The Golden Age of Russian Literature: History, Writers and Poets. "golden age" of literature History of the golden age of Russian poetry
Date:
Topic: “Golden Age” of Russian poetry
Objective of the lesson:
Educational: consider the features of the poetry of the “Golden Age”, introduce the work of poets: A.A. Delvig, P.A Vyazemsky, E.A. Baratynsky, N.M.
Developmental: develop the skills to analyze and synthesize the material covered.
Educating: pay attention to the moral and aesthetic education of students
Lesson progress
I. Organizational moment: Greetings!. Checking readiness for the lesson. Checking attendance.
II. Learning a new topic
1) Opening remarks
“Pushkin era”, “Pushkin time”, “Pushkin time” - these names of a certain period of history have firmly entered the literature and are used to characterize the culture of 1820-1830.
A characteristic feature of this time was that at the same time poets were working that were deeply and fundamentally different from each other. But they were all bright, talented, original artists of words, who became the glory and pride of Russian literature. “Stars of the Pleiades”, “beautiful union”, “constellation of names” - these are the figurative names of the poets of Pushkin’s era, and the poetry of Pushkin’s era entered the history of Russian literature as the Golden Age of Russian poetry.
The works of contemporary poets made up the volume “Sweet Union Since Ancient Times…”, named after a line from A.S. Pushkin’s message to N.M. Yazykov:
A sweet union since ancient times
The poets are connected by:
They are priests of the same muses;
A single flame excites them;
Strangers to each other by fate,
They are relatives by inspiration...
Each of the poets, possessing great talent, followed his own path. None of them repeated F.S. Pushkin, but they all united around their spiritual leader. They all shared humanistic ideas about life, subverting the old rules in art, and sought to truthfully express the thoughts and feelings of their contemporaries.
2) Students’ report about the work of poets
Evgeniy Abramovich Baratynsky
Nikolai Mikhailovich Yazykov
Konstantin Nikolaevich Batyushkov
P.A Vyazemsky
3) Analysis of poems
Analysis of the concept of “lyrics”
Lyrics - this is a type of literature (along with epic and drama), in which the subjective principle is the main one. Lyrics express the complex spiritual life of a person (his interests - personal and social; his moods, experiences, feelings, etc.). A person’s spiritual life is determined by circumstances and phenomena of the external world. But the lyrics do not touch or hardly touch these phenomena themselves: they directly express only thoughts, feelings, moods, and experiences.
Lyrical hero - this is the image of a poet-artist, whose inner world resonates in the hearts of readers. The lyrical hero and his author seem to be one person, and at the same time, the image of the lyrical hero is deeper and broader than just the expression of the personality of the poet himself. V. G. Belinsky said this very precisely: “The great poet, speaking about himself, about his I, speaks about the general - about humanity, for in his nature lies everything that humanity lives by. And therefore, in his sadness everyone recognizes their own sadness, in his soul everyone recognizes their own and sees in him not only a poet, but also a person...”
Analysis plan.
- Creative story.
- Theme and idea.
- Composition and internal plot (if any).
- Lyrical hero and system of images.
- The main features of poetic language at the level of phonetics, vocabulary, morphology or syntax.
- Genre.
- Emotional coloring.
- Features of rhythm, size, rhyme.
- What thoughts and feelings does the work evoke in the reader?
III. Summary
Pushkin's time, chronological framework: 1820-1830
The poetry of Pushkin's time is called: The Golden Age of Russian Literature.
Give a number of concepts characteristic of Pushkin’s era: literature of Pushkin's time, poets of Pushkin's era, poetry of Pushkin's era
Pushkin called the literature of his time: “ Republic of Literature"
What were the poets of Pushkin's era called: stars of the Pleiades, a beautiful union, a constellation of names.
The works of contemporary poets comprised a volume named after a line from A.S. Pushkin’s message to N.M. Yazykov: “A sweet union since ancient times...”
Name the poets of Pushkin's time: E.A Baratynsky, N.M Yazykov, D.I Venevitov, K.N Batyushkov, K.F Ryleev, A.A Delvig, Knyazev
Spiritual leader of Pushkin's era: A.S. Pushkin
Years of life of E.A Baratynsky: 1800-1844
Favorite genre of lyrics by E.A. Baratynsky: elegy
The work of A.E. Baratynsky is called: "Poetry of thought"
A.E. Baratynsky reveals the originality of his works in the elegy: "Muse"
Years of life of N.M. Yazykov: 1803-1846
A.S. Pushkin invited N.M. Yazykov to participate in: Moskovsky Vestnik and Contemporary
The poetry of N.M. Yazykov was: bright and diverse
Works by N.M. Yazykov related to historical topics: poems “Ala”, “Magician”, “Oleg”.
Years of life of K.N Batyushkov: 1787-1855
In an effort to elevate and ennoble feelings, to give them spiritual content, K.N Batyushkov turns to: the ancient world
After the War of 1812, in the works of K.N Batyushkov, a tempting, passionate world gives way to: fatal sad motives, the themes of loneliness and disappointment are intensified
Name several works by K.N Batyushkov: “My genius”, “Bacchante”, “On the ruins of a castle in Sweden”, “To Dashkov”.
Homework
Learn by heart any poem by a poet from the beginning of the century (of the student’s choice).
The great national poet, who embodied the achievements of previous authors and who marked the further stage of its development, is undoubtedly Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin. The "Golden Age of Russian Poetry" is characterized by a surge of his creative activity. Alexander Sergeevich was romantic; the poetic poems he wrote significantly influenced Russian and world culture. Pushkin's works have become classics in our country and in all countries of the world. The name Pushkin is familiar to every person, regardless of his age, origin and literary preferences.
Pushkin is harmony itself, perfection itself. An incredibly talented descendant of the Arab Peter the Great, Russian by heart, by breadth of soul, by education and by blood, Alexander Sergeevich became an indisputable authority for his contemporaries. So different, so consistently beautiful, so ineradicably delighted with life, so sincere in every moment of his existence. Even in his political poems, he knew how to enhance the impact and depth of ideas with lyricism, which, having accepted, he raised to unprecedented heights with the power of his talent.
In his early lyrics, there is a place for political love of freedom, close to Decembrist poetry (Ode “Liberty”, “Village”), and the pathos of internal liberation of the individual, coming from the European Enlightenment, chanting of freedom as love and friendship, fun and feasts (“Bacchic Song” , "Evening Feast"). The period of his southern exile is the time of the formation of Pushkin’s romanticism: he creates poems about freedom and love - “Prisoner of the Caucasus”, “The Robber Brothers”, “The Bakhchisarai Fountain”. The understanding of freedom becomes more complex in the poem “Gypsies” (1824), written somewhat later, in Mikhailovsky. In the tragedy "Boris Godunov" (1825), the features of the realistic style clearly appear: they are expressed in the understanding of the omnipotence of the objective laws of history, in the depiction of the dramatic relationship between "human fate" and "people's fate."
And his novel in verse" Evgeny Onegin" was called the encyclopedia of Russian life(Belinsky). Realism in Eugene Onegin acquires a comprehensive character: the fate of a modern young man is combined here with a wealth of pictures of Russian life and an amazingly complete expression of the spiritual experience of the nation.
Pushkin's contemporaries in the "Golden Age of Russian Poetry" were several truly great poets - individuals, the talent and contribution of each of them in the formation and development of Russian literature is also great. Many poets and writers considered A.S. Pushkin their teacher and continued the traditions of creating literary works laid down by him.
One of these poets was Lermontov Mikhail Yurievich. Like Pushkin, who left us unacceptably early, but during his short life he managed to create such works, such images that became cornerstones in the history of the creation and development of great Russian literature. This is a writer clearly demonstrating spirituality, deep inner concentration, irrepressible, rebellious thoughts. His work was undoubtedly influenced by A.S. Pushkin.
The demonic, restless, hungry spirit of Lermontov, following his heroes, rushes far ahead, looking into the future. Unprecedented intensity of emotions and intense introspection - the characteristic features of Lermontov's hero, are expressed in the lyrics, in the poems "Demon" and "Mtsyri".
In Lermontov's late work, new, realistic trends appear: he begins to separate tragic contradictions from himself, turning them into the subject of objective depiction. This receives its highest expression in the novel “A Hero of Our Time,” whose hero does not coincide with the personality of the author.
When reading Lermontov's poetic works, it is impossible to simply enjoy poetry; his poems make you think and suffer, search and find. The great poet joined the ranks thinned out after the assassination of Pushkin, no, he headed the majestic pantheon of Russian poets, picking up the pen that had fallen from the hands of the great master.
The second half of the 19th century is a non-poetic era. But the creativity of even a few, but talented poets does not allow the traditions of the “golden age” of Russian poetry to be interrupted. One of these poets - Fyodor Ivanovich Tyutchev. During his long life he wrote only about 300 poems, but his genius was fully manifested in them. The poet's personal life is full of bright ups and tragic downs: the death of his first wife from a fire on a ship overnight turned him gray, and his happiness with the beautiful Ernestina Dernberg was short-lived. Already in Russia, Tyutchev fell in love with E.A. Denisyeva. The poet's "Denisevsky cycle", a posthumous farewell to his beloved woman, is a true masterpiece of love lyrics.
His philosophical beliefs were also important for Tyutchev’s work. He dreamed of uniting the Slavic peoples led by Russia, of creating a Slavic world that would develop according to its own laws. But the poet’s cosmic perception of nature is especially surprising: “Tyutchev was a poet of infinity, of cosmic mystery. He knew how to tremble himself and make the reader tremble before the world of stars” (E. Vinokurov). As a student and follower of Pushkin and a teacher for the subsequent generation of poets, Tyutchev created excellent examples of philosophical lyrics.
His poems are filled with majestic beauty and permeated with reflections on the essence of existence. His poem Silentium (Latin - silence) about the inexpressibility of thoughts through human language, including through the “great and mighty,” seemed to refute this thesis.
It is interesting that Fyodor Ivanovich, who practically does not use Russian in everyday life and creates journalistic works only in French, wrote poetry exclusively in Russian.
Despite Tyutchev’s own critical and even slightly careless attitude towards his own works, his lyrics are still a magnificent example of the golden age of Russian poetry.
Afanasy Afanasyevich Fet– a subtle connoisseur of beauty, including the beauty of style. Throughout his life, Fet was engaged in literary poetry. Despite the fact that his works were published mainly in the second half of the nineteenth century, he was still included in our rating, because his poems are a unique world of a lyricist with a subtle soul, covered in the tragedy of existence. His poems were highly appreciated by Belinsky, placing Fet almost on the same level with the wonderful “Russian Byron” - Lermontov.
Fet's creativity is characterized by the desire to escape from everyday reality into the "bright kingdom of dreams." The main content of his poetry is love and nature. His poems are distinguished by the subtlety of their poetic mood and great artistic skill. Fet is a representative of the so-called “pure” poetry. The peculiarity of Fet's poetics is that the conversation about the most important is limited to a transparent hint. The most striking example is the poem " Whispers, timid breathing...".
There is not a single verb in this poem, but the static description of space conveys the very movement of time. The poem is one of the best poetic works of the lyrical genre.
Fet's lyrics are most piercing, poignant, filled with motifs of sadness and tragedy. A sad haze shrouds the most beautiful examples of poetry that came from the pen of Fet, where the beauty of the world is perceived by the author from two sides, external, drawing inspiration from the beauties of his native nature, and internal, the main stimulus of which is love.
Alexander Sergeevich Griboyedov. Ironically, the only poetic work he created and has come down to us in its entirety has crossed out all the rest of the poet’s work. Few people know his poems, articles and journalism, but almost everyone, sometimes without realizing it, has touched the genius in one way or another. Griboyedov is known as the writer of one book, the brilliantly rhymed play "Woe from Wit", which is still one of the most popular theatrical productions in Russia, as well as the source of numerous catchphrases. His closest literary allies are P.A. Katenin and V.K. Kuchelbecker; He was also valued by the “Arzamas people”: Pushkin and Vyazemsky, and among his friends were such different people as P.Ya. Chaadaev and F.V. Bulgarin.
"Woe from Wit" is the pinnacle of Russian drama and poetry. The comedy was instantly picked up by thousands of human languages, torn into quotes, proverbs, sayings, which did not harm its greatness at all; on the contrary, it ensured the work's immortality. “Talking” surnames, brilliant witty characterizations of characters, emotional speech, criticism of society, clothed in an easy and memorable form of poetry - all this has become our property for centuries. “And who are the judges?”, “A carriage for me, a carriage!” “The women shouted Hurray! And they threw their caps into the air”... We still enjoy using these apt expressions, which absolutely accurately, and at the same time, with incredible irony, reflect different life situations.
“Never has any people been so scourged, never has any country been dragged so much in the mud, never has so much rude abuse been thrown into the public’s face, and yet never has more complete success been achieved” - P. Chaadaev (Apology of a Madman). An interesting fact is that when Griboedov finished work on the comedy “Woe from Wit,” the first person he went to show his work was the one whom he feared most, namely the fabulist Ivan Andreevich Krylov. “I brought a manuscript! A comedy...” “Commendable. Well, what? Leave it.” “I will read my comedy to you. If you ask me to leave from the first scenes, I will disappear.” “If you please, start right away,” the fabulist agreed grumpily. An hour passes, then another - Krylov sits on the sofa, hanging his head on his chest. When Griboyedov put down the manuscript and looked questioningly at the old man from under his glasses, he was struck by the change that had occurred in the listener’s face. Radiant young eyes shone, the toothless mouth smiled. He held a silk handkerchief in his hand, preparing to apply it to his eyes. “No,” he shook his heavy head. “The censors won’t let this pass. They make fun of my fables. But this is much worse! In our time, the empress would have sent her along the first route to Siberia for this play.”
Konstantin Nikolaevich Batyushkov began writing poetry in 1802. In the minds of our contemporaries, the name of Batyushkov always appears next to the name of A.S. Pushkin. Even in the early days of his work, he became famous as a singer of friendship, fun and love, the so-called “light poetry” (elegy, epistle, anthological poem), which, in his opinion, required “possible perfection, purity of expression, harmony in style, flexibility, smoothness." His poetry was filled with the spirit of earthly joy and bright hopes.
Pushkin called the poem “My Genius” (1815), “by feeling, by harmony, by the art of versification, by the luxury of imagination,” “the best elegy of Batyushkov.”
Batyushkov’s work is multi-genre. Among Batyushkov’s best poems are “Tavrida” (1817), “The Dying Tass” (1817), translations from the Greek anthology (1817-18), “Imitations of the Ancients”. But one thing remains constant in all genres - the music of poetry, captivating the soul of the reader. Certainty and clarity are the main properties of his poetry.
Pushkin admired the musicality of his verse" Lovely! Charm and perfection - what harmony! Italian sounds! What kind of a miracle worker is this Batyushkov.” Belinsky gave a high assessment of Batyushkov’s work: “Batyushkov lacked a little so that he could cross the line separating talent from genius.”
Batyushkov was among the older generation of poets who prepared the appearance of Pushkin, who was one of his first direct teachers. Batyushkov was one of the first to predict the genius of Pushkin’s poetic gift. Batyushkov largely contributed to the fact that Pushkin appeared as he really appeared. This merit alone on Batyushkov’s part is enough for his name to be pronounced in the history of Russian literature with love and respect.
Batyushkov was in many ways ahead of his era, his time. His poems are surprisingly consonant with the experiences of a person of our time.
Anton Antonovich Delvig was very well read in Russian literature, showed his poetic abilities early and from a young age chose the path of literary activity for himself. He studied at the Tsarsko-Selo Lyceum, where his closest friend was A.S. Pushkin. While still at the Lyceum, Delvig acquired a humane idea of the meaning of life and a high concept of human destiny. It was obvious to him that life should be fun and creative, happy and simple. There should be no other feelings between people other than friendship and love.
But in life Delvig saw injustice, deceit, lies, and disunity between people. Delvig's poetry captured the world of suffering of ordinary people in songs. The content of these songs is always sad. In them, a Russian person complains about fate. Although Delvig was in close contact with people of progressive convictions, he was far from the issues of the socio-political struggle of his time, and after the Decembrist uprising he closed himself in a circle of purely literary interests. The poet achieved his greatest creative success in the genre of elegy, romance, and “Russian song,” many of which were set to music. Delvig could not avoid clashes with the government. The enemies of Literaturnaya Gazeta wrote denunciations against him to the censorship and the police. He had to endure an insulting explanation with the chief of police, Benckendorf, who threatened him and Pushkin with exile to Siberia. The newspaper was closed. These events had a strong effect on Delvig and, as some contemporaries believed, played a fatal role in his sudden death, which occurred on December 14, 1831. Pushkin took this death hard. “No one in the world was closer to me than Delvig,” he wrote. “Of all the connections of childhood, he was the only one who remained in sight - our poor bunch gathered around him. Without him, we were definitely orphaned.” Delvig rightfully holds an honorable place among the stars of Pushkin’s galaxy. By developing the genre of romance, elegy, and sonnet, he contributed to the development of national literature. Some of his works are set to music and are still performed today. All of Delvig’s work is colored by sincerity, a real cult of friendship and a bright love of life.
Pyotr Andreevich Vyazemsky, a friend of A.S. Pushkin, is a poet of high artistic culture, master of many genres, freely moving from romantic landscape to couplet form, from high pathos to feuilleton-type poems and colloquial speech.
The style of his numerous messages, poems “on occasion”, epigrams, madrigals, couplets for singing, etc. testifies to their close connection with the same genres in French “light poetry” of the late 18th century. Distinguished by his intelligence, resourcefulness and wit, Vyazemsky focused all his attention, both in poetry and in prose, on sharp thoughts, on brilliant play with words, often ignoring the beauty and decoration of form. The mastery of epigrams and salon puns gave rise to Pushkin’s characterization of Vyazemsky: “A caustic poet, an intricate wit, and a brilliance of caustic words, and rich in jokes...”. The poems of the second half of Vyazemsky's life, very productive in poetic terms, are distinguished by significantly greater attention to artistic form - the result of the influence of Pushkin's poetry.
Denis Vasilyevich Davydov - appeared as a poet in 1803. His poems with attacks against the tsar and the court nobility were distributed in manuscripts.
Davydov's literary activity was expressed in a number of poems and several prose articles. Successful partisan actions in the War of 1812 glorified him, and since then he has been creating a reputation for himself as a “singer-warrior”, acting “at once” in poetry, as in war. This reputation was also supported by Davydov’s friends, including Pushkin. However, Davydov’s “military” poetry in no way reflects the war. Davydov is the creator of the so-called. the genre of "hussar lyrics", a kind of lyrical diary of a Russian patriotic officer, a free-thinking warrior and poet who loves cheerful revelry and hussar courage. Wine, love affairs, riotous revelry, daring life - this is their content. “Message to Burtsov”, “Hussar Feast”, “Song”, “Song of the Old Hussar” were written in this spirit.
It is important to note that it was in the above works that Davydov showed himself as an innovator of Russian literature, for the first time using professionalisms intended for a wide range of readers (for example, in the description of hussar life, hussar names of items of clothing, personal hygiene, and names of weapons are used). This innovation of Davydov directly influenced the work of Pushkin, who continued this tradition.
Along with poems of bacchanalian and erotic content, Davydov had poems in an elegiac tone, inspired, on the one hand, by a tender passion for the daughter of a Penza landowner, Evgenia Zolotareva, and on the other, by impressions of nature. This includes most of his best works of the last period, such as: “Sea”, “Waltz”, “River”.
Dmitry Vladimirovich Venevitinov. In his literary activity, Venevitinov showed diverse talents and interests. Venevitinov wrote only about 50 poems. Many of them, especially the later ones, are filled with deep philosophical meaning, which is a distinctive feature of the poet’s lyrics.
The central theme of Venevitinov's latest poems is the fate of the poet. The cult of the romantic poet-chosen one, highly elevated above the crowd and everyday life, is noticeable in them:
"...But in pure thirst for pleasure
Don’t trust every harp’s hearing
There are not many true prophets
With the seal of power on his forehead,
With the gifts of lofty lessons,
With the verb of heaven on earth."
His romantic poetry is full of philosophical motives. It also reflected freedom-loving ideas. Many poems are dedicated to the high purpose of poetry and the poet, the cult of friendship, which Venevitinov elevated to a comprehensive love for human brothers. N.G. Chernyshevsky wrote about Venevitinov: “Had Venevitinov lived even ten years more, he would have advanced our literature forward for decades...”.
So, the galaxy of poets whose names are painted with the light of true gold is headed by A.S. Pushkin - he is an undoubted leader, teacher and mediator between centuries. At the same time as Pushkin, the bins of Russian poetry of the “Golden Age” were filled with their works by poets of the so-called “second rank”, almost all of them were friends, acquaintances of the poet, classmates at the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum. Literary scholars unite these brilliant young people into a constellation, the “Pushkin galaxy,” each of which represented the most talented people as the best for their beloved Russia.
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Introduction
The conditions in which advanced Russian literature developed were difficult and cruel. The serfdom system left its mark on all areas of Russian life. Heavy political oppression reigned in the country. Tsarist censorship mercilessly suppressed free speech. The greatest figures of Russian literature were persecuted, many of them ended their lives tragically. Ryleev was hanged by the royal executioners. Odoevsky was sent to hard labor, Bestuzhev was exiled to Siberia. The brilliant Pushkin spent his youth in exile, and was subsequently hunted down by the court camarilla and killed in the prime of his life. Lermontov was exiled to the Caucasus. Polezhaev was given up as a soldier. The tsarist government and the noble-monarchist clique that were in power were enemies, evil persecutors of advanced literature. Nevertheless, Russian literature reached in the 19th century. amazingly bright blossoming and took one of the first places in Europe. The serfdom regime caused discontent among the broad peasant masses. Throughout the 19th century. A mighty democratic revolution was maturing in Russia. The best works of Russian literature and art arose on the crest of this democratic upsurge; they indirectly and sometimes directly reflected the discontent of the popular masses, their indignation at serfdom. Literature played a huge role in the development of progressive ideas, and was the sphere in which progressive thought was able to manifest itself especially strongly and energetically. “For a people deprived of public freedom, literature is the only platform from the height of which they make them hear the cry of their indignation and their conscience,” wrote Herzen. Russian literature grew in intense ideological struggle. Progressive writers and artists, inspired by the ideas of love of freedom, waged a constant struggle with writers of the reactionary-monarchist, and then the bourgeois-liberal trend, who defended the social system of their time or were inclined to only slightly reform it. Russian artists were not separated from what was happening abroad. They responded to social events in Western Europe and absorbed the advanced achievements of art and literature. The extraordinary intensity and rapid growth of Russian culture led to the fact that trends that developed in the literature and art of Western Europe over several centuries existed in Russia simultaneously, intertwining with each other. Classicism, which found perfect expression in various spheres of Russian art, developed in parallel with the romantic direction, and at the same time, already in the 20s in Russia, the features of realism were determined, which became the leading movement of literature of the 19th century. russian literature writer golden
1. Literature of the early 19th century
The Patriotic War of 1812 and the patriotic upsurge associated with it gave a powerful impetus to the development of Russian national culture. The most educated class in Russia at that time was the nobility. Most of the cultural figures of this time were natives of 113 nobles or people in one way or another connected with noble culture. The ideological struggle in literature at the beginning of the century was between the “Conversation” group, which united conservative, protective-minded nobles, and progressive writers who were part of the “Arzamas” circle. In the early 20s, poets and writers associated with the Decembrist movement or ideologically close to it played a major role in literature. They fought against the monarchist-protective camp. After the defeat of the Decembrist uprising, in the era of mute reaction, Pushkin defended the progressive principles of Russian literature in the fight against Bulgarin and Grech, who attacked progressive literature in their organs - the newspaper "Northern Bee" and the magazine "Son of the Fatherland". Bulgarin was close to the III department. Together with Grech, he was a direct agent of the government. The largest prose writer of the late 18th and early 19th centuries, writer and historiographer Nikolai Mikhailovich Karamzin (1766-1826) in his youth was no stranger to liberalism. His “Letters of a Russian Traveler” played an important role in introducing readers to Western European life and culture. The most famous of his stories, “Poor Liza” (1792), tells a touching love story between a nobleman and a peasant woman. “And peasant women know how to feel,” this maxim contained in the story, despite its moderation, testified to the humane direction of its author’s views. At the beginning of the 19th century. Karamzin becomes a conservative. The writer’s new views were reflected in his work “History of the Russian State.” The works of Vasily Andreevich Zhukovsky (1783-1852) constituted an important stage in the development of Russian poetry - the romantic stage. Zhukovsky experienced deep disappointment with the Enlightenment of the 18th century, and this disappointment turned his thought to the Middle Ages. As a true romantic, Zhukovsky considered the blessings of life to be transitory and saw happiness only in immersion in the inner world of a person. A brilliant translator, Zhukovsky opened Western European romantic poetry to the Russian reader. His translations from Schiller and the English Romantics are especially remarkable. In contrast to the romanticism of Zhukovsky, the lyrics of K. N. Batyushkov (1787-1855) were of an earthly, sensual nature, imbued with a bright view of the world, harmonious and graceful. Ivan Andreevich Krylov (1769-1844) began his literary career as a journalist and playwright of the radical educational movement. However, his main merit is the creation of a classic Russian fable. Krylov often took the plots of his fables from other fabulists, primarily from La Fontaine. But at the same time, he always remained a deeply national poet, reflecting in his fables the peculiarities of the Russian national character and mind. Krylov opposes the privileges of the nobility and the arbitrariness of the powerful, mocks officials, and judges the characters in his fables from the point of view of the people. He brought the fable genre to a high level of naturalness and simplicity. There were many writers and poets among the Decembrists. The civil motives of classicism, appeal to the heroic images of Cato and Brutus intertwined with romantic motives, interest in national antiquity, in the freedom-loving traditions of Novgorod and Pskov. The most important poet among the Decembrists was Kondraty Fedorovich Ryleev (1795-1826). The author of tyrant-fighting poems, such as “Citizen” and “To the Temporary Worker,” he also wrote a series of patriotic “Dumas.” Under the influence of Pushkin, Ryleev created the romantic poem “Voinarovsky,” which depicts the tragic fate of the Ukrainian patriot. The two greatest writers of that time, Griboyedov and Pushkin, were ideologically connected with Decembrism at certain periods of their lives. The services of Alexander Sergeevich Griboedov (1795-1829) to Russian literature are based on one work. “Griboedov did his thing - he wrote “Woe from Wit”,” with these words Pushkin summed up the short life of his remarkable contemporary. In “Woe from Wit” (1824) there is no intrigue in the sense that French comedians understood it, and there is no happy ending in the finale. The comedy is based on contrasting Chatsky with other characters who form the Famus circle, the noble society of Moscow. The struggle of the progressive man (Herzen directly calls Chatsky a “Decembrist”) against the barbarians, parasites and debauchees who have lost their national dignity and grovel before everything French, stupid martinets and persecutors of enlightenment ends in the defeat of the hero. But the public pathos of Chatsky’s speeches reflected the full force of indignation that had accumulated among progressive Russian youth, their boundless hatred of serfdom. By satirically sharpening real features, Griboedov created relief types, in which he outlined not only social features, but also individual (“portrait”, as he himself said) features. He endowed each character with sharp, almost epigrammatic remarks that immediately became proverbs.
2. Characteristics of the “Golden Age of Russian Literature”
A.S. Pushkin
Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin (1799-1837) - a great national genius, creator of poetic works of unsurpassed beauty and perfection. As an artist, he developed with extraordinary speed, unerringly assimilating the most valuable and significant things in Russian and world culture. Brought up on French classicism of the 17th century and educational literature of the 18th century, at the beginning of his creative career he was influenced by romantic poetry and, enriched by its artistic achievements, was one of the first in the literature of the 19th century to rise to the level of high realism. Pushkin's youthful lyrics, in which he glorifies the enjoyment of life, love and wine, breathe wit and are imbued with an epicurean attitude to life inherited from the poetry of the 18th century. At the turn of the 10-20s, new motives appeared in Pushkin’s poems: he glorified freedom and laughed at the kings. His brilliant political lyrics caused the poet's exile to Bessarabia. In the south, among the leaders of the maturing Decembrist movement, in communication with future Greek rebels, Pushkin eagerly followed the struggle of peoples against the Holy Alliance. During this period, Pushkin created his poems “Caucasian Prisoner” (1823-1821), “Robber Brothers” (1821-1822), “Bakhchisarai Fountain” (1821-1823), “Gypsies” (1824-1825) - works shining with the bright colors of romanticism. In the southern poems, the realistic principle also makes its way, which is a feature of Pushkin’s talent. “You only want freedom for yourself”—these words addressed by the old gypsy to Aleko expressed Pushkin’s rejection of the romantic individualism that occupied the imagination of his Western contemporaries. After the defeat of the Decembrist uprising, Pushkin begins to peer closely into reality, studies the life of the people in the past and present, strives for historical objectivity, unshakable realistic truth. Based on Karamzin and his own study of sources, he creates the national historical tragedy “Boris Godunov” (1824-1825), dedicated to the “era of many revolts” of the early 17th century. The amazing penetration into the spirit of Russian antiquity, the strict and clear form of the tragedy placed it at an enormous height in Russian and world art. At the end of the 20s, Pushkin turned to the image of Peter 1. In the poem “Poltava” (1828), the central moment of which is the Battle of Poltava, and in the first chapters of the unfinished historical novel “Arap of Peter the Great,” the poet depicts a turning point with historical objectivity in the life of Russia. Since 1823, Pushkin has been working on his greatest creation, the novel in verse “Eugene Onegin” (1823-1831). “Onegin” gives a broad picture of the life of Russian society, and the lyrical digressions of the novel reflect in many ways the personality of the poet himself, sometimes thoughtful and sad, sometimes sarcastic and playful. In “Eugene Onegin” Pushkin realistically continues what he began in the romantic poems of an earlier period - revealing the image of his contemporary, a young man of the noble era in the Russian social movement of the 19th century. “Little tragedies” (30s) depict the clash of the daring human personality with laws, tradition and authority. Pushkin highly values the beauty of free individuality, but he condemns demonic egoism, giving preference to artless folk truth. This theme is refracted in a unique way in the story “The Queen of Spades” (1833), which depicts the bearer of an egoistic passion for enrichment, striving to snatch the prize of life, to rise up at any cost. In the poem “The Bronze Horseman” (1833), Pushkin embodied his ideas about historical development. In the old society, progress was achieved at the cost of individual suffering. A petty official, Eugene, rebels against the “ruler of half the world,” but retreats in fear, because the inexorable course of history cannot be delayed, it cannot be prevented. Pushkin's particular attention was drawn to the problem of peasant movements. He touched on this topic in the novel “Dubrovsky” (1832-1833), but did not bring it to the end. Having carefully studied all the materials available to him about Pugachev, collecting information at the site of the uprising, Pushkin created the book “The History of Pugachev,” the first historical study about the peasant war of the 18th century. Based on the artistic principles of Walter Scott, Pushkin wrote “The Captain's Daughter” (1836), a historical story with classical clarity of plot lines and depth of psychological characteristics. In The Captain's Daughter, Pushkin showed not only the spontaneous nature of the peasant movement, but also its poetry and its doom. The unique beauty of Pushkin’s art manifested itself with tremendous force in his lyrics. Pushkin's lyrics reveal the inner world of man no less deeply than the lyrical poetry of the romantics, but the great poet's soul and heart are harmoniously combined with the powerful power of the mind. Pushkin's works are filled with the spirit of humanity. In terms of depth of feeling and classical harmony of form, they, together with Goethe’s lyric poems, belong to the best creations of world poetry. Pushkin was the central figure of Russian literature in the first decades of the 19th century. Belinsky directly calls this period of Russian literature “Pushkin’s.” The name of Pushkin is associated not only with the high flowering of Russian poetry, but also with the formation of the Russian literary language. Pushkin showed the spiritual beauty and power of the Russian person, the charm of his native nature, folk poetry - fairy tales, songs, legends. Its significance for Russian literature is immeasurable. “He is the beginning of everything for us,” Gorky said about Pushkin. Following Pushkin and simultaneously with him, first-class poets performed, who, relying on Pushkin’s achievements, went their own special way. Among them were the fiery lyricist N. M. Yazykov, the author of witty feuilletons in verse P. A. Vyazemsky, and the master of elegiac poetry E. A. Baratynsky. Fyodor Ivanovich Tyutchev (1803 --1873) stands apart from the Pushkin galaxy. A poet-thinker, he achieves an amazing unity of thought and feeling. Tyutchev devotes his lyrical miniatures to depicting the connection between man and nature. Despite his political conservatism, Tyutchev clearly felt the instability of existing social relations, those tremors that foreshadowed the revolution.
M.Yu. Lermontov
At the end of the 30s, a transition to a new type of realism began. Belinsky saw its main feature in the strengthening of the critical principle, the growth of the revealing tendency. The work of Pushkin's greatest successor in the field of poetry, Mikhail Yuryevich Lermontov (1814-1841), is marked by the pathos of denial of contemporary reality. Lermontov emerged as a poet in an era of timelessness, when the Decembrist movement had already been strangled, and the new generation of Russian revolutionaries had not yet matured. This gave rise to motifs of loneliness and bitter disappointment in his poetry. Hatred for the “secular mob”, for the blue gendarmerie uniforms of Nicholas Russia runs through all of Lermontov’s poetry. His lyrics contain motifs of rebellion, a bold challenge, anticipation of a storm... -Images of rebels seeking freedom and rebelling against social injustice often appear in his poems (“Mtsyri”, 1840; “Song about the merchant Kalashnikov”, 1838). ). Lermontov is a poet of action. It is for inactivity that he castigates his generation, brought up in the era of reaction, incapable of struggle and creative work (“Duma”). At the center of Lermontov's most significant works is the image of a proud personality seeking strong sensations in struggle. These are Arbenin (drama “Masquerade”, 1835-1836), Demon (“Demon”, 1829-1841) and Pechorin (“Hero of Our Time”, 1840). Disappointed in the petty life around him, the poet went through an infatuation with such a demonic personality, but in his works of recent years he debunks the romantic poetry of proud loneliness. In his work, a deep sympathy for simple people, but full of true selflessness and heroism, was clearly visible - a mood that forms the main pathos of Russian literature of the 19th century.
N.V.Gogol
V.G. Belinsky
In feudal Russia of the 19th century. Fiction was the arena in which all social issues were posed with great urgency and force. Therefore, representatives of democratic social thought then spoke mainly in the field of literary criticism. The activities of Belinsky and his followers - Dobrolyubov and Chernyshevsky - have a direct analogy in the activities of Western European writers such as Lessing or Diderot. Both posed fundamental social questions in the form of aesthetic questions. However, the century that separates Russian thinkers from Western European ones has led to an immeasurably greater maturity of ideas and greater urgency in the formulation of social issues. The development of the literary views of Vissarion Grigorievich Belinsky (1811-1848) proceeded in a complex way. However, with all his turns and changes in beliefs, Belinsky retained throughout his entire development some guiding ideas that determined the meaning of his literary activity. This is, first of all, the idea of the nationality of literature. The idea of nationality, which had a very abstract character among the romantics, becomes immeasurably more concrete in Belinsky, closely connected with realism - a truthful, objective reflection of life. Belinsky remarkably combined a literary theorist, a literary historian and a critic. In the articles “The division of poetry into genera and types”, “The idea of art”, “The general meaning of the word literature” and others, he developed the most important provisions of scientific aesthetics - the principle of meaningful form, the theory of genres as specific forms of reflection of life, etc. In eleven In articles about Pushkin and numerous reviews of Russian literature, Belinsky gave a coherent history of Russian literature starting from the 18th century. Highly appreciating Pushkin, Belinsky was an ardent supporter of a new direction in literature, more critical of the surrounding reality. Representatives of this trend in his eyes are Lermontov and Gogol. In Gogol he saw the founder of a new stage in the development of Russian literature - the “natural school”. This name usually refers to writers who followed Gogol in their critical portrayal of serfdom and who were sympathetic to the oppressed majority of the people. Among them, the creator of “Notes of a Hunter” I. S. Turgenev, the author of “Anton Goremyka” D. V. Grigorovich, A. I. Herzen and others stood out.
The work of the young F. M. Dostoevsky (“Poor People”) developed in the same direction. In a broader sense, the “natural school” included all representatives of realism, which developed in the 50s. Belinsky's activity was a powerful factor contributing to the development of this trend and the transformation of Russian literature into one of the most influential literatures in the world. Literature of the 50s-60s Revolutionary-democratic camp. The end of the noble period of the liberation movement, and the beginning of the common, bourgeois-democratic period, could not but have a serious impact on the development of Russian democratic literature. She took decisive steps along the path of democratization, approaching combative and pressing issues of public life. The final demarcation of liberal and democratic tendencies in the Russian social movement led to a regrouping of forces in literature. In the 50s, the Sovremennik magazine united around itself the largest democratic and liberal-minded writers. By the end of the 50s, moderate writers finally broke with the magazine, and it became an organ of revolutionary democracy. Chernyshevsky became the ideological leader of the magazine. The revolutionary-democratic camp was also represented in literature by Herzen, Dobrolyubov, Nekrasov, and Saltykov-Shchedrin. They were opposed by writers who gravitated towards liberal and moderate monarchical views. The most significant of them were Turgenev and Goncharov. However, the urgent need for bourgeois-democratic reforms and the presence of a democratic upsurge in the country helped in a number of cases these artists to maintain the depth and power of social criticism in their work. The revolutionary-democratic camp in literature was more powerful, united, and ideologically mature in Russia than in any other European country.
A.I. Herzen
Alexander Ivanovich Herzen (1812-1870) was not only a thinker and revolutionary, but also a wonderful writer. Belinsky said that for Herzen the writer, his mind comes first, and his imagination comes second. The peculiarity of his talent lay not so much in the ability to create plastic images, but in the ability to explain the social phenomena that he depicted. The depiction of the phenomena of life served Herzen to explain his thoughts. In the novel "Who's to Blame?" (1848) Herzen shows how serfdom distorts people’s lives. Representatives of the noble intelligentsia depicted in the romance understand the vices of the surrounding life, but do not know the ways to fight them and do not have the strength for this fight. The stories written by Herzen in the 50s and 60s were already based on Western European themes. The best of them, "The Doctor, the Dying and the Dead," is based on the contrast between the heroic revolutionaries of 1789 and the liberals of 1848 who betrayed the cause of the revolution. Herzen strove for a free form that would give him the opportunity to express his thoughts and feelings. He found such a form in his wonderful memoirs “The Past and Thoughts” (50-60s). In them, the author not only tells his life, not only paints a broad picture of the social struggle in Russia and the West, but also expresses his most general and deep ideas. Herzen is a brilliant stylist, witty, ironic, and had a great influence on the development of Russian journalism. The greatest representative of the revolutionary-democratic trend in the development of aesthetic thought and literature was Nikolai Gavrilovich Chernyshevsky (1828-1889). Chernyshevsky's aesthetic views are materialistic in nature and are associated with the philosophy of Feuerbach. However, Chernyshevsky took a decisive step forward compared to the contemplative materialism of Feuerbach. He already understood the revolutionary role of dialectics. Chernyshevsky’s main aesthetic work is his dissertation “Aesthetic Relations of Art to Reality” (1855), in which he polemicizes with the idealistic aesthetics of Hegel’s followers. Defending the materialist point of view, Chernyshevsky argued that beauty is life. The task of art is therefore both to depict life and to pronounce judgment on its negative phenomena. Chernyshevsky connects art with the struggle against reactionary reality and sees its main goal in serving the idea of a revolutionary transformation of society. Chernyshevsky’s novel “What is to be done?” was of great importance. "(1863). In it, Chernyshevsky showed representatives of the advanced intelligentsia brought forward by the era of democratic upsurge in Russia. A characteristic feature of Chernyshevsky’s work is the desire to connect people’s aspirations for a reasonable social order with their real interests and needs. This finds expression in the so-called “reasonable egoism” that the heroes of the novel profess. Through the images of new people, Chernyshevsky reveals in the novel his idea of the socialist future, reflecting the influence of Fourier’s ideas. Among Chernyshevsky’s other literary works, the “Prologue” (late 60s) stands out, in which the writer gives a criticism of the peasant reform and the cowardly policies of the liberals that is remarkable in depth and insight. Chernyshevsky's student and colleague Nikolai Aleksandrovich Dobrolyubov (1836-- 1861) based his criticism on the same revolutionary democratic ideas that underlay Chernyshevsky's approach to issues of aesthetics. In his outstanding articles “What is Oblomovism?”, “The Dark Kingdom”, “A Ray of Light in the Dark Kingdom”, etc. Dobrolyubov acts, in his own words, as a representative of “real criticism”. Considering a literary work from the point of view of its reflection of social contradictions, he examined the social issues raised by the writers, spoke not only about literature, but also about life, expanded the picture drawn by the artist, and thereby helped the reader understand its social significance. Such luminaries of Russian literature as Goncharov and Ostrovsky highly valued Dobrolyubov’s interpretation of their work. The third outstanding critic of that era, Dmitry Ivanovich Pisarev (1840-1868), in his general level stood significantly lower than Dobrolyubov and Chernyshevsky. His critical articles appeared mainly after 1863, when the social upsurge of the late 50s and early 60s was already behind us. A follower of the vulgar materialist philosophy of Buchner and Moleschott, Pisarev pinned all his hopes on the development of scientific knowledge, which, in his opinion, should contribute to social progress. Pisarev believed that fiction was an idle trinket that distracted people from the main task - the promotion of scientific views. He denied, for example, the high assessment given by Belinsky to Pushkin's poetry. One of Pisarev’s articles is polemically entitled “The Destruction of Aesthetics.” But Pisarev was a decisive enemy of the feudal-serf regime and beautiful-hearted liberalism. A master of combat journalism, he awakened critical thought and aroused hatred of the feudal system. Two great artists, Nekrasov and Saltykov-Shchedrin, joined the revolutionary-democratic camp headed by Chernyshevsky.
The editor of Sovremennik and Otechestvennye Zapiski, Nikolai Alekseevich Nekrasov (1821---1878), was a friend and like-minded person of Belinsky and Chernyshevsky. In the struggle that the revolutionary democrats waged against the liberal camp, Nekrasov took the side of the democrats, although not always consistently. In the person of Nekrasov, Russian literature put forward a revolutionary-democratic poet of enormous ideological depth and artistic maturity. The civic tendency of his poetry does not appear in the form of an abstract declaration; it flows entirely from a realistic reflection of life. The people are depicted in many of Nekrasov’s poems, such as “Red Nose Frost” (1863), “Who Lives Well in Rus'” (1863-1877). The poet showed not only the suffering of people from the people, but also their physical and moral beauty, revealed their ideas about life, their tastes. The poet asserts the superiority of the peasants over the masters, depicts the self-interest and cruelty of bar-parasites. His poems also depict images of those whom Nekrasov calls “people's defenders”—fighters for the interests of the people. Nekrasov’s lyrical poems reveal the image of the poet himself, an advanced citizen writer, feeling the suffering of the people, chivalrously devoted to him, ready to go “to death for the honor of the fatherland.”
M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin
Mikhail Evgrafovich Saltykov-Shchedrin (1826--1889) - satirist of world significance. His satire, imbued with a conscious revolutionary-democratic tendency, is directed against the social system of autocratic Russia, exposes the ugliness of this system, bringing them to caricature and grotesqueness. Shchedrin shows great freedom in choosing forms and genres, resorting to satirical essays and feuilletons, novels and dialogue, comedy and pamphlets. In “The History of a City” (1869-1870) he gives a generalized satirical depiction of tsarism, the supreme power of the Russian empire. The novel “The Golovlev Lords” (1870-1880) shows the disintegration of the noble family, and the abomination and stench of serfdom are embodied in the image of Judas. Shchedrin clarified and supplemented his artistic analysis in “Poshekhon Antiquity” (1887-1889), where he processed the same life material in a form close to memoir. In “Fairy Tales” (1869-1886), Shchedrin, using a conventionally fantastic form, with exceptional power, clarity and expressiveness showed the social aspects of Russian life - peasants, officials, gentlemen generals, as well as the relationships between them. Shchedrin is merciless to all liberal attempts to clean up and correct the old serfdom order, to “expose” its minor vices in order to save the main one. Mockery of liberal phrase-mongers, who easily give up their positions and grovel before the serf owners, is one of Shchedrin’s constant themes. At the same time, Shchedrin, an incorruptible and staunch defender of the people, was alien to sentimental embellishment and idealization of the “peasant”. On the contrary, with bitterness, anger and merciless irony, he speaks about servility, darkness and ignorance, which help the oppressors of the people.
A.N. Ostrovsky
I.S. Turgenev
Ivan Sergeevich Turgenev (1818-1883) began his literary activity in the 40s, when liberal and democratic tendencies had not yet completely demarcated in Russian public life. He experienced the beneficial influence of Belinsky's ideas. The essays that Turgenev published on the pages of Sovremennik under the general title “Notes of a Hunter” (1847-1852) show the inhuman oppression of peasants under serfdom. In the novels “Rudin” (1856) and “The Noble Nest” (1859), the writer portrays an advanced representative of the nobility who feels deep dissatisfaction with the environment around him, but does not find the energy to break with it and become a fighter against it. Like Pushkin in Eugene Onegin, which served as the prototype for these novels, Turgenev pits his “superfluous man” against a woman with a strong moral character. The subtlety and depth of psychological analysis, the insightful portrayal of Russian nature, and the classical completeness of the style make these novels excellent works of Russian and world literature. Turgenev did not limit himself to depicting “extra people.” In the novel “On the Eve” (1860), he showed the Bulgarian revolutionary Insarov, whom the Russian girl Elena Stakhova selflessly followed. But Turgenev was looking for a hero who had developed on Russian soil and devoted himself to serving Russia. He found such an image in the person of the commoner Bazarov, depicted by him in the novel “Fathers and Sons” (1862). Bazarov denies poetry and sublime feelings, which representatives of the nobility are proud of (therefore, in their eyes, he is a “nihilist”, a denier); he thinks that the main task is to spread the natural sciences. Although some of Bazarov’s traits offend the writer, Turgenev nevertheless portrays his hero as a deep and tragic personality, a true giant next to the small figures of educated landowners. In the last years of his life, the writer lived abroad almost constantly. He acted in the West as a propagandist of Russian literature; his own writings contributed much to its worldwide influence.
I.A. Goncharov
F.M. Dostoevsky
An artist of enormous talent, Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoevsky (1821-1881) was a complex and controversial writer. He created pictures of the suffering of people under the yoke of capitalism, unsurpassed in strength and expressiveness, but rejected the revolutionary path and for many years waged a fierce struggle against the ideas of the revolutionary democratic camp. Dostoevsky entered literature as a representative of the “natural school,” continuing the traditions of Pushkin and Gogol. His first story, “Poor People” (1846), was enthusiastically received by Belinsky. In this story, Dostoevsky with deep sympathy portrays the suffering of “poor people” living in a big city, defends the dignity of the common man, and shows his superiority over representatives of the aristocracy. But already in this story some features of Dostoevsky’s future views appeared in embryo. He does not see in the “little man” the ability to protest and fight, and does not believe in the possibility of active influence on reality. Young Dostoevsky was a member of Petrashevsky's circle and was sentenced in 1849 to death, commuted to hard labor. After serving hard labor, he was enlisted in military service as a private. It was during these years that the writer experienced an internal breakdown. He became disillusioned with the ideas of the revolutionary intelligentsia, declared revolutionaries to be people far from the people, and called for them to turn to the people's truth, the basis of which he considered humility, patience, and simple-minded faith. Returning from exile, Dostoevsky, as a publicist and writer, repeatedly entered into polemics with supporters of the revolutionary camp, wrote pamphlets against them, and parodied them. But even during this period of his work, Dostoevsky created works of enormous critical scope, depicting the glaring contradictions of post-reform Russia. This is his book “Notes from the House of the Dead” (1861-1862), which shows the suffering of people in the tsarist penal servitude. Dostoevsky's largest work is the novel Crime and Punishment (1866). It depicts a person imbued with the consciousness of his exclusivity, contempt for the masses and confidence in his right to violate moral norms. Dostoevsky debunks this individualist and reveals the inner collapse of his aspirations. The novel provides a stunningly powerful image of the poverty and suffering of people under capitalism, shows the disintegration of the individual and family, humiliation and desecration of human dignity. Dostoevsky's reactionary views are already clearly reflected in this book. The writer believes that bourgeois individualism is characteristic of representatives of the revolutionary camp and passes off the individualist as a revolutionary. By debunking him, Dostoevsky wants to debunk the entire revolutionary movement in his person. On the other hand, Dostoevsky can only oppose egoism and the “Napoleonic” principle of suppressing the weak with the morality of humility, obedience and meek faith. Dostoevsky embodied his positive ideal, the ideal of a morally beautiful person in the novel “The Idiot” (1868). This book also provides an image of the cruelty, selfishness, and fanaticism of the ruling bourgeois-noble circles. They are contrasted with a positive hero, the embodiment of meekness, sympathy for human suffering, with the features of Don Quixote. He is helpless in the fight against social evil, but nevertheless represents the only principle that can be put forward against the cruelty of modern life. Dostoevsky's work has received worldwide recognition. His reactionary ideas, his statements that dark, selfish instincts dominate in the human mind, which must be suppressed with the help of religious humility, were used by the ideologists of the ruling classes for reactionary propaganda. But, as a great realist and passionate denouncer of capitalism, Dostoevsky serves progressive humanity with his art.
L.N. Tolstoy
Conclusion
The 19th century is called the “Golden Age” of Russian poetry and the century of Russian literature on a global scale. The literary leap that took place in the 19th century was prepared by the entire course of the literary process of the 17th and 18th centuries.
The 19th century began with the heyday of sentimentalism and the emergence of romanticism. These literary trends found expression primarily in poetry. The poetic works of poets E.A. come to the fore. Baratynsky, K.N. Batyushkova, V.A. Zhukovsky, A.A. Feta, D.V. Davydova, N.M. Yazykova. The creativity of F.I. Tyutchev's "Golden Age" of Russian poetry was completed. However, the central figure of this time was A.S. Pushkin. A.S. Pushkin began his ascent to the literary Olympus with the poem “Ruslan and Lyudmila” in 1920; his novel in verse “Eugene Onegin” was called the encyclopedia of Russian life. Romantic poems by A.S. Pushkin’s “The Bronze Horseman”, “The Bakhchisarai Fountain”, “The Gypsies” ushered in the era of Russian romanticism. Many poets and writers considered A.S. Pushkin their teacher and continued the traditions of creating literary works laid down by him. One of these poets was M.Yu. Lermontov. Everyone knows his romantic poem “Mtsyri”, the poetic story “Demon”, and many romantic poems.
Along with poetry, prose began to develop. The development of Russian prose of the 19th century began with the prose works of A.S. Pushkin and N.V. Gogol. A.S. Pushkin and N.V. Gogol outlined the main artistic types that would be developed by writers throughout the 19th century. This is the artistic type of “superfluous man”, an example of which is Eugene Onegin in the novel by A.S. Pushkin, and the so-called “little man” type, which is shown by N.V. Gogol in his story “The Overcoat”.
The tendency to depict the vices and shortcomings of Russian society is a characteristic feature of all Russian classical literature. It can be traced in the works of almost all writers of the 19th century. At the same time, many writers implement the satirical tendency in a grotesque form. Examples of grotesque satire are the works of N.V. Gogol “The Nose”, M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin “Gentlemen Golovlevs”, “The History of a City”. Since the middle of the 19th century, the formation of Russian realistic literature has been taking place, which was created against the backdrop of the tense socio-political situation that developed in Russia during the reign of Nicholas I. A crisis of the serfdom system is brewing, and contradictions between the authorities and the common people are strong. There is an urgent need to create realistic literature that is acutely responsive to the socio-political situation in the country. Literary critic V.G. Belinsky denotes a new realistic direction in literature. His position is developed by N.A. Dobrolyubov, N.G. Chernyshevsky. A dispute arises between Westerners and Slavophiles about the paths of historical development of Russia. Writers turn to socio-political problems of Russian reality. The genre of the realistic novel is developing. His works are created by I.S. Turgenev, F.M. Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy, I.A. Goncharov. Socio-political and philosophical issues predominate. Literature is distinguished by a special psychologism. The literary process of the late 19th century revealed the names of N.S. Leskov, A.N. Ostrovsky A.P. Chekhov. The latter proved himself to be a master of the small literary genre - the story, as well as an excellent playwright. Competitor A.P. Chekhov was Maxim Gorky. The end of the 19th century was marked by the emergence of pre-revolutionary sentiments. The realistic tradition began to fade away. It was replaced by the so-called decadent literature, the distinctive features of which were mysticism, religiosity, as well as a premonition of changes in the socio-political life of the country. Subsequently, decadence developed into symbolism. This opens a new page in the history of Russian literature.
References
1. Astafieva M.V. “History of Russian Literature”, - M.: Education, 2000
2. Zezina M. R., Shulgin V. S. “History of Russian culture”, - M.: Iskra, 2000
3. Milyukov P. N. “Essays on the history of Russian culture”, - M.: Iskra, 2003
4. Petrov A.N. “Russian culture of the first half of the 18th century”, - M.: Culture, 1999
5. Rybakov B.A. “Essays on Russian culture”, - M.: MSU, 2001
7. Tilyavsky V.I., “History of Russian culture”, - M.: Azbuka, 2001
8. Tkachev V.I. “History of Russian culture”, - Volgograd: Culture, 2002
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Yazykov Nikolay Mikhailovich Yazykov N.M. (1803-1846) was born into a noble family, studied at the Mining Cadet Corps and the Institute of Railway Engineers in St. Petersburg, and later at the Faculty of Philosophy of the University of Dorpat. The poems written by Yazykov in Dorpat reflected the freethinking and oppositional sentiments of the advanced noble youth. Having moved from Dorpat to Moscow in 1829, Yazykov became close to a circle of future Slavophiles and was imbued with repentant religious sentiments. A serious illness, which forced the poet to undergo long-term treatment abroad, and longing for his homeland intensified the pessimistic mood characteristic of the elegies he wrote in the late 1830s and early 1840s. Yazykov (sometimes without apparent reason) called verses of the most diverse poetic structure elegies: political invective, creative declarations, lyrical miniatures, and landscape lyrics.
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Elegy of Freedom is a proud inspiration! The people do not listen to you: It is silent, holy vengeance, And does not rebel against the king. Before the hellish power of autocracy, Submissive to the eternal yoke, Hearts do not feel unhappiness And the mind does not believe the mind. I saw slave Russia: Before the shrine of the altar, Rattling with chains, Bowing her neck, She prayed for the Tsar. 1824. Elegy The thunderstorm of the people is still silent, the Russian mind is still chained, and oppressed freedom conceals impulses of bold thoughts. ABOUT! For a long time the centuries-old chains will not fall from the shoulders of the fatherland, Centuries will pass menacingly, - And Russia will not awaken! 1824
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Elegy Happy is the one who, since his youthful days, with living feelings, is wretched, walking along a country road towards his mysterious dream! Who with a reasonable soul, without bitter experiences, recognized all the poverty of life under the moon and trusted nothing! Why didn’t heaven determine such a share for me? Walking along the field of life, I say: my paradise, my beauty, But I see only my bondage! 1825 Elegy The shadow of the night has fallen on the mountains and forests, The skies are darkening, only the clear west is shining, - Then the cloudless, beautiful, calmly, joyfully ending day smiles. 1842
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Odoevsky Alexander Ivanovich (1802-1839) Odoevsky A.I. was a scion of an ancient princely family. Kinship and close friendship connected him with Griboyedov. A member of the Northern Society, Odoevsky took part in the uprising on December 14, 1825. Finding himself in the casemate of the Peter and Paul Fortress after the defeat of the uprising, he was confused for some time, but soon the conviction of the rightness of his cause returned to him. His best poems, with their faith in the triumph of revolutionary ideals, were written during the period of Siberian hard labor. The pinnacle of this lyricism is the famous “Response of the Decembrists to Pushkin” - the poem “Fiery sounds of prophetic strings..”. At the Petrovsky plant, where Odoevsky was serving hard labor, his “Elegy” was created, which contained thoughts about the meaning and significance of the struggle waged by the noble revolutionaries. In 1833, Odoevsky was sent as an ordinary soldier to the Caucasian Corps. Here he met N.P. Ogarev and M.Yu. Lermontov. Six years later, the Decembrist died of malignant malaria.
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Elegy on the death of Griboedov Where is he? Who should I ask about it? Where is the spirit? Where are the ashes?.. In a distant land! Oh, let a stream of bitter tears water His grave, warm it with my breath; With insatiable suffering I will look into his ashes with my eyes, I will be completely filled with my loss, and I will press a handful of earth taken from the grave as my friend! Like a friend!.. He mixed with her, And she is all dear to me. I am there alone with my melancholy, In unbroken silence, I will surrender to all the impetuous power of My love, holy love, And I will grow to his grave, The grave is a living monument... But under different skies He died and was buried, And I am in prison! Because of the walls I am bursting with dreams in vain: They will not carry me away, And drops of tears from my hot jacket will not fall onto the turf. I was in bonds, but there was no hope Look at the look of his eyes, Look, squeeze his hand, the sound of speeches Hear for one moment - Lived in my chest, like inspiration, Filled me with delight! The imprisonment has not changed, But from hopes, like from fire, All that remains is smoke and decay; They are fire to me: for a long time now they have been burning everything they do not touch; Every year, every day, ties are broken, And I, I’m not even given the opportunity to cherish ghosts in the dungeon, To forget myself for a moment in a cheerful sleep And to dispel the sadness of the heart Dreams with a rainbow wing. 1829.
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You know them, whom I loved so much, With whom I shared the dark time... You know them! Like me, you shook their hand and conveyed to me a friendly conversation, familiar to my soul for a long time; And again I listened to the native sound, It seemed that I was in my homeland, Again in the circle of fellow prisoners and friends. So travelers go on pilgrimage Through the fiery sandy ocean, And the shadow of palm trees, the freedom of icy waters Beckon them into the distance... only sweet deception Enchants them; but their strength is invigorated, And then the caravan passes, Forgetting about the heat of the blazing grave. 1836
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Gabriel Romanovich Derzhavin was the last in a row of the largest representatives of Russian classicism. He was born on July 3, 1743 in the family of a small Kazan nobleman. The entire fortune of the Derzhavin family consisted of a dozen serf souls. Poverty prevented the future poet from receiving an education. Only when he was sixteen years old was he able to enter the Kazan gymnasium, and even then he studied there for only a short time. In 1762, Gabriel Derzhavin was called up for military service. Poverty had its effect here too: unlike most noble minors, he was forced to begin serving as a private and only ten years later received the rank of officer. In those years he was already a poet. Isn't it a strange combination: a private in the tsarist army and a poet? But being in a soldier's, rather than an officer's, environment allowed Derzhavin to become imbued with what is called the spirit of the Russian people. He was unusually respected by the soldiers; intimate conversations with people from Russian peasantry taught him to perceive people's need and grief as a state problem. Fame came to Derzhavin only at the age of forty, after the appearance of the ode “Felitsa”. He was favored by Catherine II - Felitsa - and soon received an appointment to the post of governor of the Olonets province. But Derzhavin’s bureaucratic career, despite the fact that he was not abandoned by the royal favor and received more than one position, did not work out. The reason for this was Derzhavin’s honesty and directness, his real, and not traditionally feigned, zeal for the benefit of the Fatherland. For example, Alexander I appointed Derzhavin Minister of Justice, but then removed him from business, explaining his decision by the inadmissibility of such “zealous service.” Literary fame and public service made Derzhavin a rich man. He spent his last years in peace and prosperity, living alternately in St. Petersburg and on his own estate near Novgorod. Derzhavin’s most striking work was “Felitsa,” which made him famous. It combines two genres: ode and satire. This phenomenon was truly revolutionary for the literature of the era of classicism, because, according to the classicist hierarchy of literary genres, ode and satire belonged to different “calms”, and mixing them was unacceptable. However, Derzhavin managed to combine not only the themes of these two genres, but also the vocabulary: “Felitsa” organically combines the words of “high calm” and vernacular. Thus, Gabriel Derzhavin, who developed the possibilities of classicism to the utmost in his works, simultaneously became the first Russian poet to overcome the classicist canons.
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PLAMIDE Do not burn me, Plamida, You are the quiet blue fire of your Eyes; Now I can’t protect myself from their appearance with anything. Even if I were the king of the universe, Or the strictest sage, - Smitten by pleasantness, beauty, I was Your prisoner, your slave. I would give everything: wisdom, scepter and power to love as a pledge, I would sacrifice glory to you and die at your feet. But I hear you ask, Plamida, for a few rubles as a deposit: I abhor the trade of the form, The fire in my soul has gone out. 1770 NINE Don’t kiss me so passionately, so often, gentle, dear friend! And don’t constantly whisper your loving caresses into my ear; Don’t fall on my chest in delight, Having hugged me, don’t die. The flame of the most tender passion is modest; And if it burns too much, And the feeling is full of pleasure, It will soon go out and pass. And, ah! then boredom will come instantly, coldness, disgust towards us. I wish I could kiss you a hundred times, But you kiss me only once, And then decently, so, dispassionately, Without any sweet connotations, Like a brother kissing his sister: Then our union will be eternal. 1770
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Chains Don’t complain, dear, that from your chest you accidentally dropped your dear chains: There is no sweeter freedom in the world for people; The shackles are painful, although they are golden. So enjoy the holy freedom here, Living in freedom like a breeze in a clearing; Fly through the groves, sprinkled with streams of water, And, than in Petropol, be happier on Zvanka. And if nature ever orders you to be subjected to the burden of whose shackles, see that they are woven by the love of only their flowers: This captivity is more pleasant than freedom itself. A comic wish If dear girls could fly like birds and perch on branches, I would like to be a twig so that thousands of girls could sit on my branches. Let them sit and sing, Build nests and whistle, and hatch chicks; I would never bend, I would always admire them, I would be happier than all the bitches.
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Lvov Nikolai Alexandrovich Lvov, Nikolai Alexandrovich - writer and artistic figure (1751 - 1803), member of the Russian Academy from its founding. He belonged to the literary circle of Derzhavin, Khemnitser, and Kapnist. His works were published in "Aonids", "Friend of Enlightenment" (1804), "Northern Bulletin" (1805). Translated Anacreon and published it, together with the original and notes by Eugene Bulgaris (1794). Other works of Lvov: "Russian 1791" (in prose); "Song of the Norwegian Knight Harald the Brave" (in verse, St. Petersburg, 1793); “Collection of Russian songs set to music by Prachem”, “Russian Chronicler”, “Detailed Chronicle”. Lvov was an outstanding, although not professionally trained, architect, painter, engraver (aquatint) and publisher of works on architecture. His main architectural works: the Cathedral of St. Joseph in Mogilev (built in memory of the meeting of Catherine II with Emperor Joseph II), the plan and facade of the Petrograd post office (1782 - 1786), the cathedral of the Boris and Gleb Monastery in Torzhok (1785 - 1796), churches in the villages of Pryamukhin and Nikolskoye, Novotorzhsky district, the Priory Palace in Gatchina, built according to the method of earthen structures invented by him (from earth and lime). Lvov participated in drawing up drawings for Derzhavin’s poems and composed a drawing of the Order of St. Vladimir. He published: “Discourse on Perspective” (1789; from Italian) and “Four Books of Palladian Architecture” (1798).
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BUFFIN The autumn time has come. Don't sing, sad snowflake! Don’t sing like you used to sing, Don’t sing, my good friend! Let the peacock, with its fluffy tail, be famous for its trumpet! The rooster is vocal at night, but you, my friend the bullfinch, don’t sing. Their songs and hearts are iron, They will feel a huge voice! The melodies of your soul are tender... Don’t sing, my friend bullfinch, for an hour. The autumn time has come. Don't sing, you sad little nerd! Don’t sing like you used to sing, Don’t sing, my good friend! Winter won't last long, Then we'll hang out with you again, Spring is afraid of roosters, Your voice will call for love. And with her everything, everything will shake up, The earth and the seas will melt, And the rose will press against the cornflower, They will come to listen to the bullfinch. The autumn time has come. Don't sing, sad snowflake! Don’t sing like you used to sing, Don’t sing, my good friend! 1790s
The 19th century is called the “Golden Age” of Russian poetry and the century of Russian literature on a global scale. We should not forget that the literary leap that took place in the 19th century was prepared by the entire course of the literary process of the 17th and 18th centuries. The 19th century is the time of formation of the Russian literary language, which took shape largely thanks to A.S. Pushkin.
But the 19th century began with the heyday of sentimentalism and the emergence of romanticism. These literary trends found expression primarily in poetry. The poetic works of poets E.A. come to the fore. Baratynsky, K.N. Batyushkova, V.A. Zhukovsky, A.A. Feta, D.V. Davydova, N.M. Yazykova. The creativity of F.I. Tyutchev's "Golden Age" of Russian poetry was completed. However, the central figure of this time was Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin.
A.S. Pushkin began his ascent to the literary Olympus with the poem “Ruslan and Lyudmila” in 1920. And his novel in verse “Eugene Onegin” was called an encyclopedia of Russian life. Romantic poems by A.S. Pushkin’s “The Bronze Horseman” (1833), “The Bakhchisarai Fountain”, and “The Gypsies” ushered in the era of Russian romanticism. Many poets and writers considered A.S. Pushkin their teacher and continued the traditions of creating literary works laid down by him. One of these poets was M.Yu. Lermontov. His romantic poem “Mtsyri”, the poetic story “Demon”, and many romantic poems are known. It is interesting that Russian poetry of the 19th century was closely connected with the socio-political life of the country. Poets tried to comprehend the idea of their special purpose. The poet in Russia was considered a conductor of divine truth, a prophet. The poets called on the authorities to listen to their words. Vivid examples of understanding the role of the poet and influence on the political life of the country are the poems of A.S. Pushkin “The Prophet”, ode “Liberty”, “Poet and the Crowd”, poem by M.Yu. Lermontov “On the Death of a Poet” and many others.
Along with poetry, prose began to develop. Prose writers at the beginning of the century were influenced by the English historical novels of W. Scott, the translations of which were extremely popular. The development of Russian prose of the 19th century began with the prose works of A.S. Pushkin and N.V. Gogol. Pushkin, under the influence of English historical novels, creates the story “The Captain's Daughter”, where the action takes place against the backdrop of grandiose historical events: during the Pugachev rebellion. A.S. Pushkin did a colossal amount of work exploring this historical period. This work was largely political in nature and was aimed at those in power.
A.S. Pushkin and N.V. Gogol outlined the main artistic types that would be developed by writers throughout the 19th century. This is the artistic type of “superfluous man”, an example of which is Eugene Onegin in the novel by A.S. Pushkin, and the so-called “little man” type, which is shown by N.V. Gogol in his story “The Overcoat”, as well as A.S. Pushkin in the story “The Station Agent”.
Literature inherited its journalistic and satirical character from the 18th century. In the prose poem by N.V. Gogol's "Dead Souls" the writer in a sharp satirical manner shows a swindler who buys up dead souls, various types of landowners who are the embodiment of various human vices (the influence of classicism is felt). The comedy “The Inspector General” is based on the same plan. The works of A. S. Pushkin are also full of satirical images. Literature continues to satirically depict Russian reality. The tendency to depict the vices and shortcomings of Russian society is a characteristic feature of all Russian classical literature. It can be traced in the works of almost all writers of the 19th century. At the same time, many writers implement the satirical tendency in a grotesque form. Examples of grotesque satire are the works of N.V. Gogol “The Nose”, M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin “Gentlemen Golovlevs”, “The History of a City”.
Since the middle of the 19th century, the formation of Russian realistic literature has been taking place, which was created against the backdrop of the tense socio-political situation that developed in Russia during the reign of Nicholas I. A crisis of the serfdom system is brewing, and contradictions between the authorities and the common people are strong. There is an urgent need to create realistic literature that is acutely responsive to the socio-political situation in the country. Literary critic V.G. Belinsky denotes a new realistic direction in literature. His position is developed by N.A. Dobrolyubov, N.G. Chernyshevsky. A dispute arises between Westerners and Slavophiles about the paths of historical development of Russia.
Writers turn to socio-political problems of Russian reality. The genre of the realistic novel is developing. His works are created by I.S. Turgenev, F.M. Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy, I.A. Goncharov. Socio-political and philosophical issues predominate. Literature is distinguished by a special psychologism.
The development of poetry subsides somewhat. It is worth noting the poetic works of Nekrasov, who was the first to introduce social issues into poetry. His poem “Who can live well in Rus'? ", as well as many poems that reflect on the difficult and hopeless life of the people.
The literary process of the late 19th century revealed the names of N.S. Leskov, A.N. Ostrovsky A.P. Chekhov. The latter proved himself to be a master of the small literary genre - the story, as well as an excellent playwright. Competitor A.P. Chekhov was Maxim Gorky.
The end of the 19th century was marked by the emergence of pre-revolutionary sentiments. The realistic tradition began to fade away. It was replaced by the so-called decadent literature, the distinctive features of which were mysticism, religiosity, as well as a premonition of changes in the socio-political life of the country. Subsequently, decadence developed into symbolism. This opens a new page in the history of Russian literature.