportation of electricity is many times cheaper than the transportation of gas, oil or coal, and at the same time it happens instantly and does not require additional transportation costs.
If the UES did not exist, then 15 million kW of additional capacity would be needed.
The Russian energy system is reasonably considered one of the most reliable in the world. For 35 years of operation of the system in Russia, in contrast to the United States (1965, 1977) and Canada (1989), there has not been a single global power outage.
Despite the collapse of the Unified Energy System of the USSR, most of the energy systems of the now independent republics are still under the operational control of the CDU of the Russian Federation. Most independent states have a negative electricity trade balance with Russia. Thus, according to data from December 7, 1993, Kazakhstan owes Russia about 150 billion rubles, and Ukraine and Belarus together - about 170 billion, and not a single debtor currently has the financial ability to pay these amounts to Russia.
2.5.3. Forecasts for the development of the electric power industry
In 1991, the International Energy Agency (IEA) published a forecast for the development of world energy through 2005, in which previous estimates were adjusted to take into account the faster than previously assumed pace of the transition of Russia and Eastern Europe to a market economy. Many assumptions have been made: the immutability of the current policy of the leading countries in the field of energy and environmental protection; annual growth rates of the economies of the countries that are members of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), in 1989 - 2005. - 2.7%, Russia and Eastern Europe - 3.1%, developing countries - 4.6%; the world price of oil remains at $21 per barrel (in 1990 dollars) until 1992, and then starts to rise to $35 at the beginning of the next century.
How will world energy consumption change in this case? It will increase most rapidly in developing countries - by 4.2% per year, slower in Russia and Eastern Europe - 2.2%, and in OECD countries - by only 1.3% annually. As a result, the share of the third world in global consumption will increase by 2005 from 25 to 34%, the share of Western countries will decrease from 51 to 43%, and the former socialist community will remain virtually unchanged - at the level of 23%. It is expected that the energy intensity of the economy of the OECD member states will continue to decline by 1.3% annually, and in developing countries will remain virtually unchanged. In Russia and Eastern Europe, the transition to a market economy and, above all, to real energy prices should, according to IEA specialists, significantly increase incentives to increase the efficiency of its use. The restructuring of the economy and the reduction in the share of extremely energy-intensive basic industries will also contribute to this.
2.5.4. Types of power plants
Power plants in Russia are divided into several groups:
· thermal- TPPs (operate on conventional fuel - coal, gas, etc.) TPPs - combined heat and power plants that produce heat and electricity together. The use of CHP allows you to save fuel, because. they have a higher efficiency - up to 70%; About 75% of all electricity in Russia is produced at thermal power plants. Most Russian cities are supplied with thermal power plants. Often in cities, CHPs are used - combined heat and power plants that produce not only electricity, but also heat in the form of hot water. Such a system is rather impractical. unlike the electric cable, the reliability of heating mains is extremely low over long distances, the efficiency of district heating is also greatly reduced during transmission. It is estimated that with a length of heating mains of more than 20 km (a typical situation for most cities), the installation of an electric boiler in a free-standing house becomes economically viable.
· Ghydroelectric power plants- hydroelectric power stations (use the energy of the water flow), pumped storage power plants - pumped storage power plants designed to remove peak loads in consumption, PES; Hydroelectric power stations produce the cheapest electricity, but they have a rather high construction cost. It was hydroelectric power stations that allowed the Soviet government to make such a breakthrough in industry in the first decades of Soviet power.
Modern hydroelectric power plants can produce up to 7 million kW of energy, which is two times higher than the current thermal power plants and nuclear power plants, but the placement of hydroelectric power plants in the European part of Russia is difficult due to the high cost of land and the impossibility of flooding large areas in this region. The most powerful hydroelectric power plants built in western and eastern Siberia are undoubtedly needed, and this is the most important key to the development of the West Siberian and also the energy supply to the Urals economic regions. An important disadvantage of HPPs is the seasonality of their operation, which is so inconvenient for industry.
· tidal(using the energy of sea tides);
· atomic- Nuclear power plants (using nuclear fuel - some types of isotopes of uranium and plutonium);
· G geothermal- GTES (use the internal heat of the Earth);
· G solar power plants(using the energy of solar radiation).
GRES (state district power plants) stand out in particular - power plants with a capacity of over 2 million kW. GRES provide more than 70% of all electricity in Russia.
Unconventional power plants include geothermal, solar and wind.
Geothermal power plants convert the internal energy of superheated water or steam coming out of the bowels of the Earth into electrical energy according to a principle similar to the principle of operation of a thermal power plant. Geothermal power plants are built in areas where significant volcanic activity occurs, i.e. the magma layer is close to the surface. In 1968, in Kamchatka, in the valley of the Pauzhetka River, the first and so far the only Russian GeoTPP with a capacity of 11 MW was built.
At solar stations, solar energy is converted into electrical energy. The sun's rays, with the help of a cylindrical lens, are collected into a beam, which heats a tube with a heat carrier, which heats the water, which is then used at a thermal power plant. In the CIS, a solar station exists in the Crimea.
A very promising branch of energy is the creation of wind power plants and their complexes. The cost of electricity at wind farms is lower than at any other stations. The advantage of WES is also its absolute independence from any immovable objects. The principle of operation of a wind farm is as follows: a wind wheel drives a pump, which is connected to a turbine through a water reservoir. There is a project to create a network of wind farms on the Kola Peninsula with a total capacity of 1000 MW.
2.5.5. Nuclear energy
The forecast for the development of nuclear energy in the Russia-Eastern Europe region, according to the IEA, looks very interesting. Despite all the reservations about the "post-Chernobyl syndrome", experts nevertheless laid down surprisingly high annual growth rates of nuclear power plants for the future: 2.4% in 1989 - 1995, 6.1% in 1995 - 2000. and 4.8% in the first five years of the next century. This is 3.5 times higher than in Western countries and 2 times higher than the world average. Unfortunately, this forecast is not motivated in detail. If we take into account the actual decrease in energy generation at nuclear power plants in Russia and the more than uncertain prospects for nuclear energy, the IEA forecast looks overly optimistic.
Nuclear power.
The world's first nuclear power plant - Obninsk was launched in 1954 in Russia. The staff of 9 Russian NPPs is 40.6 thousand people or 4% of the total population employed in the energy sector. 11.8% or 119.6 billion kWh. of all electricity produced in Russia was generated at nuclear power plants. Only at nuclear power plants, the growth in electricity production has been preserved: in 1993 it is planned to produce 118% of the 1992 volume.
Nuclear power plants, which are the most modern type of power plants, have a number of significant advantages over other types of power plants: under normal operating conditions, they absolutely do not pollute the environment, do not require binding to a source of raw materials and, accordingly, can be placed almost anywhere, new power units have a capacity almost equal to that of an average hydroelectric power station , however, the installed capacity utilization factor at NPPs (80%) significantly exceeds that of HPPs or TPPs.
There are practically no significant drawbacks of nuclear power plants under normal operating conditions. However, one cannot fail to notice the danger of nuclear power plants under possible force majeure circumstances: earthquakes, hurricanes, etc. - here the old models of power units pose a potential danger of radiation contamination of territories due to uncontrolled overheating of the reactor.
Table.Operating NPPs in Russia and their characteristics
Problems of the development of nuclear energy.
After the catastrophe at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant, under the influence of the public in Russia, the pace of development of nuclear energy was significantly slowed down. The previously existing program to accelerate the achievement of a total nuclear power plant capacity of 100 million kW (the United States has already reached this figure) was actually mothballed. Huge direct losses were caused by the closure of all nuclear power plants under construction in Russia, the stations, recognized by foreign experts as quite reliable, were frozen even at the stage of equipment installation. However, recently the situation has begun to change: in June 1993, the 4th power unit of the Balakovo NPP was launched, in the next few years it is planned to launch several more nuclear power plants and additional power units of a fundamentally new design. It is known that the cost of nuclear energy significantly exceeds the cost of electricity generated at thermal or hydraulic stations, but the use of nuclear power in many specific cases is not only irreplaceable, but also economically beneficial - in the United States, nuclear power plants have brought 60 billion dollars in net profit. A great advantage for the development of nuclear energy in Russia is created by the recently adopted Russian-American agreements on START-1 and START-2, according to which huge amounts of weapons-grade plutonium will be released, the non-military use of which is possible only at nuclear power plants. It is thanks to disarmament that traditionally considered expensive electricity received from nuclear power plants can become about two times cheaper than electricity from thermal power plants.
Russian and foreign nuclear scientists unanimously say that there are no serious scientific and technical grounds for radiophobia that arose after the Chernobyl accident. According to the government commission to check the causes of the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant, the accident occurred as a result of gross violations of the control procedure for the RBMK-1000 nuclear reactor by the operator and his assistants, who had extremely low qualifications. A major role in the accident was also played by the transfer of the station from the Minsredmash, which had accumulated by that time vast experience in managing nuclear facilities to the Ministry of Energy, which did not exist at all, which took place shortly before it. To date, the safety system of the RBMK reactor has been significantly improved: the protection of the core from burning has been improved, the system for triggering emergency sensors has been accelerated. Scientific American recognized these improvements as critical to reactor safety. In the projects of a new generation of nuclear reactors, the main focus is on reliable cooling of the reactor core. Over the past few years, failures in the operation of Russian nuclear power plants have been rare and classified as extremely minor.
The development of nuclear energy in Russia is inevitable, and this is now understood by the majority of the population, and the very rejection of nuclear energy would require enormous costs. So, if all nuclear power plants are turned off today, an additional 100 million tons of standard fuel will be required, which is simply nowhere to get.
A fundamentally new direction in the development of energy and the possible replacement of nuclear power plants is represented by research on fuel-free electrochemical generators.
Consuming the sodium contained in sea water in excess, this generator has an efficiency of about 75%. The reaction product here is chlorine and soda ash, and subsequent use of these substances in industry is possible.
Eight out of nine NPPs are part of the RosEenegroAtom concern. The ninth - Leningradskaya, left the concern and is operated independently.
The average NPP power factor in the country was 67%, but at 6 reactors it was above 80%.
By the year 2000, it is planned to increase the production of electricity at nuclear power plants from today's 22 GW to 28 GW.
Table 4Prospects for the development of nuclear energy, 1993-2010
Other types of power plants.
Despite the fact that the so-called “non-traditional” types of power plants account for only 0.07% of electricity production in Russia, the development of this direction is of great importance, especially considering the size of the country. The only representative of this type of power plant is the Pauzhetskaya GeoTPP in Kamchatka with a capacity of 11 MW. The station has been in operation since 1964 and is outdated both morally and physically. Currently, a technical design of a wind power plant with a capacity of 1 MW is under development. on the basis of a wind generator with a capacity of 16 kW, manufactured by NPO VetroEn. By 2000, it is planned to put into operation Mutnovskaya GeoTPP with a capacity of 200 MW.
The level of technological developments in Russia in this area is far behind the world. In remote or hard-to-reach regions of Russia, where there is no need to build a large power plant, and there is often no one to serve it, “non-traditional” sources of electricity are the best solution.
Environmental aspects of the development of the electric power industry.
Due to the decline in production, the needs of the country's economy for electricity have decreased, and since, according to experts, this situation will continue for at least another 2-3 years, it is important to prevent the destruction of the system by the time the demand for electricity begins to increase again. To maintain the existing electric capacities, it is necessary to commission 8-9 million kW annually, however, due to problems with financing and the collapse of economic ties, out of the 8 million kW planned for 1992, only a little more than 1 million kW were built and put into operation.
At present, a paradoxical situation has arisen when, in the context of a decline in production, its energy intensity is increasing. According to various estimates, the energy saving potential in Russia ranges from 400 to 600 million tons of reference fuel. But that is more than a third of all energy resources consumed today.
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These reserves are distributed over all stages from production, transportation, storage to the consumer. Thus, the total losses of the fuel and energy complex amount to 150-170 million tons of reference fuel. The consumption of low-distillation petroleum products as fuel in power plants is very high. With the current shortage of motor fuel, such a policy is extremely unjustified. Taking into account the significant difference in prices between fuel oil and motor fuel, it is much more efficient to use gas or coal as fuel for boilers of thermal power plants, however, when using the latter, environmental factors become of great importance. Obviously, these areas should develop equally, since the economic situation can change significantly even in the energy sector, and the one-sided development of the industry can in no way contribute to its prosperity. It is much more efficient to use gas as a chemical fuel (now 50% of all gas produced in the country is burned) than to burn it at a thermal power plant.
The release of harmful substances into the environment per unit of production exceeds that in the West by 6-10 times. The extensive development of production, the accelerated build-up of huge capacities led to the fact that for a long time the environmental factor was taken into account very little or was not taken into account at all. The most unecological coal thermal power plants, near them the radiation level is several times higher than the radiation level in the immediate vicinity of the nuclear power plant. The use of gas in thermal power plants is much more efficient than fuel oil or coal: when burning 1 ton of standard fuel, 1.7 tons of CO 2 are formed against 2.7 tons when burning fuel oil or coal. The previously established environmental parameters did not provide complete environmental cleanliness; in accordance with them, most power plants were built. New standards of environmental cleanliness are included in the special state program "Environmentally Clean Energy". Taking into account the requirements of this program, several projects have already been prepared and dozens are under development. Thus, there is a project of Berezovskaya GRES-2 with units of 800 MW each and dust trapping bag filters, a project of a CHP plant with combined-cycle plants with a capacity of 300 MW, a project of Rostovskaya GRES, which includes many fundamentally new technical solutions.
The concept of Russia's energy policy in the new economic conditions.
The developments of teams of industry and academic institutions formed the basis of the Concept of Russia's energy policy in the new economic conditions. The concept was submitted for consideration to the Government of Russia by a number of organizations - the Ministry of Fuel and Energy, the Ministry of Economics, the Ministry of Science of Russia and the Russian Academy of Sciences. The Government of the Russian Federation approved the main provisions of the concept at a government meeting on 10/10/92, and after completion, the draft document was submitted to the Supreme Soviet of Russia.
To implement the energy policy of Russia within the framework of a comprehensive energy program, several specific federal, intersectoral and scientific and technical programs were proposed. The main programs offered are:
¨ National Energy Saving Program. The result of the implementation of this program should be an annual saving of 50-70 million tons of reference fuel by 2010. The subprogram proposes several fundamentally new measures to save primary energy resources, but also to replace scarce types of energy carriers with cheaper and more affordable ones. It is proposed, for example, to modernize oil refineries and improve the processing of natural gas. It also proposes to fully use associated gas, which is currently simply flared. It is assumed that these measures will have an effect commensurate with the annual rent payments of the fuel and energy industries.
¨ National program to improve the quality of energy supply. It provides for an increase in energy consumption in the domestic sector, gasification of entire regions, medium and small settlements in rural areas.
¨ National program for the protection of the environment from the harmful effects of energy. The goal of the program is to reduce several times the emissions of gases into the atmosphere, to stop the discharge of harmful substances into water bodies. The idea of lowland HPPs is also completely rejected here.
¨ National program to support fuel and energy industries. It provides for the development of power engineering, a subprogram for improving the training of specialists.
¨ Gas energy program "Yamal". The program provides for the development of the gas industry, the growth of condensate production and the deepening of oil refining, the reconstruction of the electric power industry and the heat supply system.
¨ Program for the development of the East Siberian oil and gas province. It is planned to create a new oil and gas producing region with an annual production of 60-100 million tons of oil, 20-50 billion m 3 of gas, a powerful oil and gas processing industry. The development of the East Siberian oil and gas province will allow Russia to enter the Asia-Pacific energy market with the export of 10-20 million tons of oil and 15-20 billion m 3 of natural gas to China, Korea, and Japan.
¨ Nuclear Safety Improvement and Development Program. It is envisaged to use the components of nuclear weapons in the electric power industry, to create safer reactors for nuclear power plants.
¨ The program for the creation of the Kansk-Achinsk coal and energy complex oriented towards the environmentally acceptable and cost-effective use of brown coal for power generation in a vast region of Russia: from the Urals and the Volga region in the west to Primorye in the east.
¨ Alternative motor fuel program. A large-scale transfer of transport to liquefied gas is envisaged.
¨ Program for the use of non-traditional renewable energy sources. With the introduction of world energy prices, independent energy supply of cottages, farms and even detached city houses becomes economically profitable. It is planned that the increase in the use of non-traditional renewable energy resources for local energy supply by the year 2000 will reach 10-15 million tons of reference fuel.
¨ Scientific and technical program "Clean Energy" for the period 1993-2000. The creation of technologies and equipment is envisaged, with the help of which safety should be ensured, including environmental safety in the production of fuel, electric and thermal energy.
Today the industry is in crisis. The bulk of the industry's production assets are outdated and need to be replaced within the next 10-15 years. To date, the generation of capacities is three times higher than the commissioning of new ones. A situation may arise that as soon as the growth of production begins, there will be a catastrophic shortage of electricity, the production of which will be impossible to increase for at least another 4-6 years.
The government is trying to solve the problem from different angles: at the same time, the industry is being corporatized (51 percent of the shares remain with the state), attracting foreign investment, and a subprogram to reduce the energy intensity of production has begun to be implemented.
The following can be singled out as the main tasks for the development of the Russian energy sector:
1. Reducing the energy intensity of production.
2. Preservation of the unified energy system of Russia.
3. Increasing the power factor of the e/s.
4. Complete transition to market relations, liberation
energy prices, full transition to world prices,
possible refusal of clearing.
5. The fastest renewal of the fleet of e / s.
6. Bringing the environmental parameters of e / s to the world level.
To solve all these measures, the government program "Fuel and Energy" was adopted, which is a collection of specific recommendations for the effective management of the industry and its transition from a planned-administrative to a market investment system. Time will tell how well this program will work.
The fuel and energy complex (FEC) is a complex intersectoral system of extraction and production of fuel and energy, their transportation, distribution and use.
The complex consists of three large interconnected parts:
- fuel industry (extraction and processing of oil, gas, coal, etc.);
- electric power industry;
- transportation of fuel and products of its processing, heat and electricity (oil pipelines, gas pipelines, product pipelines, power lines).
The fuel and energy complex of Russia is based on the world's largest reserves of energy resources. The role of the fuel and energy complex in the national economy is enormous. The fuel and energy complex accounts for 1/4 of the value of all industrial output and a significant part of Russia's foreign exchange earnings. The entire economy of the country largely depends on the level of development of the fuel and energy complex. In addition, the economies of the CIS countries also depend on oil and gas supplies.
From Russia. Therefore, the fuel and energy complex is closely connected with the transport complex. For example, all pipeline transport transports fuel and energy products, the latter accounts for 1/3 of the freight traffic of Russian railways, 1/2 of sea transport.
The main factors in the placement of the fuel and energy complex are raw materials, energy, water, environmental
The greatest importance in the fuel industry of Russia belongs to three sectors - oil, gas and coal.
Oil and gas industry
The oil and gas industry is the BASIS of the modern economy. The role of oil and gas in the fuel and energy balance (FEB) has changed dramatically: in 1950, coal dominated (more than 60%), and now more than 70% belongs to gas and oil.
In terms of reserves (more than 20 billion tons - 13% of the world) of oil, Russia ranks second in the world after Saudi Arabia, and in terms of gas reserves (160 trillion m 3 - 45% of world reserves) - first in the world
Oil production has steadily declined in recent years. Now about half of the production level of the late 80s is being mined.
In the USSR, there were several areas of oil production. Until the 1940s, oil was produced mainly in the North Caucasus, since the 1970s, the Volga-Ural region came to the fore in the country, and the deposits of the Timan-Pechora province and Western Siberia began to be actively developed.
At present, the main oil production area in Russia is Western Siberia (over 70% of the total Russian oil and gas production), in addition, Siberian oil is of high quality.
The development of deposits in the Volga-Ural basin also continues. Timan-Pechora province, in the Far East, in the Kaliningrad region
Potential oil resources have been identified in Eastern Siberia, in Yakutia, as well as on the shelf of the Okhotsk, Bering, and Chukchi Seas.
In 1996, oil production amounted to about 300 million tons (9% of world production). Of this amount, only about 30% falls on the European part.
The bulk of the oil is pumped through oil and oil product pipelines; their length is about 62 thousand km. Russian oil is exported to the CIS countries, Eastern and Western Europe.
Currently, the level of oil production is falling, and gas production is increasing, the share of gas is about 50% of the fuel and energy balance.
Gas industry- the youngest and most efficient branch of the fuel and energy complex.
Gas fields are usually located near oil fields. Along with natural gas, associated gas is also produced - together with oil in oil fields (11-12% of total gas production). The main share of natural gas is extracted from purely gas fields in Western Siberia, the North Caucasus, the Urals, the Lower Volga region, the Komi Republic, Yakutia, and Sakhalin. Up to 90% of 13g natural gas is now produced in the eastern regions of Siberia.
The gas industry differs from the oil industry in that natural gas, unlike solid and liquid fuels, must be immediately sent to consumers. Therefore, gas production, transportation and consumption are very closely related stages of one process.
In Russia, a Unified Gas Supply Network has developed, including fields, a network of gas pipelines and compressor units, gas storage facilities, etc. The length of gas pipelines in Russia is about 80 thousand km.
coal industry
The coal industry is an important link in the fuel and energy complex, it provides 14 fuel resources, 75% of the coal mined is used as fuel and 25% as raw materials for the chemical industry and ferrous metallurgy.
In terms of total geological coal reserves - 6421 billion tons, Russia ranks second in the world after China, but the distribution of coal reserves by area is very uneven - they are mainly located in poorly developed regions of Siberia and the Far East (76%). Open pit coal mining is possible in the Kansk-Achinsk basin, in the Kuzbass, in the Urals, the Far East. The deepest occurrence of coal is typical for the European part of Russia (Pechora, Donets basins).
Hard coals predominate in the European part of Russia and in Siberia, and brown coals in the Urals. But the bulk of the resources are concentrated in several major basins - the Tunguska, Lena, Kansk-Achinsk, Kuznetsk.
The coal industry significantly outnumbers all other branches of the fuel industry in terms of the number of employees; Among the branches of the fuel and energy complex, coal is in the most critical condition.
The fuel and energy complex is the basis of the modern economy of any country. At the same time, the fuel industry is one of the main environmental pollutants. Open pit coal mining and oil production and transfer of oil and oil products have a particularly strong destructive effect on natural complexes.
To reduce the negative impact, it is necessary to introduce new, more modern technologies. But so far, investments in environmentally friendly developments are clearly insufficient.