Features of motivation. Psychological features of staff motivation

Conditional, mobile, virtual in nature. The virtuality of needs is that each of them contains its own other, a moment of self-negation. Due to the variety of conditions of implementation, age, environment, biological need becomes material, social or spiritual, i.e. transforms. In the parallelogram of needs (biological need - material - social - spiritual), the dominant need becomes the one that most corresponds to the personal meaning of a person’s life, is better equipped with the means of its satisfaction, i.e. the one who is better motivated.

The transition from need to activity is the process of changing the direction of need from within to the external environment. At the heart of any activity is a motive that encourages a person to do it, but not every activity can satisfy the motive. The mechanism of this transition includes: I) selection and motivation of the subject of need (motivation - justification of the subject to satisfy the need); 2) during the transition from need to activity, the need is transformed into purpose and interest (conscious need).

Thus, need and motivation are closely related: need stimulates a person to activity, and a component of activity is always motive.

Motive of man and personality

Motive- this is what motivates a person to activity, directing him to satisfy a certain need. Motive is a reflection of need, which acts as an objective law, an objective necessity.

For example, the motive can be both hard work with inspiration and enthusiasm, and avoidance as a sign of protest.

Motives can be needs, thoughts, feelings and other mental formations. However, internal motivation is not enough to carry out activities. It is necessary to have an object of activity and correlate the motives with the goals that the individual wants to achieve as a result of the activity. In the motivational-target sphere, the social conditioning of activity appears with particular clarity.

Under [[Motivational-need sphere of personality|need-motivational sphere personality is understood as the whole set of motives that are formed and develop during a person’s life. In general, this sphere is dynamic, but some motives are relatively stable and, subordinating other motives, form, as it were, the core of the entire sphere. These motives reveal the direction of the individual.

Motivation of a person and personality

Motivation - it is a set of internal and external driving forces that encourage a person to act in a specific, purposeful manner; the process of motivating oneself and others to act to achieve organizational or personal goals.

The concept of “motivation” is broader than the concept of “motive”. Motive, in contrast to motivation, is something that belongs to the subject of behavior, is his stable personal property, which internally encourages him to perform certain actions. The concept of “motivation” has a double meaning: firstly, it is a system of factors influencing human behavior (needs, motives, goals, intentions, etc.), secondly, it is a characteristic of the process that stimulates and supports behavioral activity at a certain level. level.

In the motivational sphere, the following are distinguished:

motivational system of a person is a general (holistic) organization of all the motivating forces of activity underlying human behavior, which includes such components as needs, actual motives, interests, drives, beliefs, goals, attitudes, stereotypes, norms, values, etc. .;
achievement motivation - the need to achieve high behavioral results and satisfy all other needs;
self-actualization motivation is the highest level in the hierarchy of personal motives, consisting of the individual’s need for the fullest realization of his potential, the need for self-realization.

Worthy goals, long-term plans, good organization will be ineffective if the interest of the performers in their implementation is not ensured, i.e. motivation. Motivation can compensate for many deficiencies in other functions, such as deficiencies in planning, but weak motivation is almost impossible to compensate for with anything.

Success in any activity depends not only on abilities and knowledge, but also on motivation (the desire to work and achieve high results). The higher the level of motivation and activity, the more factors (i.e. motives) prompt a person to activity, the more effort he is inclined to put in.

Highly motivated individuals work harder and tend to achieve better results in their activities. Motivation is one of the most important factors (along with abilities, knowledge, skills) that ensures success in activity.

It would be wrong to consider the motivational sphere of an individual only as a reflection of the totality of his own individual needs. The needs of the individual are related to the needs of society and are formed and developed in the context of their development. Some needs of an individual can be considered as individualized social needs. In the motivational sphere of a person, both his individual and social needs are reflected in one way or another. The form of reflection depends on the position the individual occupies in the system of social relations.

Motivation

Motivation - This is the process of influencing a person in order to motivate him to certain actions by activating certain motives.

There are two main types of motivation:

external influence on a person with the aim of inducing him to perform certain actions leading to a desired result. This type resembles a trade deal: “I give you what you want, and you satisfy my desire”;
the formation of a certain motivational structure of a person as a type of motivation is educational in nature. Its implementation requires great effort, knowledge, and abilities, but the results exceed those of the first type of motivation.

Basic human motives

Emerging needs force a person to actively look for ways to satisfy them and become internal stimulants of activity, or motives. Motive (from Latin movero - to set in motion, to push) is what moves a living being, for which it spends its vital energy. Being an indispensable “fuse” of any actions and their “combustible material”, the motive has always appeared at the level of worldly wisdom in various ideas about feelings (pleasure or displeasure, etc.) - motivations, drives, aspirations, desires, passions, willpower, etc. d.

Motives can be different: interest in the content and process of activity, duty to society, self-affirmation, etc. Thus, a scientist can be motivated to scientific activity by the following motives: self-realization, cognitive interest, self-affirmation, material incentives (monetary reward), social motives (responsibility, desire to benefit society).

If a person strives to perform a certain activity, we can say that he has motivation. For example, if a student is diligent in his studies, he is motivated to study; an athlete who strives to achieve high results has a high level of achievement motivation; The desire of the leader to subordinate everyone indicates the presence of a high level of motivation for power.

Motives are relatively stable manifestations and attributes of personality. For example, when we say that a certain person has a cognitive motive, we mean that in many situations he exhibits cognitive motivation.

The motive cannot be explained on its own. It can be understood in the system of those factors - images, relationships, personal actions that make up the general structure of mental life. Its role is to give behavior impetus and direction towards a goal.

Incentive factors can be divided into two relatively independent classes:

needs and instincts as sources of activity;
motives as reasons that determine the direction of behavior or activity.

Need is a necessary condition for any activity, but need itself is not yet capable of giving activity a clear direction. For example, the presence of an aesthetic need in a person creates corresponding selectivity, but this does not yet indicate what exactly the person will do to satisfy this need. Perhaps he will listen to music, or perhaps he will try to compose a poem or paint a picture.

How do the concepts differ? When analyzing the question of why an individual generally comes into a state of activity, manifestations of needs are considered as sources of activity. If we study the question of what the activity is aimed at, why these particular actions and actions are chosen, then first of all the manifestations of motives (as motivating factors that determine the direction of activity or behavior) are studied. Thus, need encourages activity, and motive motivates directed activity. We can say that a motive is an incentive to activity associated with satisfying the needs of the subject. The study of motives for educational activities among schoolchildren revealed a system of various motives. Some motives are main, leading, others are secondary, side, they do not have independent meaning and are always subordinate to the leading ones. For one student, the leading motive for learning may be the desire to gain authority in the class, for another it may be the desire to obtain a higher education, for a third it may be an interest in knowledge itself.

How do new needs arise and develop? As a rule, each need is objectified (and specified) in one or several objects that are capable of satisfying this need, for example, an aesthetic need can be objectified in music, and in the process of its development can also be objectified in poetry, i.e. more items can already satisfy her. Consequently, the need develops in the direction of increasing the number of objects that can satisfy it; the change and development of needs occurs through the change and development of objects that meet them and in which they are objectified and concretized.

To motivate a person means to touch on his important interests, to create conditions for him to realize himself in the process of life. To do this, a person must at least: be familiar with success (success is the realization of a goal); to have the opportunity to see yourself in the results of your work, to realize yourself in your work, to feel your importance.

But the meaning of human activity is not only to obtain results. The activity itself can be attractive. A person may enjoy the process of performing an activity, such as being physically and intellectually active. Like physical activity, mental activity in itself brings pleasure to a person and is a specific need. When a subject is motivated by the process of activity itself, and not by its result, this indicates the presence of a procedural component of motivation. In the learning process, the procedural component plays a very important role. The desire to overcome difficulties in educational activities, to test one’s strengths and abilities can become a personally significant motive for studying.

At the same time, an effective motivational attitude plays an organizing role in the determination of activity, especially if its procedural component (i.e., the process of activity) causes negative emotions. In this case, goals and intentions that mobilize a person’s energy come to the fore. Setting goals and intermediate tasks is a significant motivational factor that is worth using.

To understand the essence of the motivational sphere (its composition, structure, which has a multidimensional and multi-level nature, dynamics), it is necessary first of all to consider the connections and relationships of a person with other people, taking into account that this sphere is also formed under the influence of the life of society - its norms, rules, ideology, politicians, etc.

One of the most important factors determining the motivational sphere of an individual is a person’s belonging to any group. For example, teenagers who are interested in sports are different from their peers who are interested in music. Since any person belongs to a number of groups and in the process of his development the number of such groups grows, naturally his motivational sphere also changes. Therefore, the emergence of motives should be considered not as a process arising from the internal sphere of the individual, but as a phenomenon associated with the development of his relationships with other people. In other words, changes in motives are determined not by the laws of spontaneous development of the individual, but by the development of his relationships and connections with people, with society as a whole.

Personal motives

Personal motives - this is the need (or system of needs) of the individual for the function of motivation. Internal mental motivations for activity and behavior are determined by the actualization of certain needs of the individual. Activity motives can be very different:

organic - aimed at satisfying the natural needs of the body and are associated with the growth, self-preservation and development of the body;
functional - satisfied through various cultural forms of activity, for example playing sports;
material - encourage a person to engage in activities aimed at creating household items, various things and tools;
social - give rise to various types of activities aimed at taking a certain place in society, gaining recognition and respect;
spiritual - they form the basis of those activities that are associated with human self-improvement.

Organic and functional motives together constitute the motivation for the behavior and activity of an individual in certain circumstances and can not only influence, but change each other.

They appear in specific forms. People may perceive their needs differently. Depending on this, motives are divided into emotional ones - desires, desires, attractions, etc. and rational - aspirations, interests, ideals, beliefs.

There are two groups of interconnected motives of life, behavior and activity of an individual:

generalized, the content of which expresses the subject of needs and, accordingly, the direction of the individual’s aspirations. The strength of this motive is determined by the significance for a person of the object of his needs;
instrumental - motives for choosing ways, means, methods of achieving or realizing a goal, conditioned not only by the need state of the individual, but also by his preparedness, the availability of opportunities to successfully act to realize his goals in given conditions.

There are other approaches to classifying motives. For example, according to the degree of social significance, motives of a broad social plan (ideological, ethnic, professional, religious, etc.), group plan and individual-personal nature are distinguished. There are also motives for achieving goals, avoiding failures, motives for approval, and affiliative ones (cooperation, partnership, love).

Motives not only encourage a person to act, but also give his actions and actions a personal, subjective meaning. In practice, it is important to take into account that people, performing actions that are identical in form and objective results, are often guided by different, sometimes opposing motives, and attach different personal meaning to their behavior and actions. In accordance with this, the assessment of actions should be different: both moral and legal.

Types of personality motives

TO consciously justified motives should include values, beliefs, intentions.

Value

Value is a concept used in philosophy to indicate the personal, socio-cultural significance of certain objects and phenomena. A person’s values form a system of his value orientations, elements of the personality’s internal structure that are especially significant for him. These value orientations form the basis of the consciousness and activity of the individual. Value is a personally colored attitude towards the world, arising on the basis of not only knowledge and information, but also one’s own life experience. Values give meaning to human life. Faith, will, doubt, and ideal are of enduring importance in the world of human value orientations. Values are part of culture, learned from parents, family, religion, organizations, school, and environment. Cultural values are widely held beliefs that define what is desirable and what is true. Values can be:

self-oriented, which concern the individual, reflect his goals and general approach to life;
other-oriented, which reflect the desires of society regarding the relationship between the individual and groups;
environmentally oriented, which embody society's ideas about the desired relationship of the individual with his economic and natural environment.

Beliefs

Beliefs - These are the motives of practical and theoretical activity, justified by theoretical knowledge and the entire worldview of a person. For example, a person becomes a teacher not only because he is interested in passing on knowledge to children, not only because he loves working with children, but also because he knows well how much in creating a society depends on cultivating consciousness. This means that he chose his profession not only out of interest and inclination towards it, but also according to his convictions. Deeply held beliefs persist throughout a person's life. Beliefs are the most generalized motives. However, if generalization and stability are characteristic features of personality properties, then beliefs can no longer be called motives in the accepted sense of the word. The more generalized a motive becomes, the closer it is to a personality trait.

Intention

Intention- a conscious decision to achieve a specific goal with a clear understanding of the means and methods of action. This is where motivation and planning come together. Intention organizes human behavior.

The types of motives considered cover only the main manifestations of the motivational sphere. In reality, there are as many different motives as there are possible person-environment relationships.

As a result of studying this chapter, the student should:

know essence, main functions and categories of motivation; content and process theories of motivation;

be able to identify the basic needs of personnel, develop appropriate measures aimed at increasing their motivation;

own skills of motivational influence on employees in order to increase the return on business activities.

The essence and functions of motivation

In order for management to be effective, it is necessary that the employees of the organization are willing to do what is required of them. After all, the only way to force a person to do something well is to make him want it himself. The essence of motivation is to interest employees in their work.

The strength of an employee’s interest, or his motivation, directly determines his productivity, as well as the productivity of the departments and the entire organization where they work. With the help of motivation, you can smooth out many problems: errors in planning, organization, control. But weak motivation is difficult to compensate for with anything. Therefore, it is the most important function of management.

Motivation is the process of motivating oneself and others to act to achieve personal or organizational goals.

Motivation and division of labor

The need for motivation is a direct consequence of the division of labor in the process of joint activity.

During individual activity to create a specific product, the final result itself serves as a sufficient incentive for the individual. Then there is no special need for motivation. To be effective, joint activity is usually based on the division of labor. In this case, the final result is alienated from the manufacturer. Each participant in such activity turns into a “partial” worker. Therefore, the employee cannot focus on the final result, as in individual production. He participates in joint activities not in order to directly receive his product as a means of satisfying his needs, but for other reasons.

Thus, not a single employee of, say, coke production will consume chemical products. It is not intended for personal use and is not meant to motivate. But this can be done by the benefits that the worker will receive for performing his activity as a “partial” worker. Such a system requires motivating the work of a “partial” employee, stimulating him, and therefore it must be built on the principles of validity, fairness and effectiveness.

Then she will be able to actually stimulate the employee of the organization to perform the work that he performs within the framework of the division of labor and the corresponding distribution of responsibilities. Whether it will motivate the employee depends on the degree of effectiveness of the system, its clarity, whether it is understandable to the employee, recognized as fair and consistent with his capabilities, and accepted by him.

The initial principles for creating motivation systems are the following:

orientation of the motivation system not to the individual needs of the employee (most often they focus on material needs), but to him as a whole, i.e. all characteristic types and types of needs are taken into account;
adequate determination and accounting of the real contribution of each performer to the overall result, as well as employee remuneration and incentives proportional to his contribution.

Taking the first principle into account requires an understanding of personality structure; the second – knowledge and skills in using tools for organizing work. Therefore, motivation, to a greater extent than other management functions, relates to both economics and psychology.

Accordingly, it requires more extensive training for those who work with it. The growth of labor productivity in the company, the creation of new products, breakthroughs in the market, or, conversely, the spread of internal conflicts, stupor at work and even the collapse of the company depend on how successfully a company can motivate.

For motivation to take place, you need to create a system that meets these principles.

Often, when forming a motivation system, the main emphasis is on the development of material motives and incentives, neglecting intangible ones. Such a system may have some effect, but not for long. Moreover, if it is combined with the fear of punishment for failure to complete work, for example, dismissal.

Practice shows that much better results are achieved by systems that use non-material incentives and take into account the diversity of interests and needs.

In the history of the formation of the motivation system, the first steps in this direction were taken at the beginning of the 20th century. Then the founders of the “school of scientific management” realized that it was impossible to pay people meager wages and thus force them to live on the brink of starvation. They defined the so-called sufficient daily output and proposed to pay those who produce more output in proportion to their contribution. As a result, labor productivity increased, the processes of specialization and standardization intensified, and production efficiency increased.

A little later, E. Mayo demonstrated and substantiated the benefits of using psychological tools to increase productivity and efficiency. In the early 20s. XX century at one of the spinning mills in Philadelphia, he slightly improved the working conditions of the workers, as a result of which their output noticeably increased. At the end of the same decade, E. Mayo conducted another management experiment based on acquired and scientifically comprehended knowledge. In his process and based on the results, he compiled and implemented a system of “human relations” in production. The emphasis was on developing social interaction and group behavior, which had a clear impact on worker productivity. This concept of “human relations” dominated the theory of people management until the mid-1950s.

However, this concept did not allow the formation of a motivation model capable of explaining the incentives to work. They began to be developed later - in those that appeared in the 1940s. theories of work motivation that persist and continue to develop today.

FEATURES OF STAFF MOTIVATION IN A MODERN RUSSIAN COMPANY

Satonina Nelya Nikolaevna candidate

of Psychological Sciences, Associate Professor, Department of Management Psychology, Samara

humanitarian academy

Some aspects of staff motivation are considered. A theoretical analysis of the relevance of the main theories of motivation in modern Russian conditions was carried out. Empirical data characterizing the features of personnel motivation in typical modern Russian companies are presented.

Key words: motivation, motivation theories, motivation models, personnel, job satisfaction.

The problem of motivation is one of the main ones in personnel management and at the same time one of the most difficult both in theoretical and practical terms. Suffice it to say that there are more than 400 definitions of motivation and about 50 theories of motivation. H. Heckhausen wrote that “there is hardly another equally vast area of psychological research that could be approached from such different angles as the psychology of motivation.” Despite this, it cannot be said that the psychological mechanisms of personnel motivation have been fully studied. As E.P. Ilyin rightly notes in his extensive monograph on motives and motivation, the abundance of literature on the problem of motivation and motives is accompanied by a variety of points of view on their nature, which forces some psychologists to fall into excessive pessimism and talk about the practical unsolvability of the problem. It is noted that a common drawback of existing points of view and theories is the lack of a systematic approach to considering the process of motivation.

Indeed, the history of studying the determination of human activity knows many scientific approaches that have explained the incentive forces of human behavior from different positions. These include, firstly, need theories of motivation. To representatives of this direction

can be attributed to E. Condillac, P. Holbach, R. Woodworth, K. Levine, G. Allport, A. Maslow, etc. Each of them closely linked the concept of “motivation” with the concept of “need”.

Another direction is associated with behaviorist theories of motivation (D. Watson, E. Tolman, K. Hull, B. Skinner). As is known, behaviorists, in contrast to need theories of motivation, explained human behavior through the “stimulus-response” scheme, considering the stimulus as an active source of the body’s reaction.

Cognitive theories of motivation, starting with W. James, and then J. Rotter, G. Kelly, H. Heckhausen, J. Atkinson, D. McClelland, R. Cattell, etc., recognized the leading role of consciousness in determining human behavior, and the central mental process decision-making becomes the explanation of behavior.

Psychoanalytic theories of motivation (Z. Freud, W. McDougall) tried to explain the behavior of an individual based on his unconscious and instincts. There are also biologizing theories of motivation (J. Nutten), which speak of motivation as the mobilization of energy.

In the works of prominent domestic scientists (A.F. Lazursky, N.N. Lange, V.M. Borovsky, N.Yu. Voitonis, L.S. Vygotsky, A.N. Leontiev, P.V. Simonov, etc. ) motivation was also given a prominent place. In particular, the works of L. S. Vygotsky spoke about the “struggle of motives,” the separation of motive and stimulus, and voluntary motivation. Thus, it can be stated that there is still no unified theory of motives and motivation that could lay claim to an exhaustive theoretical explanation of this problem.

At the same time, this does not mean that the works of the above scientists did not bring any clarity to the understanding of the nature of these issues. As D. Myers noted, no one in science can claim the ultimate truth; each theory, if considered separately, has its own advantages, but is able to explain only part of the questions that arise in this area of psychological research. Only the integration of all theories with deep analysis and isolation of all the positive things they contain can provide the most complete picture of the determination of human behavior.

Theories of personnel motivation are of particular interest due to the fact that the activities of a person included in the system of functions and goals of the organization are closely related to the motivation of his behavior. A simple model of the motivation process has only three elements: needs, goal-directed behavior, need satisfaction. The task of a manager who must motivate his subordinates is to provide them with the opportunity to satisfy their personal needs in exchange for effective work. In addition, the manager must help subordinates understand and appreciate the benefits that this job and this organization gives him, so that the employee's behavior is voluntarily aimed at achieving the goals of the organization.

In management, great importance is attached to distinguishing levels of motivation. At the level of satisfactory behavior, employees perform the minimum that will be acceptable to management. At the same time, workers are convinced that their current job, like any other, is a simple exchange of their time and energy for the money they need to live. If motivation takes this form, it signals that management's attempts to help subordinates connect their goals with the goals of the organization have failed. This leads to dissatisfaction with work, managers and the company as a whole and, as a consequence, systematic absenteeism, staff turnover, and low labor efficiency.

At the level of excellent behavior, work is a more desirable part of life, bringing reward and satisfaction. The researchers calculated that

Employees usually do not work at full capacity and save about 20% of their energy, and begin to give 100% only if they are confident that their additional efforts will be properly rewarded. At this level, not only material but also moral incentives are valuable to employees. The manager's task is to create opportunities for his subordinates to meet the full range of their needs in the process of work in exchange for their energy and skills.

Practical management is based on certain theories of motivation, which are divided into two groups. Content theories try to find out the reasons for this or that human behavior. They are often called "need theories." Process theories focus on the question of how this or that type of behavior arises, what guides, supports and stops it.

There are several basic substantive theories of motivation (Taylor, Maslow, Herzberg, McClelland, etc.). The earliest meaningful theories of work motivation include, first of all, the theory of F. W. Taylor. It was subsequently called the “concept of economic man.” F. Taylor mainly used economic coercion in matters of increasing labor productivity, that is, he used the only incentive - monetary, considering it the most natural. Job satisfaction, creativity, emotions and much more were not taken into account. Psychological and socio-psychological factors for increasing the labor activity of workers were not used. Many years later, this theory, which seemed to have already lost its relevance, became applicable in modern Russian reality, during the period of the so-called “wild capitalism”.

As a unique alternative, Elton Mayo developed the “theory of human relations”; this theory was aimed at achieving worker agreement with the management program, as well as reducing dissatisfaction, adaptation and overcoming employee alienation. This theory is based on the following ideas: firstly, work motivation is determined primarily by the social norms existing in the organization, and not by physiological needs and material incentives; secondly, the most important motive for high performance is job satisfaction, which presupposes good pay, the possibility of career growth (career), the orientation of managers towards employees, interesting content and change of work, progressive methods of organizing work; thirdly, social security and care for each person, informing employees about the life of the organization, developed communications between the hierarchical levels of the organization are important for motivating productive work, i.e. managers at all levels and subordinates. It should be noted that many components of this theory were embodied in practice even in the pre-perestroika period in the life of our country.

One of the important theories was and remains the theory of Abraham Maslow - the “Hierarchical Model of Needs”, or the “Theory of Elevation of Needs”. He argued that human behavior depends on which of the five basic types of needs is currently dominant. Each person has all five types of needs at the same time, but the strength of each need at any particular time depends on the person's personal priorities. Depending on these priorities, a hierarchy of needs is built. A manager who knows the priority needs of his subordinate can determine the most effective motivator for him.

As you know, A. Maslow identified several types of needs. Among them are physiological needs, which, in relation to the work environment, include the needs for wages, leave, pensions, breaks, favorable working conditions, lighting, heating and ventilation.

etc. Workers, whose behavior is determined by these needs, have little interest in the meaning and content of work; they are mainly concerned about its payment and conditions. The needs for security and confidence in the future, like physiological needs, are among the basic, fundamental ones. They mean both physical (health protection, safety at work) and economic security (monetary income, job security, social insurance for old age and illness). These needs are updated and come to the fore as soon as the physiological needs of a person are satisfied. Satisfying security needs provides confidence in the future. They reflect the desire to maintain an already achieved position, including the level of wages and various benefits, to protect oneself from danger, harm, threats, injuries, losses or deprivations. In organizations, these needs take the form of struggles for job security, union organizing, insurance, and severance pay.

Social needs (needs for belonging) are focused on communication and emotional connections with other people, these are the needs for belonging to a certain group, social interaction, affection, support. Their implementation occurs by joining formal and informal groups and taking part in a variety of joint activities. The leadership of such people should have the character of a friendly partnership.

Esteem needs include the needs for both self-esteem and recognition and respect from others, including the needs for prestige, authority, power, and career advancement. In any organization, rewards that can satisfy the need for esteem include honorary titles, other forms of recognition, praise, additional responsibilities, and promotions.

The needs for self-realization (self-expression, self-actualization) are the highest level of needs. They include the needs for creativity, the implementation of one’s own plans, the realization of individual abilities, and personal development. This is the highest level of manifestation of human activity. It is about realizing your potential and growing as a person.

This theory is of great importance for the management of organizations, since managers, based on its provisions, can clearly understand that the motivation and behavior of their subordinates are determined by a wide range of different hierarchically organized needs of the individual. This theory, due to its practicality and accessibility, has become widespread in different countries, including Russian organizations.

K. Alderfer's theory of needs or theory of needs of existence, relationships, growth (or ERG - Existenc, Relatednes, Growth). From the standpoint of this theory, three classes (groups) of needs are distinguished. Existence needs (E), which include fundamental physiological needs, as well as safety needs. Social needs (R), including the needs for communication, group affiliation and respect from others (according to AMaslow's classification, these are social and esteem needs). Personal growth needs (G), i.e. needs for self-realization, including participation in management. Despite its relative simplicity, this theory is less known to Russian practitioners.

F. Herzberg's theory is still very popular - the “motivational-hygienic theory”, or the “work enrichment theory”, according to which all incentives to work are divided into two groups. The first group consists of “hygiene factors” - all external conditions (salary, relationships with colleagues,

the behavior of the master, physical working conditions, etc.). It is these factors that most often cause dissatisfaction on the part of workers, which is manifested in an increase in absenteeism, an increase in labor turnover, an increase in injuries, a decrease in labor productivity, an increase in defective work, etc.

Improving these external factors has a stimulating effect, but this is only for a short period of time, then one gets used to them as a matter of course. As a result, employee dissatisfaction decreases, but the stimulating effect of these factors ceases. F. Herzberg considered the main stimulant to be the work itself and the associated needs for recognition of achievements, the desire for career advancement, a sense of responsibility and personal growth, as well as the employee’s self-realization in work. For the sake of such work, people are ready to endure both bad conditions and a bad leader. Unlike “hygiene factors,” these incentives, or “motivator factors,” last a long time and are more reliable.

In the present Russian reality, in our opinion, this theory is quite applicable in organizations with different financial capabilities. Thus, fairly wealthy organizations associated with oil and gas production and refining, banking, etc., may overly rely on their ability to pay their employees, neglecting other motivating factors, while weaker organizations, on the contrary, With their relatively limited financial capabilities, they can quite successfully motivate employees, flexibly using a variety of “motivator factors” available to them.

Douglas McGregor's theory of motivation is a two-factor theory, or "Theory X and Theory Y". His theory was an attempt to combine Taylorism with the theory of E. Mayo. "Theory X" is based on the theory of F. Taylor. It is directly related to the “economic” man, and the second - “Theory Y” - to the “social” man. “Theory X” corresponds to a multi-story management pyramid, where the lower levels only carry out orders from above, without showing any initiative. The main provisions of Theory X boil down to the following: the average worker is lazy and tends to avoid work; employees are not very ambitious, are afraid of responsibility and want to be led; to achieve the goals of the enterprise, it is necessary to force workers to work under the threat of sanctions, without forgetting about remuneration; strict guidance and control are the main management methods; The behavior of workers is dominated by the desire for safety.

“Theory Y” is built on opposite principles and includes the following postulates: reluctance to work is not an innate quality of the worker, but a consequence of poor working conditions that suppress the innate love of work; with favorable, successful past experience, employees tend to take responsibility; the best means of achieving the organization's goals are rewards and personal development; in the presence of appropriate conditions, employees assimilate the goals of the organization, develop such qualities as self-discipline and self-control; The labor potential of workers is higher than is commonly believed; in modern production, their creative potential is only partially used.

Managers should strive to develop personnel from the state “X” to the state “Y”, or from the state of “economic man” to “social man”. For present Russian society, this situation is quite relevant, given the extremely dynamic socio-economic changes taking place in it. At the same time, there is a gradual understanding on the part of employers and managers that previous approaches to employees, corresponding to Theory “X,” are becoming obsolete, that is, they are becoming ineffective, so the transition to other methods of working with employees is inevitable.

The main distinguishing feature of the “Z” theory, developed by V. Ouchi, is the rationale for collectivist principles of motivation. According to this theory, motivation should come from the values of the “production clan”, i.e. enterprises as one big family, one kind. The main motivator of employee behavior is a corporation built on a clan principle. The signs of this type of corporation are: firm guarantees of employment and involvement in the general destiny of the organization; slow promotion; universal nature of qualifications, broad communications; collective, consensus-based decision-making method and group responsibility; wide freedom of action and unclear control mechanism; constant concern for the social and economic needs of workers; confidential, friendly communication between managers and subordinates; publicity; egalitarianism, smoothness of rank differences; systematically cultivating a healthy social environment, corporate values and commitment to the organization. Considering the little changed collectivist psychology of Russians, the ideas of this theory are not only attractive, but can actually be effectively used in practice. By the way, this is facilitated by the previous experience of socialist enterprises, where many of the listed conditions were applied quite successfully.

David McClelland, without denying the conclusions of previous theories about the importance of biological and other “basic” needs in motivating the behavior of workers, tried to identify the most important among the “secondary needs” that are actualized provided there is sufficient material security. He argues that any organization provides the employee with opportunities to realize three higher-level needs: a) the need for success, b) the need for power, c) the need for belonging. If an employee strives for success, he needs to be helped to realize his capabilities in the process of work. Such people are considered a godsend for the organization.

The need for power is expressed in the desire to influence other people, control their behavior, as well as the willingness to be responsible for others. This need is expressed in the desire for a leadership position. It is advisable to select people with a strong need for power for leadership positions. Such people have high self-control. They are more devoted to their organization, passionate about their work, regardless of time - this is the desire to influence others, to force them to do what they themselves would not do.

The need to belong is the desire to establish friendly relationships with others. Such employees achieve high levels of performance in tasks that require a high level of social interaction and good interpersonal relationships. A manager must know how to evoke this or that desire and aspiration in a person in order to find an opportunity to satisfy them in the process of work itself.

J. Atkinson's theory is based on the fact that employee behavior is the result of the interaction of the individual qualities of a person and the situation, its perception. Every person strives for success, avoids failure, and has two corresponding motives: the motive for success and the motive for avoiding failure. These motives are quite stable and are formed in the process of learning and work. They manifest a person’s desire for a certain level of need satisfaction. We believe that the identified theories to a certain extent reflect real situations in personnel motivation in Russian organizations, although the degree of fame, popularity, and most importantly, applicability of each of them varies significantly.

Perhaps this can be said to an even greater extent in relation to the main process theories of motivation: Victor Vroom's expectancy theory, extended

Lyman Porter and Edward Lawler's expectancy models, J. Stacy Adams' theory of justice, and B. Skinner's reinforcement theory. As practice shows, due to the subjectivity and complexity of applying some of them in modern Russian conditions, these theories are less known to a wide range of Russian managers. Although in their practical activities the basic principles, for example, the theories of B. Skinner, are used quite often. It is known that this theory is based on a very simple model consisting of only four steps: incentives - behavior - consequences - future behavior.

In general, an analysis of all of the listed theories of work motivation convinces us that none of them is exhaustive and completely acceptable for Russian conditions. However, important components of these theories are very significant for motivating employees of domestic organizations currently working in market conditions.

The distinctive features of the motivation systems of Russian enterprises from the motivation systems of enterprises in other countries are very significant in many respects. The first distinctive feature of the development of motivation systems is the fact that in the production and economic activities of enterprises of the Russian state for a long time, predominantly a single motivational model of “carrot and stick” was widely used in practical activities, which has not lost its use today.

The second distinctive feature of motivation systems is that the motivation models of our country were and remain standardized and unshakable; any deviation from these standards was considered a violation of existing regulatory legal acts and local regulatory documents, which were based and functioned on the basis of legislative acts. Therefore, managers at the highest level of management strictly observed these principles (time-based, piece-rate and bonus payment systems and their varieties, bonus systems).

The third distinctive feature is that national motivation systems have traditionally promoted equalization in the systems of remuneration and bonuses for employees.

The fourth distinctive feature of the use of motivational systems is that labor contribution was assessed in a biased, formal manner, which led to indifference and disinterest in both individual and collective results of work, reducing social and creative activity. The ineffectiveness of the functioning of existing assessment systems can be supported by the results of a study conducted at Russian enterprises. Only 38.4% of respondents responded that the current evaluation criteria take into account labor results, 50.3% partially take them into account, and 11.3% do not take them into account.

The fifth distinctive feature of Russia's motivational systems in the past was that social stimulation (a network of preschools, medical institutions, dispensaries and recreation centers, sports facilities, etc.) of workers' work activity was carried out mainly without taking into account the results of individual labor, since social benefits collective labor was used by both workers who achieved high performance indicators and workers who did not show much interest in work activities.

The sixth distinctive feature of motivational systems was that none of the motivational models of enterprises in capitalist countries provided and does not provide today for a block of moral incentives, since they mainly reflect material, socio-material, natural and social career incentives. In this regard, the experience accumulated in Russia, China, as well as in Japan in terms of moral incentives for the best workers deserves not only

approval, but also further widespread dissemination in organizations.

The seventh feature in the development of motivation is that stimulation was previously considered, as a rule, through the prism of socialist competition. And it seems that competition, if we discard ideological dogmas, not only has not outlived its usefulness, but should still be one of the driving motives for increasing the social and creative activity of workers in accelerating the pace of scientific and technological progress. Its necessity has been proven in many defended doctoral and candidate dissertations, but changes in the political and economic situation in Russia have negated its development and practical application. At the same time, competition (although not socialist) is widely used in firms in Germany, Japan and other countries. A positive example in this regard can be the PRC, where competition under the conditions of a socialist system and the development of market relations has not lost its significance and, along with other factors, allows maintaining high rates of economic development, which exceed the rates of development of the most industrially developed countries.

The mechanism for implementing each of the blocks of the motivation model depends not only on the desire of a particular Russian enterprise, but also on the specific conditions that are characteristic of specific teams where this or that motivational model is tested. Moreover, the accumulated experience of using various motivational models in organizations in different countries, including Russia, indicates that none of the motivational models is capable of completely eliminating contradictions in stimulating the work of employees. Therefore, the problem of developing theoretical and practical approaches to labor motivation remains extremely relevant and pressing due to the fact that most foreign practical developments do not work on Russian soil. The reason for this is both the specificity of Russian conditions (the transitional stage, the period of formation of market relations), and the specific features of the mentality of subjects of market relations.

Attempts to apply Western theories that were developed in countries with developed capitalism do not always find their confirmation in Russian reality, when the majority of workers do not have their basic needs met. In this regard, at present, domestic companies often use, in fact, the approach of F.W. Taylor, according to which the incentive for employees is primarily economic interest. A clear confirmation of this are the results of a socio-psychological study conducted in 2006 by the personnel and organizational planning department of SMARTS CJSC among the company’s employees, in which we took part. The purpose of the study was to determine factors influencing employee satisfaction with work in the company. More than 500 people, representatives of all categories of personnel, took part in the study.

As a result of the analysis, three groups of factors influencing the satisfaction of the company's employees as a whole were identified. These are economic factors, these include the level of wages and the remuneration system, socio-psychological (attitude of management, socio-psychological climate in the team) and factors related to the content and working conditions.

All employees participating in the survey were asked to express their attitude towards work. They had to choose from the proposed judgments those that most fully reflected their idea of \u200b\u200bthe work.

Thus, for the majority of company employees (67%) work is an opportunity to earn money, a little more than a third noted the opportunity to feel like a full-fledged person, almost the same number (34%) considered it an important component

implementation of professional skills and abilities in their work.

As a result of correlation analysis, a relationship was identified between job satisfaction in the company and aspects of their work activity that are important for employees. The closest relationship was found between job satisfaction in general and such aspects as the level of wages, the attitude of company management, and the content of work. Employee dissatisfaction with these parameters leads to dissatisfaction with the job as a whole to a greater extent than all other components of work activity.

It would be logical to assume that an increase in wages should necessarily lead to increased job satisfaction, and therefore to increased labor efficiency of company employees. However, there are circumstances that prevent this. First of all, these are the limited resources of the wage fund. In addition, a one-time increase in wages leads to a state of satisfaction only for a limited period of time. Therefore, when planning the system and level of payment, it is necessary to take into account the most important parameters of material remuneration for employees, namely: indexation of wages in accordance with inflation and rising prices; the level of salary received must satisfy the basic needs of the family; the salary should correspond to the degree of labor invested; payment must correspond to the average salary level at enterprises of the corresponding profile in a particular region.

As a result of the study, factors influencing job satisfaction depending on socio-demographic and status characteristics were identified. It turned out that the satisfaction of male workers, unlike female workers, depends more on the encouragement and appreciation of management, as well as on the conditions and organization of the labor process (work schedule, workplace equipment, provision of necessary equipment). For women, the amount of wages is more important, that is, satisfaction with wages, first of all, determines their satisfaction with work in general. During the Soviet period, among the most significant factors for women were working conditions and work schedule.

Job satisfaction of the company's young employees (20-30 years old) depends on management's assessment of their work, assessment of the content of the activity and economic factors (and not only the amount of earnings is important, but also the monetary incentive system).

Middle-aged workers (31-40 years old) are encouraged to work (in addition to the factors typical for most employees - salary and attitude of management) by factors such as a feeling of usefulness of their work and the opportunity to continue professional education.

In the group of mature workers (41-50 years old), significant motives for work are the opportunity to realize their abilities, make independent decisions, and find more effective solutions to problems. This group of employees, more than others, is concerned about the presence of a developmental environment in the organization that would allow them to feel the significance of their work. However, economic factors are the main motives for the work of employees in this age group.

For workers in the older age group (51 years and older), the conditions of safety in the workplace (equipped workspace, variety in work, salary level, availability of privileges) and motivational factors (the ability to invent, create new things) turned out to be approximately equally significant.

The satisfaction of employees in management positions is determined, first of all, by how satisfied they are with the amount of work (load),

as well as satisfaction with its monetary equivalent. Significant stimulating factors are satisfaction with the attitude of management, the ability to make decisions independently, realize one’s abilities, and create something important and useful. In other words, the motive of employees of this social group is the desire to be significant and to perform those actions that they consider necessary and correct, within the time frame that they determine in accordance with the company’s objectives.

For specialists, the ability to make independent decisions, the desire to realize their potential, to be socially significant, and useful for the company are also significant stimulating factors.

In the group of workers, in addition to economic factors, important motives are continuation of professional training, satisfaction with the content of work and variety in work.

Thus, as the data obtained showed, salary is the most significant, playing a very important role, but far from the only factor influencing the employee’s attitude towards his enterprise. In the social groups under study, the attitude of the company's management is of paramount importance - the higher the level of satisfaction with interaction with management, the more positive emotions the employee experiences in relation to his work. The attitude of management is expressed, first of all, in caring for employees (equipping the workplace, providing food and medical care, providing other benefits); support and development of a sense of competence and self-esteem of subordinates.

These data are confirmed by studies conducted at enterprises of Tatarstan. The leading value for all categories of workers is good wages (8.89 points). The opportunity to work in a good team (7.61 points) and moral satisfaction from the results of work (7.25 points) are also of great importance for the staff as a whole. The value of professional growth is also quite significant for employees (7.03 points). The last most important place for all categories of workers is the opportunity for self-affirmation (5.15 points). Accordingly, the entire staff motivation system is focused on these values. Thus, the coefficient of use of material incentives (0.49), moral (0.43), professional incentives (0.40), socio-psychological incentives (0.23), creative incentives (-0.04).

Thus, in conditions of incomplete satisfaction of the basic needs of personnel and the limited financial capabilities of many Russian companies, it is necessary to pay more attention to other types of motivation not related to material incentives, which are worthy of reflection in world science and practice.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Aseev, A. G. Motivation of behavior and personality formation. About the essence of motivation. M.: Mysl, 1996.

2. Vikhansky, O. Management: Person, strategy, organization, process / O. Vikhansky, A. Naumov. M., 1995.

3. Vilyunas, V. K. Psychological mechanisms of human motivation. M., 1976.

4. Danilov-Danilyan, V. Modern management: principles and rules. M.: N. Novgorod, 1992.

5. Diesel P. Human behavior in an organization / P. Diesel, W. McKinley Runyan. M., 1993.

6. Dyrin, S.P. Features of the Russian model of personnel management: monograph. Izhevsk: Udmurt University Publishing House, 2004.

7. Ilyin, E. P. Motivation and motives. St. Petersburg : Peter, 2003.

9. Meskon M. Fundamentals of management / M. Meskon, M. Albert, F. Khedouri. M.,

10. Heckhausen X. Motivation and activity: T.1 / ed. B. M. Velichkovsky. M., 1986.

PECULIARITIES OF PERSONNEL MOTIVATION IN A MODERN RUSSIAN COMPANY N. Satonina

Some aspects of personnel motivation have been considered. Theoretical analysis of demands of basic motivation theories in modern Russian conditions has been carried out. Empirical data characterizing the peculiarities of personnel motivation in typical modern Russian companies are given.

Key words: motivation, motivation theories, models of motivation, personnel, satisfaction with work.

Activity is always stimulated by certain motives. Motives are what the activity is performed for (for example, for the sake of self-affirmation, money, etc.).

Concept " motive "(from Latin movere - to move, push) means an incentive to activity, a motivating reason for actions and deeds. Motives can be different: interest in the content and process of activity, duty to society, self-affirmation, etc.

For example, a scientist may be motivated to scientific activity by the following motives:

1) self-realization;

2) cognitive interest;

3) self-affirmation;

4) material incentives (monetary reward);

5) social motives (responsibility, desire to benefit society);

6) identification with an idol.

Motivation- this is a set of motivating factors that determine the activity of an individual; these include motives, needs, incentives, situational factors that determine human behavior.

Motives- these are relatively stable manifestations, attributes of personality. For example, when we say that a certain person has a cognitive motive, we mean that in many situations he exhibits cognitive motivation.

Motives are relatively stable formations of personality, but motivation includes not only motives, but also situational factors (the influence of various people, the specifics of activity and situation). Situational factors such as the complexity of the task, management requirements, and the attitudes of surrounding people strongly influence a person’s motivation over a certain period of time. Situational factors are dynamic and change easily, so there are opportunities to influence them and activity in general. The intensity of actual (acting “here and now”) motivation consists of the strength of the motive and the intensity of situational determinants of motivation (the demands and influence of other people, the complexity of tasks, etc.).

For example, the motivation of activity and the activity of an employee depend not only on the intensity of motives (stable personal formations that manifest themselves in various circumstances), but also on the requirements, attitudes of the manager and other situational factors.

Actually (at some specific period of time), a student’s motivation to achieve (for example, while he is taking a test) depends not only on his motives, but also on many situational factors (instructions and attitudes of the experimenter, the previous influence of other people).

An athlete’s motivation (actual motivation for achievement during a competition) depends not only on the characteristics and strength of his motives, but also on many situational factors (coach’s attitudes, tournament situation, expectations from other people, team “spirit”, etc.).

A specific motive (or even a set of motives) does not clearly determine the motivation of an activity. It is necessary to take into account the contribution of factors of a specific situation. For example, the excessive complexity of educational activities and the lack of normal interaction with a teacher or supervisor lead to a decrease not only in motivation, but also in the effectiveness of activities.

Thus, motivation is the totality of all factors (both personal and situational) that encourage a person to be active.

Continuation of test No. 1 in lecture No. 6.

Continuation of test No. 1.

Based on data on the distribution of enterprises in the region by turnover (Table 5.10.), determine:

Average turnover volume;

Median.

Draw conclusions based on all calculations. The data for each calculation is presented in the form of tables.

Table 5.10.

5.1. Motivation and performance efficiency.

The relationship between motivation and quality of activity is not linear. Thus, according to the direct logic of reasoning, motive acts as a factor that determines the level of human activity and, consequently, the effectiveness and quality of the activity performed by him. In reality, everything is much more complicated.

Historically, the study of this issue began in the first quarter of the 20th century in connection with the study of the influence of stimulation of varying strengths on the level of activity, the strength of the emotional reaction and the effectiveness of learning. At the same time, motivation was understood as any stimulating effect on the activity of humans and animals, up to the administration of pharmacological drugs. It was discovered, primarily by the experiments of Yerkes and Dodson, that excessive stimulation leads to a slowdown in the rate of learning. The experiment involved a task involving three levels of discrimination; Three levels of stimulation (motivation) were also provided: strong, medium and weak electric shocks as punishment for a mistake.

The results obtained are presented in Fig. 1. The x-axis shows the levels of electric current, and the y-axis shows the number of trials required to achieve good discrimination; three curves correspond to three levels of task difficulty. The results of the experiment show that in each case there is an optimum current strength (motivation), at which learning occurs most quickly. It is also important that the optimal stimulation also depends on the difficulty of the task: a difficult task requires weak motivation, and an easy one requires strong motivation.

Rice. 1. Diagram illustrating the Yerkes-Dodson law.

The identified patterns were called the Yerkes-Dodson laws, which became widely known both abroad and among domestic psychologists. These laws state that:

1) when motivation increases to a certain level, the quality of activity also increases, but a further increase in motivation, after reaching a plateau, leads to a decrease in productivity. The level of motivation at which an activity is performed most successfully is called optimal motivation. Those. h The stronger the desire, the better the results. But only to a certain limit. If motivation goes beyond this “peak”, results deteriorate.

2) the more difficult the activity he performs for an individual, the lower the level of motivation is optimal for him. The corresponding dynamics are graphically displayed in the form of bell-shaped curves.

Meanwhile, speaking about this law, it is necessary to make some remarks: the Yerkes-Dodson experiments do not prove that they are talking about motives. Most likely, the effectiveness of learning changed due to different levels of anxiety and fear of punishment.

And yet, first of all, practice confirms that the optimum of motivation and strength of motive exists. Here are examples that prove this.

There are observations that schoolchildren who performed worse than usual in exams are individuals with extremely strong motivation, characterized by inflated self-esteem and an inadequate level of aspirations. During exams, they clearly show signs of emotional tension.

Therefore, there is no doubt about the validity of the words of the famous swimmer, Olympic champion, who said that if she is oriented to the maximum and generally towards a certain result, she will not show a good time. It should be focused not on seconds, but on the correct passage of the distance,

It should be noted that measuring the strength of a motive, i.e., essentially, the energetic characteristics of a need, still encounters significant difficulties. In most cases, researchers are forced to be content with subjective assessments of the strength of need and motive, identified using various questionnaires.

Thus, in real life, excessive motivation (personal significance, value of the activity performed, excessive external stimulation) may not only not improve results, but contribute to their significant reduction.

For example, a teacher who constantly emphasizes that the final exam in his subject is of special importance for students risks getting the opposite result: most students will pass it significantly below their capabilities.

Such motivation is called excessive (otherwise it is also called hypermotivation or remotivation). That is, when a person already has a sufficient level of motivation, additional stimulation can lead to disorganization of activities. The phenomenon of remotivation manifests itself especially clearly in the following situations: before important tests (exams, sports competitions, public speaking, defense of a diploma or dissertation); if necessary, perform a task efficiently in the presence of particularly significant people or people who pose a threat of negative evaluation (for example, if an inspector is present in the lesson); if there is a need to complete important work in a short time; in conditions of fierce competition, when high material rewards are assigned for victory.

An important motivator is the presence of other people. Their presence has a significant impact on a person’s physical and intellectual activity, the level and nature of his activity, and the choice of appropriate means and goals.

The degree of novelty of the situation is also of great importance: the need to perform new tasks in a new situation. If the conditions of activity and the social environment are well known, the effect of hypermotivation under the influence of social factors does not occur.

5.2. "Shortened motivation."

A special mechanism for determining activity is realized in conditions of performing frequently repeated, habitual actions. In this case, there is no need for motivation. In fact, we are not talking about the disappearance of motivation, but about its curtailment, automation, when the emergence of a need is not accompanied by the stage of its awareness, but immediately triggers actions to satisfy it, previously repeatedly tested and consolidated. In this case we talk about the so-called "shortened" motivation, which arises and is consolidated through the formation in a person in the process of accumulating life experience of certain motivational schemes (attitudes, behavioral patterns).

A slightly different view "shortened" motivation is a person’s tendency to act impulsively, that is, on the first impulse, under the influence of external circumstances or emotions. At the same time, the person does not even have time to think about the expediency and consequences of the action being performed.

Impulsivity in behavior can be caused by various reasons. It most often manifests itself in children of preschool and primary school age and is caused by immature behavior control mechanisms. In adolescence, its occurrence is more influenced by a high level of emotional excitability as a consequence of intensive hormonal development. In older people (senior schoolchildren, adults), the most common reasons for this behavior are affective states, fatigue, general weakness of the body (asthenia), and certain diseases of the nervous system.

5.3. Factors blocking activity and motivation

A special place in the problems of motivation is occupied by the study of factors and conditions that contribute to blocking an individual’s activity. In experiments on animals by M. Seligman, it was convincingly shown that the lack of real opportunities for an individual to change an unpleasant situation for the better leads to the formation of the so-called learned helplessness. For example, an electric current was passed through the metal floor of the cage where experimental rats were placed after a certain period of time. At first, the animals showed some activity: they tried to find a way out of the cage, a safe zone, or a way to stop the unpleasant effect. When they became convinced that no actions made it possible to change the situation, they became uninitiative and passive, stopped all searches, hid in a corner and sat motionless there, losing interest even in food. Their general vitality seemed to be fading away.

The animals were then moved to a cage where there were real opportunities to change the situation. In any case, the rats that did not have such a negative experience quickly “discovered” for themselves the opportunity to jump to another, safe room or to open the current by pressing the pedal. The same animals that participated in the first series of experiments continued to remain largely passive, not even attempting to make any effort. Only 20% of experimental rats retained the ability to continue active search.

School reality is filled with examples of learned helplessness through the corresponding mechanism, when a child’s chronic lack of positive achievements and success in learning leads to his complete passivity in educational activities, inability to cope even with simple educational tasks.

Resistance to failure significantly depends on the individual’s past positive experience of overcoming difficult situations. Resistance to failure increases when successes and failures in achieving a goal alternate fairly evenly and in a balanced manner.

Factors contributing to the emergence of the phenomenon of learned helplessness are: thus are:

1. Having previous experience of failures, when, due to life circumstances, one develops confidence in the impossibility of controlling the situation and changing it for the better through one’s own efforts.

2. Attributing responsibility for success to random circumstances, that is, the attitude that everything depends on chance.

3. Confidence that the situation is, in principle, solvable and the matter is only in the individual himself, his inability to cope with the problem. If a person knows or inspires himself that a given situation cannot be solved in principle, a state of helplessness does not arise.

4. Confidence that other people are able to cope with similar tasks, while the individual himself consistently receives a negative result. As a result, he begins to generally doubt his ability to ever find the right solution, and transfers situational negative self-esteem to an assessment of himself as a person as a whole.

5. Lack of feedback about the reasons why the efforts made are either effective or useless. In this case, a person develops the experience of uncontrollability of the situation and life circumstances in general.

6. The presence of constant negative assessments from the outside, regardless of efforts and specific results.

7. Frequent negative comparison by a significant person (teacher, experimenter) of this person, his actions and results with other people who are more successful.

8. The presence of inflated expectations from the situation, the high significance of the expected results in the absence of a person having real means of achieving them and the inability to objectively realize this.

9. A person’s general predisposition to generalization, transferring particular failures to other life circumstances, as a result of which he enters similar or qualitatively different situations with weakened self-confidence and his capabilities.

10. The presence of certain individual qualities, for example, the inability to make prolonged volitional efforts, general weakness and exhaustion of nervous processes.

Another important factor contributing to decreased activity is incorrect (suboptimal) reinforcement mode.

Under reinforcement regime understand a set of rules and actions according to which certain actions are sanctioned and encouraged. Violation of a certain balance of reinforcements leads to a restructuring of motivation for activity and a decrease in activity.

Thus, it has been experimentally proven that procedural-substantive motivation such as interest in the activity itself, passion and positive experiences from being included in the process of its implementation can be significantly reduced by introducing additional external incentives (for example, material rewards). That is, with an increase in external motivation and material benefits associated with certain achievements, the selfless attractiveness of the activity itself often decreases for a person. This is especially noticeable in cases where additional remuneration was withdrawn after a certain period.

For example, a child was happy to perform some household chores (watering indoor plants). His parents, touched by his diligence, introduced incentives: they began to give out additional money for personal expenses. However, after some time, considering that there was no need to further reward for what had become the norm of behavior, they stopped issuing money. As a result, the attractiveness of the corresponding activities (caring for flowers) for the child decreased sharply.

The nature and mode of delivery of reinforcements can have a significant impact on a person’s activity and performance. For example, types of positive reinforcement are praise, positive evaluation, approval. However, gradually for the person who is praised, they become an intrinsic value; in their absence, activity stops or sharply deteriorates. The type of negative reinforcement is often reprimand, shouting, or threat. However, if they are used frequently, they stop working. Now, in order to achieve the desired effect (reinforce the required behavior), it is necessary to increase the strength of reinforcement: shout louder, blame more angrily, threaten more strongly.

The weakening of the attractiveness of a certain type of activity or behavioral reactions due to the lack of reinforcement of those manifestations of activity that were previously encouraged is called fading. Extinction is not only a negative phenomenon, although, of course, it often plays just such a role in a person’s life: the level of activity, the severity of impressions and interest, and the degree of involvement in certain types of activities decrease. However, sometimes it is vital that the reaction disappears completely (for example, giving up unnecessary habits or needs). In this case, even episodic random reinforcement can significantly slow down this process. Thus, people who have tried to quit drinking, smoking, or tried to go on a diet know how difficult it is, once they have broken the ban, and then return to self-restraint again.

An important condition for maintaining a person’s activity is the correct management of reinforcement procedures: expansion and deeper awareness of the meaning and personal significance of performed or blocked actions, the transition from external reinforcement to self-reinforcement, giving the status of reinforcement to aspects directly related to the corresponding actions (for example, doing gymnastics as a means of improving health conditions begin to bring pleasure by the very fact of physical activity).