Human anatomy and physiology, basic knowledge.
The articles contain scientific and popular science information. Sections include such topics as the structure of the body (cellular level), diseases associated with dysfunctions of organs and other components, anatomy of organs, systems, apparatus. The structure and operation of each system is carefully described and provided with detailed illustrations, some systems are illustrated schematically, from an anatomical or histological point of view.
Each drawing or diagram contains an explanation of the work of a particular organ or system, taking into account the fundamental principles histology, anatomy and physiology. The mechanisms of functioning of the organism as a whole are also indicated, which allow it, while developing independently, at the same time to remain inextricably linked with the environment.
The structure and functions of cells, tissues, internal organs and systems
Materials about cells, tissues and organs of the human body are of great importance on the site. Analyzing in detail the structure of a particular structure of the human body, we understand the components of the sciences more deeply and more extensively, and as a result we can look at the human body as a whole.
Books and textbooks
The new section of the site is books and textbooks on natural and near-natural sciences and disciplines among which are manuals on anatomy, physiology, histology, psychophysiology, neurology, otorhinolaryngology, ophthalmology, pediatrics, traumatology, books about the human brain and neuroses, literature for obstetricians, dentists, paramedics, and many other sections.
Pictures, drawings and diagrams of human anatomy
Another new section of the site was a section with various drawings and diagrams of internal organs and human systems. These graphic materials are designed to help in the study of human anatomy, allowing you to visually familiarize yourself with the structures of the human body. Pictures, if possible, are distributed by organ systems, some drawings and diagrams are left without a category or may refer to several systems at once. Among the examples, one can name the structural schemes of the spleen, which is not only an organ of hematopoiesis, but also provides immune function.
Interesting facts about internal organs and systems
〄 The human brain contains a huge amount of water. Despite its complex structure, 80% of the human brain is water;
〄 The brain itself does not experience pain, unlike the tissues that surround it. This is due to the elementary absence of receptors in the tissues of the organ;
〄 Neurons are not the same and, at least, are divided into types, and it follows from this that information also moves along their processes at different speeds;
〄 The thesis that neurons do not recover is still controversial, however, the growth of nerve cells throughout our life remains a reliable fact;
〄 The blood vessels form a huge network, supplying nourishment to the multiple cells of the human body. If it were possible to stretch this network in one line, then such a single "vessel" would be enough to go around the Earth 2.5 times;
〄 The longest organ in our body is the small intestine;
〄 Another unusual property of our brain is its excessive love for oxygen. Of all the oxygen that the human body receives, 20% is taken by the brain. This explains and confirms the high sensitivity of the body to the lack of supplies;
〄 And for lovers of fountains, there is a very famous fact, and yes, we are talking about the heart - an organ that creates such a strong pressure that it may well be enough for a 9-meter-high bloody fountain;
〄 When you were born, you had much more bones than now, namely, about a third more. But you can stop panicking, you didn’t lose the bones, they simply and prosaically grew together. Now there are about 206 of them in your body, well, give or take a few;
〄 A long time ago, there was a rumor that if you separate the head from the human body, then it can still remain conscious for about 15-20 seconds. Similar data has been presented since the time of executions, when the head of the executed could blink for a few more seconds after being cut off;
〄 In addition to children, debts or a growing business, after death we are quite capable of leaving 3 or even 4 kg. ashes, it's just a matter of cremation;
〄 Despite the oxygen voraciousness of the brain, it consumes not so much energy, namely, like a 10-watt light bulb. Economical and useful;
〄 Without saliva, we are not able to dissolve food, and therefore we cannot taste it;
〄 The approximate speed of travel of a nerve impulse from and to the brain is 273 km per hour;
〄 Fingerprints are an integral and unique anatomical characteristic of every human being. Registration of prints is completed in the child by the 6th month of pregnancy;
Anatomy and Physiology
Textbook
INTRODUCTION
Human anatomy and physiology is one of the biological disciplines that form the basis of the theoretical and practical training of teachers, athletes, doctors and nurses.
Anatomy - it is a science that studies the form and structure of an organism in connection with its functions, development and under the influence of the environment.
Physiology - the science of the regularities of the life processes of a living organism, its organs, tissues and cells, their relationship with changes in various conditions and the state of the organism.
Human anatomy and physiology are closely related to all medical specialties. Their achievements constantly influence the practice of medicine. It is impossible to carry out qualified treatment without knowing well the anatomy and physiology of a person. Therefore, before studying clinical disciplines, they study anatomy and physiology. These subjects form the foundation of medical education and medical science in general.
The structure of the human body by systems studies systematic (normal) anatomy.
The structure of the human body by region, taking into account the position of the organs and their relationship with each other, studies with the skeleton topographic anatomy.
Plastic anatomy considers the external forms and proportions of the human body, as well as the topography of organs in connection with the need to explain the features of the physique; age anatomy - the structure of the human body depending on age.
pathological anatomy studies organs and tissues damaged by a particular disease.
The totality of physiological knowledge is divided into a number of separate but interconnected areas - general, special (or private) and applied physiology.
General physiology includes information that relates to the nature of the main life processes, general manifestations of vital activity, such as the metabolism of organs and tissues, general patterns of the body's response (irritation, excitation, inhibition) and its structures to the influence of the environment.
Special (private) physiology explores the characteristics of individual tissues (muscle, nervous, etc.), organs (liver, kidneys, heart, etc.), the patterns of combining them into systems (respiratory, digestive, circulatory systems).
Applied physiology studies the patterns of manifestations of human activity in connection with special tasks and conditions (physiology of labor, nutrition, sports).
Physiology is conventionally divided into normal and pathological. The first studies the patterns of vital activity of a healthy organism, the mechanisms of adaptation of functions to the influence of various factors and the stability of the organism. Pathological physiology considers changes in the functions of a diseased organism, finds out the general patterns of the appearance and development of pathological processes in the body, as well as the mechanisms of recovery and rehabilitation.
A Brief History of the Development of Anatomy and Physiology
The development and formation of ideas about anatomy and physiology begin from ancient times.
Among the first known history of anatomists should be called Alkemon from Kratona, who lived in the 5th century. BC e. He was the first to dissect (dissect) the corpses of animals in order to study the structure of their bodies, and suggested that the sense organs are connected directly with the brain, and the perception of feelings depends on the brain.
Hippocrates(c. 460 - c. 370 BC) - one of the prominent medical scientists of ancient Greece. He attached paramount importance to the study of anatomy, embryology and physiology, considering them the basis of all medicine. He collected and systematized observations on the structure of the human body, described the bones of the skull roof and the joints of the bones with sutures, the structure of the vertebrae, ribs, internal organs, the organ of vision, muscles, large vessels.
The outstanding natural scientists of their time were Plato (427-347 BC) and Aristotle (384-322 BC). Studying anatomy and embryology, Plato revealed that the brain of vertebrates develops in the anterior sections of the spinal cord. Aristotle, opening the corpses of animals, he described their internal organs, tendons, nerves, bones and cartilage. According to him, the main organ in the body is the heart. He named the largest blood vessel the aorta.
A great influence on the development of medical science and anatomy had Alexandria Medical School, which was created in the III century. BC e. Doctors of this school were allowed to dissect human corpses for scientific purposes. During this period, the names of two outstanding anatomists became known: Herophilus (born c. 300 BC) and Erasistratus (c. 300 - c. 240 BC). Herophilus described the membranes of the brain and the venous sinuses, the ventricles of the brain and the choroid plexuses, the optic nerve and the eyeball, the duodenum and mesenteric vessels, and the prostate. Erasistratus He described the liver, bile ducts, heart and its valves quite fully for his time; knew that blood from the lung enters the left atrium, then into the left ventricle of the heart, and from there through the arteries to the organs. The Alexandrian school of medicine also belongs to the discovery of a method of ligation of blood vessels in case of bleeding.
The most prominent scientist in various fields of medicine after Hippocrates was the Roman anatomist and physiologist Claudius Galen(c. 130 - c. 201). He first began to teach a course in human anatomy, accompanied by an autopsy of the corpses of animals, mainly monkeys. The autopsy of human corpses was prohibited at that time, as a result of which Galen, facts without proper reservations, transferred the structure of the animal body to humans. Possessing encyclopedic knowledge, he described 7 pairs (out of 12) of cranial nerves, connective tissue, muscle nerves, blood vessels of the liver, kidneys and other internal organs, periosteum, ligaments.
Important information was obtained by Galen about the structure of the brain. Galen considered it the center of sensitivity of the body and the cause of voluntary movements. In the book "On Parts of the Human Body" he expressed his anatomical views and considered the anatomical structure in close connection with the function.
The authority of Galen was very great. Medicine has been taught from his books for nearly 13 centuries.
A Tajik doctor and philosopher made a great contribution to the development of medical science Abu Ali Ibn Son, or Avicenna(c. 980-1037). He wrote the "Canon of Medicine", which systematized and supplemented information on anatomy and physiology, borrowed from the books of Aristotle and Galen. Avicenna's books were translated into Latin and reprinted more than 30 times.
Starting from the XVI-XVIII centuries. Universities are being opened in many countries, medical faculties are being established, and the foundations of scientific anatomy and physiology are being laid. An especially great contribution to the development of anatomy was made by the Italian scientist and artist of the Renaissance. Leonardo da Vinci(1452-1519). He dissected 30 corpses, made many drawings of bones, muscles, internal organs, providing them with written explanations. Leonardo da Vinci laid the foundation for plastic anatomy.
The founder of scientific anatomy is considered a professor at the University of Padua Andras Vesalius(1514-1564), who, on the basis of his own observations made during the autopsy, wrote a classic work in 7 books "On the structure of the human body" (Basel, 1543). In them, he systematized the skeleton, ligaments, muscles, blood vessels, nerves, internal organs, brain and sensory organs. Research Vesalius and the publication of his books contributed to the development of anatomy. In the future, his students and followers in the XVI-XVII centuries. made many discoveries, described in detail many human organs. The names of some organs of the human body are associated with the names of these scientists in anatomy: G. Fallopius (1523-1562) - fallopian tubes; B. Eustachius (1510-1574) - Eustachian tube; M. Malpighi (1628-1694) - Malpighian bodies in the spleen and kidneys.
Discoveries in anatomy served as the basis for deeper research in the field of physiology. The Spanish physician Miguel Servet (1511-1553), a student of Vesalius R. Colombo (1516-1559) suggested the passage of blood from the right half of the heart to the left through the pulmonary vessels. After numerous studies, the English scientist William Harvey(1578-1657) published the book Anatomical Study of the Movement of the Heart and Blood in Animals (1628), where he provided proof of the movement of blood through the vessels of the systemic circulation, and also noted the presence of small vessels (capillaries) between arteries and veins. These vessels were discovered later, in 1661, by M. Malpighi, the founder of microscopic anatomy.
In addition, W. Harvey introduced vivisection into the practice of scientific research, which made it possible to observe the work of animal organs using tissue cuts. The discovery of the doctrine of blood circulation is considered to be the date of foundation of animal physiology.
Simultaneously with the discovery of W. Harvey, a work was published Casparo Azelli(1591-1626), in which he made an anatomical description of the lymphatic vessels of the mesentery of the small intestine.
During the XVII-XVIII centuries. not only new discoveries in the field of anatomy appear, but a number of new disciplines begin to emerge: histology, embryology, and somewhat later - comparative and topographic anatomy, anthropology.
For the development of evolutionary morphology, the doctrine played an important role Ch. Darwin(1809-1882) on the influence of external factors on the development of forms and structures of organisms, as well as on the heredity of their offspring.
Cell theory T. Schwanna (1810-1882), evolutionary theory C. Darwin set a number of new tasks for anatomical science: not only to describe, but also to explain the structure of the human body, its features, to reveal the phylogenetic past in anatomical structures, to explain how its individual features developed in the process of historical development of man.
To the most significant achievements of the XVII-XVIII centuries. applies formulated by the French philosopher and physiologist Rene Descartes notion of "reflected activity of the organism". He introduced the concept of reflex into physiology. The discovery of Descartes served as the basis for the further development of physiology on a materialistic basis. Later, ideas about the nervous reflex, reflex arc, the importance of the nervous system in the relationship between the external environment and the body were developed in the works of the famous Czech anatomist and physiologist G. Prohasky(1748-1820). Achievements in physics and chemistry made it possible to apply more precise research methods in anatomy and physiology.
In the XVIII-XIX centuries. especially significant contribution in the field of anatomy and physiology was made by a number of Russian scientists. M. V. Lomonosov(1711-1765) discovered the law of conservation of matter and energy, suggested the formation of heat in the body itself, formulated a three-component theory of color vision, gave the first classification of taste sensations. Student of M. V. Lomonosov A. P. Protasov(1724-1796) - the author of many works on the study of human physique, structure and functions of the stomach.
Professor of Moscow University S. G. Zabelin(1735-1802) lectured on anatomy and published the book "A word about the additions of the human body and ways to protect them from diseases", where he expressed the idea of the common origin of animals and humans.
In 1783 Ya. M. Ambodik-Maksimovich(1744-1812) published the Anatomical and Physiological Dictionary in Russian, Latin and French, and in 1788 A. M. Shumlyansky(1748-1795) in his book described the capsule of the renal glomerulus and the urinary tubules.
An important place in the development of anatomy belongs to E. O. Mukhina(1766-1850), who taught anatomy for many years, wrote the textbook "Course of Anatomy".
The founder of topographic anatomy is N. I. Pirogov(1810-1881). He developed an original method for studying the human body on cuts of frozen corpses. He is the author of such well-known books as "A Complete Course in Applied Anatomy of the Human Body" and "Topographic Anatomy Illustrated by Cuts Through the Frozen Human Body in Three Directions". N. I. Pirogov studied and described the fasciae, their relationship with blood vessels with particular care, attaching great practical importance to them. He summarized his research in the book Surgical Anatomy of Arterial Trunks and Fascia.
Functional anatomy was founded by an anatomist P. F. Les-gaft(1837-1909). His provisions on the possibility of changing the structure of the human body through the impact of physical exercises on the functions of the body are the basis of the theory and practice of physical education. .
P. F. Lesgaft was one of the first to use the method of radiography for anatomical studies, the experimental method on animals and the methods of mathematical analysis.
The works of famous Russian scientists K. F. Wolf, K. M. Baer and X. I. Pander were devoted to the issues of embryology.
In the XX century. successfully developed functional and experimental areas in anatomy such research scientists as V.N. Tonkov (1872-1954), B.A. Dolgo-Saburov (1890-1960), V.N. P. Vorobyov (1876-1937), D.A. Zhdanov (1908-1971) and others.
Formation of physiology as an independent science in the XX century. advances in the field of physics and chemistry, which gave researchers precise methodological techniques that made it possible to characterize the physical and chemical essence of physiological processes, contributed significantly.
I. M. Sechenov(1829-1905) entered the history of science as the first experimental researcher of a complex phenomenon in the field of nature - consciousness. In addition, he was the first who managed to study the gases dissolved in the blood, establish the relative effectiveness of the influence of various ions on the physicochemical processes in a living organism, and find out the phenomenon of summation in the central nervous system (CNS). I. M. Sechenov received the greatest fame after the discovery of the process of inhibition in the central nervous system. After the publication in 1863 of the work of I. M. Sechenov "Reflexes of the brain", the concept of mental activity was introduced into the physiological foundations. Thus, a new view was formed on the unity of the physical and mental foundations of man.
The development of physiology was greatly influenced by the work I. P. Pavlova(1849-1936). He created the doctrine of the higher nervous activity of man and animals. Investigating the regulation and self-regulation of blood circulation, he established the presence of special nerves, of which some increase, others delay, and others change the strength of heart contractions without changing their frequency. At the same time, IP Pavlov also studied the physiology of digestion. Having developed and put into practice a number of special surgical techniques, he created a new physiology of digestion. Studying the dynamics of digestion, he showed its ability to adapt to excitatory secretion when eating various foods. His book "Lectures on the work of the main digestive glands" became a guide for physiologists around the world. For work in the field of physiology of digestion in 1904, IP Pavlov was awarded the Nobel Prize. His discovery of the conditioned reflex made it possible to continue the study of the mental processes that underlie the behavior of animals and humans. The results of many years of research by IP Pavlov were the basis for the creation of the doctrine of higher nervous activity, in accordance with which it is carried out by the higher parts of the nervous system and regulates the relationship of the organism with the environment.
Belarusian scientists also made a significant contribution to the development of anatomy and physiology. Opening in 1775 in Grodno of the Medical Academy, headed by a professor of anatomy J. E. Gilibert(1741-1814), contributed to the teaching of anatomy and other medical disciplines in Belarus. At the academy, an anatomical theater and a museum were created, as well as a library, which contained many books on medicine.
A native of Grodno made a significant contribution to the development of physiology August Becu(1769-1824) - the first professor of the independent department of physiology at Vilna University.
M. Gomolitsky(1791-1861), who was born in the Slonim district, from 1819 to 1827 headed the Department of Physiology at Vilna University. He conducted extensive experiments on animals, dealt with the problems of blood transfusion. His doctoral dissertation was devoted to the experimental study of physiology.
WITH. B. Yundzill, a native of the Lida district, professor at the Department of Natural Sciences at Vilna University, continued the research begun by Zh. E. Zhiliber, published a textbook on physiology. S. B. Yundzill believed that the life of organisms is in constant motion and in connection with the external environment, "without which the existence of the organisms themselves is impossible." Thus, he approached the position of the evolutionary development of living nature.
I. O. Cybulsky(1854-1919) first singled out in 1893-1896. active extract of the adrenal glands, which later made it possible to obtain the hormones of this endocrine gland in its pure form.
The development of anatomical science in Belarus is closely connected with the opening in 1921 of the Faculty of Medicine at the Belarusian State University. The founder of the Belarusian school of anatomists is Professor S. I. Lebed-kin, who headed the Department of Anatomy of the Minsk Medical Institute from 1922 to 1934. The main direction of his research was the study of the theoretical foundations of anatomy, the determination of the relationship between form and function, as well as the elucidation of the phylogenetic development of human organs. He summarized his research in the monograph "Biogenetic Law and Theory of Recapitulation", published in Minsk in 1936. The research of the famous scientist is devoted to the development of the peripheral nervous system and reinnervation of internal organs. D. M. Golub, Academician of the Academy of Sciences of the BSSR, who headed the Department of Anatomy of the Moscow State Medical Institute from 1934 to 1975. In 1973, D. M. Golub was awarded the State Prize of the USSR for a series of fundamental works on the development of the autonomic nervous system and reinnervation of internal organs.
For the last two decades, the ideas of S. I. Lebedkin and D. M. Golub have been fruitfully developed by Professor P. I. Lobko. The main scientific problem of the team he heads is the study of theoretical aspects and patterns of development of vegetative nodes, trunks and plexuses in human and animal embryogenesis. A number of general patterns of formation of the nodal component of the autonomic nerve plexuses, extra- and intraorganic nerve nodes, etc. have been established. For the textbook "Autonomic Nervous System" (atlas) (1988) P.I. G. Pivchenko in 1994 was awarded the State Prize of the Republic of Belarus.
Targeted research in human physiology is associated with the creation in 1921 of the corresponding department at the Belarusian State University and in 1930 at the Moscow State Medical Institute. Here questions of blood circulation, nervous mechanisms of regulation of the functions of the cardiovascular system (I. A. Vetokhin), questions of the physiology and pathology of the heart (G. M. Pruss and others), compensatory mechanisms in the activity of the cardiovascular system (A. Yu. Bronovitsky, A. A. Krivchik), cybernetic methods of regulation of blood circulation in health and disease (G. I. Sidorenko ),
functions of the insular apparatus (G. G. Gacko).
Systematic physiological research began in 1953 at the Institute of Physiology of the ANSSR ,
where the original direction was taken to study the autonomic nervous system.
A significant contribution to the development of physiology in Belarus was made by Academician I. A. Bulygin. He devoted his research to the study of the spinal cord and brain, the autonomic nervous system. In 1972, I. A. Bulygin was awarded the State Prize of the BSSR for the monographs “Investigations into the Patterns and Mechanisms of Interoreceptive Reflexes” (1959), “Afferent Pathways of Interoreceptive Reflexes” (1966), “Chain and Tubular Neurohumoral Mechanisms of Visceral Reflex Reactions” (1970) , and for a series of works published in 1964-1976. "New principles of the organization of autonomic ganglia", in 1978 State Prize of the USSR.
Scientific research of the academician N. I. Arinchina associated with the physiology and pathology of blood circulation, comparative and evolutionary gerontology. He developed new methods and apparatus for a comprehensive study of the cardiovascular system.
Physiology of the XX century. characterized by significant achievements in the field of disclosure of the activities of organs, systems, the body as a whole. A feature of modern physiology is a deep analytical approach to the study of membrane and cellular processes, the description of the biophysical aspects of excitation and inhibition. Knowledge of the quantitative relationships between various processes makes it possible to carry out their mathematical modeling, to find out certain violations in a living organism.
Research methods
To study the structure of the human body and its functions, various research methods are used. To study the morphological features of a person, two groups of methods are distinguished. The first group is used to study the structure of the human body on cadaveric material, and the second - on a living person.
AT first group includes:
1) the method of dissection using simple tools (scalpel, tweezers, saw, etc.) - allows you to study. structure and topography of organs;
2) the method of soaking corpses in water or in a special liquid for a long time to isolate the skeleton, individual bones to study their structure;
3) the method of sawing frozen corpses - developed by N. I. Pirogov, allows you to study the relationship of organs in a single part of the body;
4) corrosion method - used to study blood vessels and other tubular formations in internal organs by filling their cavities with hardening substances (liquid metal, plastics), and then destroying the tissues of organs with the help of strong acids and alkalis, after which a cast of poured formations remains;
5) injection method - consists in introducing dyes into organs with cavities, followed by clarification of the parenchyma of organs with glycerin, methyl alcohol, etc. It is widely used to study the circulatory and lymphatic systems, bronchi, lungs, etc .;
6) microscopic method - used to study the structure of organs with the help of devices that give an enlarged image.
Co. second group relate:
1) X-ray method and its modifications (fluoroscopy, radiography, angiography, lymphography, X-ray kymography, etc.) - allows you to study the structure of organs, their topography on a living person at different periods of his life;
2) somatoscopic (visual examination) method of studying the human body and its parts - used to determine the shape of the chest, the degree of development of individual muscle groups, curvature of the spine, body constitution, etc.;
3) anthropometric method - studies the human body and its parts by measuring, determining the proportion of the body, the ratio of muscle, bone and adipose tissue, the degree of joint mobility, etc .;
4) endoscopic method - makes it possible to examine the inner surface of the digestive and respiratory systems, the cavities of the heart and blood vessels, the genitourinary apparatus using light guide technology on a living person.
In modern anatomy, new research methods are used, such as computed tomography, ultrasound echolocation, stereophotogrammetry, nuclear magnetic resonance, etc.
In turn, histology stood out from anatomy - the study of tissues and cytology - the science of the structure and function of the cell.
Experimental methods were usually used to study physiological processes.
In the early stages of the development of physiology, extirpation method(removal) of an organ or part thereof, followed by observation and registration of the obtained indicators.
fistula method is based on the introduction of a metal or plastic tube into a hollow organ (stomach, gallbladder, intestines) and fixing it to the skin. Using this method, the secretory function of organs is determined.
Catheterization method used to study and record the processes that occur in the ducts of the exocrine glands, in the blood vessels, the heart. With the help of thin synthetic tubes - catheters - various drugs are administered.
Denervation method is based on cutting the nerve fibers innervating the organ in order to establish the dependence of the function of the organ on the influence of the nervous system. To excite the activity of an organ, an electrical or chemical type of irritation is used.
In recent decades, they have been widely used in physiological research. instrumental methods(electrocardiography, electroencephalography, registration of the activity of the nervous system by implantation of macro- and microelements, etc.).
Depending on the form of the physiological experiment, it is divided into acute, chronic, and under conditions of an isolated organ.
acute experiment designed for artificial isolation of organs and tissues, stimulation of various nerves, registration of electrical potentials, administration of drugs, etc.
chronic experiment It is used in the form of targeted surgical operations (imposition of fistulas, neurovascular anastomoses, transplantation of various organs, implantation of electrodes, etc.).
The function of an organ can be studied not only in the whole organism, but also isolated from it. In this case, the organ is provided with all the necessary conditions for its vital activity, including the supply of nutrient solutions to the vessels of the isolated organ. (perfusion method).
The use of computer technology in conducting a physiological experiment has significantly changed its technique, methods of registering processes and processing the results obtained.
Cells and tissues
The human body is a component of elements that work together in order to effectively perform all vital functions.
Cells
Cell - it is a structural and functional unit of a living organism, capable of division and exchange with the environment. It carries out the transfer of genetic information by self-reproduction.
Cells are very diverse in structure, function, shape, and size (Fig. 1). The latter range from 5 to 200 microns. The largest in the human body are the egg and nerve cell, and the smallest are blood lymphocytes. The shape of the cells are spherical, spindle-shaped, flat, cubic, prismatic, etc. Some cells, together with processes, reach a length of up to 1.5 m or more (for example, neurons).
Rice. 1. Cell shapes:
1 -
nervous; 2 -
epithelial; 3 -
connective tissue; 4 -
smooth muscle; 5-
erythrocyte; 6-
sperm; 7-ovum
Each cell has a complex structure and is a system of biopolymers, contains a nucleus, cytoplasm and organelles located in it (Fig. 2). The cell is separated from the external environment by the cell wall. plasmalemma(thickness 9-10 mm), which transports the necessary substances into the cell, and vice versa, interacts with neighboring cells and intercellular substance. Inside the cell is core, in which protein synthesis occurs, it stores genetic information in the form of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). The nucleus may be round or ovoid in shape, but in flat cells it is somewhat flattened, and in leukocytes it is rod-shaped or bean-shaped. It is absent in erythrocytes and platelets. From above, the nucleus is covered with a nuclear membrane, which is represented by an outer and inner membrane. At the core is nucleoplasm, which is a gel-like substance and contains chromatin and nucleolus. 
Rice. 2. Scheme of the ultramicroscopic structure of the cell
(according to M. R. Sapin, G. L. Bilich, 1989):
1 - cytolemma (plasma membrane); 2 - pinocytic vesicles; 3 -
centrosome (cell center, cytocenter); 4 -
hyaloplasm; 5
- endoplasmic reticulum (a - membranes of the endoplasmic reticulum, b - ribosomes); 6-
core; 7 - connection of the perinuclear space with the cavities of the endoplasmic reticulum; 8 -
nuclear pores; 9 -
nucleolus; 10 -
intracellular reticular apparatus (Golgi complex); 11-
secretory vacuoles; 12-
mitochondria; 13 - lysosomes; 14-three successive stages of phagocytosis; 15 - connection of the cell membrane (cytolemma) with the membranes of the endoplasmic reticulum
The core surrounds cytoplasm, which includes hyaloplasm, organelles and inclusions.
Hyaloplasm- this is the main substance of the cytoplasm, it participates in the metabolic processes of the cell, contains proteins, polysaccharides, nucleic acid, etc.
Permanent parts of a cell that have a specific structure and perform biochemical functions are called organelles. These include the cell center, mitochondria, the Golgi complex, the endoplasmic (cytoplasmic) reticulum.
Cell Center usually located near the nucleus or Golgi complex, consists of two dense formations - centrioles, which are part of the spindle of a moving cell and form cilia and flagella.
Mitochondria have the form of grains, threads, sticks, are formed from two membranes - internal and external. The length of the mitochondria ranges from 1 to 15 microns, the diameter is from 0.2 to 1.0 microns. The inner membrane forms folds (crystals) in which enzymes are located. In mitochondria, the breakdown of glucose, amino acids, the oxidation of fatty acids, the formation of ATP (adenosine triphosphoric acid) - the main energy material.
Golgi complex (intracellular reticular apparatus) has the appearance of bubbles, plates, tubes located around the nucleus. Its function is to transport substances, their chemical processing and removal of the products of its vital activity outside the cell.
Endoplasmic (cytoplasmic) reticulum It is formed from an agranular (smooth) and a granular (granular) network. The agranular endoplasmic reticulum is formed mainly by small cisterns and tubes with a diameter of 50-100 nm, which are involved in the metabolism of lipids and polysaccharides. The granular endoplasmic reticulum consists of plates, tubules, tanks, to the walls of which small formations are adjacent - ribosomes that synthesize proteins.
Cytoplasm also has constant accumulations of individual substances, which are called inclusions of the cytoplasm and have a protein, fat and pigment nature.
The cell, as part of a multicellular organism, performs the main functions: the assimilation of incoming substances and their splitting with the formation of energy necessary to maintain the vital activity of the organism. Cells also have irritability (motor reactions) and are able to multiply by division. Cell division can be indirect (mitosis) or reductional (meiosis).
Mitosis is the most common form of cell division. It consists of several stages - prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase. Simple (or direct) cell division - amitosis - is rare, in cases where the cell is divided into equal or unequal parts. Meiosis - a form of nuclear division, in which the number of chromosomes in a fertilized cell is halved and a rearrangement of the cell's gene apparatus is observed. The period from one cell division to another is called its life cycle.
fabrics
The cell is part of the tissue that makes up the body of humans and animals.
Textile - it is a system of cells and extracellular structures united by the unity of origin, structure and functions.
As a result of the interaction of the organism with the external environment, which has developed in the process of evolution, four types of tissues with certain functional features have appeared: epithelial, connective, muscle and nervous.
Each organ is made up of various tissues that are closely related. For example, the stomach, intestines, and other organs consist of epithelial, connective, smooth muscle, and nervous tissues.
The connective tissue of many organs forms the stroma, and the epithelial tissue forms the parenchyma. The function of the digestive system cannot be fully performed if its muscular activity is impaired.
Thus, the various tissues that make up a particular organ ensure the performance of the main function of this organ.
epithelial tissue
Epithelial tissue (epithelium) covers the entire outer surface of the body of humans and animals, lines the mucous membranes of hollow internal organs (stomach, intestines, urinary tract, pleura, pericardium, peritoneum) and is part of the endocrine glands. Allocate integumentary (superficial) and secretory (glandular) epithelium. Epithelial tissue is involved in the metabolism between the body and the environment, performs a protective function (skin epithelium), functions of secretion, absorption (intestinal epithelium), excretion (kidney epithelium), gas exchange (lung epithelium), and has a great regenerative capacity.
Depending on the number of cell layers and the shape of individual cells, epithelium is distinguished multilayer - keratinized and non-keratinized, transition and single layer - simple columnar, simple cubic (flat), simple squamous (mesothelium) (Fig. 3).
AT squamous epithelium the cells are thin, compacted, contain little cytoplasm, the discoid nucleus is in the center, its edge is uneven. The squamous epithelium lines the alveoli of the lungs, the walls of capillaries, blood vessels, and cavities of the heart, where, due to its thinness, it diffuses various substances and reduces the friction of flowing fluids.
cuboidal epithelium lines the ducts of many glands, and also forms the tubules of the kidneys, performs a secretory function.
Columnar epithelium consists of tall and narrow cells. It lines the stomach, intestines, gallbladder, renal tubules, and is also part of the thyroid gland. 
Rice. 3. Different types of epithelium:
BUT - single layer flat; B - single layer cubic; AT - cylindrical; G-single-layer ciliated; D-multigrade; E - multilayer keratinizing
Cells ciliated epithelium usually have the shape of a cylinder, with many cilia on the free surfaces; lines the oviducts, the ventricles of the brain, the spinal canal and the respiratory tract, where it provides the transport of various substances.
Stratified epithelium lines the urinary tract, trachea, respiratory tract and is part of the mucous membrane of the olfactory cavities.
Stratified epithelium consists of several layers of cells. It lines the outer surface of the skin, the mucous membrane of the esophagus, the inner surface of the cheeks, and the vagina.
transitional epithelium located in those organs that are subject to strong stretching (bladder, ureter, renal pelvis). The thickness of the transitional epithelium prevents urine from entering the surrounding tissues.
glandular epithelium makes up the bulk of those glands in which epithelial cells are involved in the formation and release of substances necessary for the body.
There are two types of secretory cells - exocrine and endocrine. exocrine cells secrete on the free surface of the epithelium and through the ducts into the cavity (stomach, intestines, respiratory tract, etc.). Endocrine called glands, the secret (hormone) of which is secreted directly into the blood or lymph (pituitary, thyroid, thymus, adrenal glands).
By structure, exocrine glands can be tubular, alveolar, tubular-alveolar.
Connective tissue
Anatomy of life and death. Vital points on the human body Momot Valery Valerievich
Brief information on the anatomy and physiology of the human body
For a better understanding of the material presented below, it is necessary to familiarize yourself with the elementary foundations of human anatomy and physiology.
The human body consists of countless cells in which certain life processes take place. Cells in combination with intercellular substance form various types of tissues:
Integumentary (skin, mucous membranes);
Connective (cartilage, bones, ligaments);
Muscular;
Nervous (brain and spinal cord, nerves connecting the center with the organs);
Various tissues, connecting with each other, form organs, which, in turn, united by a single function and connected in their development, form an organ system.
All organ systems are interconnected and united into a single whole - the body.
The following organ systems are distinguished in the human body:
1) propulsion system;
2) digestive system;
3) respiratory system;
4) excretory system;
5) reproductive system;
6) circulatory system;
7) lymphatic system;
8) system of sense organs;
9) the system of organs of internal secretion;
10) nervous system.
The motor and nervous systems are of the greatest interest from the point of view of the defeat of vital points.
ENGINE SYSTEM
The human motor system consists of two parts:
Passive or supporting;
Active or locomotive apparatus.
The supporting part is called so because it by itself cannot change the position of the parts and the whole body in space. It consists of a number of bones interconnected by a ligamentous apparatus and muscles. This system serves as a support for the body.
The bones of the skeleton are built from strong bone tissue, consisting of organic substances and salts, mainly lime; outside covered with periosteum, through which pass the blood vessels that feed the bone.
The shape of the bones are: long, short, flat and mixed. Let us consider in more detail the supporting part of the motor apparatus. The skeleton of the trunk consists of the spine, chest, bones of the shoulder girdle and bones of the pelvic girdle.
The basis of the skeleton of the body is spine. His cervical department consists of 7 vertebrae, chest- from 12 vertebrae, lumbar- from 5 vertebrae, coccyx- from 4–5 vertebrae. The holes in the vertebrae form in the spine channel. It contains spinal cord which is an extension of the brain.
The movable part of the spine is its cervical and lumbar region. There are 4 bends in the spine: forward - in the cervical and lumbar parts and back - in the thoracic and sacral parts. These curves, together with the cartilaginous discs lying between the vertebrae, serve as a shock-absorbing agent when pushing, running, jumping, etc.
The chest contains the lungs, airways, heart, blood vessels, and esophagus.
The thorax is formed by the thoracic vertebrae, twelve pairs of ribs, and the sternum. The last two rows of ribs have only one attachment, and their front ends are free.
Due to the special shape of the joints between the ribs and vertebrae, the chest can change its volume during breathing: expand when the ribs are raised up and narrow when lowered down. The expansion and contraction of the chest is due to the action of the so-called respiratory muscles attached to the ribs.
The mobility of the chest to a large extent determines the performance of the respiratory organs and is especially important during increased muscular work, when deep breathing is necessary.
The skeleton of the shoulder girdle consists of clavicle and shoulder blades. The clavicle at one end is connected by a sedentary joint to the sternum, and at the other is attached to the process of the scapula. shoulder blade- flat bone - lies freely behind the ribs, more precisely on the muscles, and, in turn, is also covered with muscles.
A number of large back muscles are attached to the scapula, which, when contracted, fix the scapula, creating, in necessary cases, complete immobility with resistance. The process of the scapula forms the shoulder joint with the spherical head of the humerus.
Thanks to the movable connection of the clavicle with the sternum, the mobility of the scapula and the arrangement of the shoulder joint, the arm has the ability to perform a wide variety of movements.
Taz educated sacrum and two nameless bones. The bones of the pelvis are tightly connected to each other and the spine, since the pelvis serves as a support for all overlying parts of the body. For the heads of the femoral bones of the lower extremities, there are articular cavities on the lateral surfaces of the innominate bones.
Each bone occupies a certain place in the human body and is always in direct connection with other bones, closely adjacent to one or more bones. There are two main types of bone connections:
Continuous connections (synerthroses) - when the bones are interconnected with the help of a gasket between them from connective (cartilaginous, etc.) tissue;
Discontinuous joints (diarrhosis) or joints.
HUMAN SKELETON
Main bones of the body
Torso bones: 80 bones.
Scull: 29 bones.
Trunk bones: 51 bones.
Sternum: 1 bone.
Spine:
1. Cervical - 7 bones.
2. Thoracic - 12 bones.
3. Lumbar - 5 bones.
4. Sacrum - 1 bone.
5. Coccyx - 4-5 bones.
Upper limb bones(total 64 pieces):
1. Clavicle - 1 pair.
2. Shoulder blade - 1 pair.
3. Humerus - 1 pair.
4. Radius - 1 pair.
6. Wrist bones - 2 groups of 6 pcs.
7. Bones of the hand - 2 groups of 5 pcs.
8. Finger bones - 2 groups of 14 pcs.
Bones of the lower limbs(total 62 pieces):
1. Ilium - 1 pair.
2. Bucket - 1 pair.
3. Patella - 1 pair.
4. Tibia - 1 pair.
5. Bones of the tarsus - 2 groups of 7 pcs.
6. Metatarsal bones - 2 groups of 5 pcs.
7. Bones of the toes - 2 groups of 14 pcs.
The joints are quite mobile and therefore they are paid special attention in martial arts.
Ligaments stabilize the joints and limit their movement. Using this or that technique of a painful nature, they rotate the joints against their natural movement; in this case, first of all, the ligaments suffer.
If the joint is twisted to the limit and continues to be affected, the entire joint suffers. The articular surfaces of the bones in shape can be compared with segments of various geometric bodies. In accordance with this, the joints are divided into spherical, ellipsoid, cylindrical, block-shaped, saddle-shaped and flat. The shape of the articular surfaces makes up the volume and direction of movements that occur around three axes. Flexion and extension are performed around the frontal axis. Abduction and adduction occur around the sagittal axis. Rotation is performed around the vertical axis. The inward rotation is called pronation, and outward rotation - supination. In the spherical ellipsoid joints of the limbs, peripheral rotation is also possible - a movement in which the limb or part of it describes a cone. Depending on the number of axes around which movements are possible, the joints are divided into uniaxial, biaxial and triaxial (multiaxial).
Uniaxial joints include cylindrical and block-shaped.
To biaxial - ellipsoid and saddle.
Triaxial (multiaxial) include spherical and flat joints.
The skeleton of the hand is divided into three parts: the shoulder, the forearm, formed by two bones - the ulna and the radius, and the hand, formed by 8 small bones of the wrist, 5 metacarpal bones and 14 bones (phalanges) of the fingers.
The connection of the shoulder to the bone of the scapula and clavicle is called shoulder joint. It can move forward, backward, up and down. The connection of the shoulder with the forearm forms the elbow joint. In the elbow joint, basically, there are two movements: extension and flexion of the arm. Due to the special device of the elbow joint, it is possible to rotate the radius, and with it the hand out and in. The connection of bones between the forearm and hand is called wrist joint.
The bones of the skeleton of the lower extremities consist of three parts: hips, shins and feet.
The connection between the femur and the pelvis is called the hip joint. joint. It is reinforced with strong ligaments that limit the movement of the leg back. The lower leg is formed by two bones: tibial and peroneal. In contact with its upper end with the lower end of the femur, the tibia forms knee-joint. In front of the knee joint is a separate bone - knee cap, which is strengthened by the tendon of the quadriceps femoris. In the knee joint, flexion and extension of the leg can be performed. Therefore, with a sharp hold on the legs (especially in the knee joint): strikes, lateral or rotational movements, or excessive extension / flexion (boost), serious damage is possible. The foot consists of three parts:
Red metatarsus, consisting of 7 bones,
Metatarsus - from 5 bones and
14 finger bones (phalanges).
The bones of the foot are connected by ligaments and form the arch of the foot, which acts as a shock absorber when pushing or jumping. The connection between the leg and the foot is called ankle joint. The main movement in this joint is the extension and flexion of the foot. In the ankle joint, with sharply conducted techniques, there are often injuries (sprain, rupture of ligaments, etc.).
JOINTS AND JOINTS OF HUMAN BONES
1. Ligaments of the upper and lower jaws.
2. Shoulder joint.
4. Intervertebral connections.
5. Hip joint.
6. Pubic articulation.
7. Wrist joint.
8. Joints of fingers.
9. Knee joint.
10. Ankle joint.
11. Joints of the toes.
12. Tarsal joints.
Elbow joint (approx.)
Hip joint (approx.)
Muscles are the active part of the human locomotor apparatus. The musculature of the skeleton consists of a large number of individual muscles. Muscle tissue, consisting of muscle fibers, has the property of contracting (shortening in length) under the influence of irritation brought to the muscles from the brain along the nerves. Muscles, having attachments with their ends to the bones, more often with the help of connecting strands - tendons, bend, unbend and rotate these bones during their contraction.
Thus, muscle contractions and the resulting muscular traction are the force that sets the parts of our body in motion.
In the chest part, the pectoralis major muscle starts from the sternum and clavicles with a wide base and is attached to the other, narrow end to the humerus of the upper limb. The pectoralis minor attaches to the process of the scapula above and to the superior ribs below. Intercostal muscles - external and internal, located between the ribs and in the intercostal spaces.
The abdominal muscles are made up of several layers. The outer layer is made up of the rectus abdominis muscles, which lie in front with a wide ribbon and are attached above to the ribs, and below - to the pubic junction of the pelvis.
The next two layers are formed by the oblique abdominal muscles - external and internal. All preparatory exercises associated with tilting the torso forward, to the side and rotating it lead to strengthening the abdominals.
The muscles of the back are arranged in several layers. The muscles of the first layer include trapezius and wide backs. The strong trapezius muscle is located in the upper back and neck. Attached to the occipital bone of the skull, it goes to the scapula and to the collarbone, where it finds its second attachment.
The trapezius muscle, during its contraction, throws the head back, brings the shoulder blades together and, pulling up the outer edge of the clavicle and shoulder blade, raises the arm above shoulder level.
The broad muscle occupies a significant part of the entire back. Covering it, it starts from the sacrum, lumbar and half of the thoracic vertebrae, attaches to the humerus. The broad back muscle pulls the arm back and, together with the pectoralis major muscle, brings it to the body.
For example, if you grab an arm from an opponent, then usually he tries to pull it out by sharply bending the arm at the elbow joint and bringing the humerus to the body. When bringing the humerus to the body, the broad muscle of the back and the pectoralis major muscle play an important role.
The muscles that carry the work of the extensors of the body are located in the deep layer of the muscles of the back. This deep layer starts from the sacrum and is attached to all the vertebrae and ribs. These muscles have great strength when working. The alignment of a person, the balance of the body, lifting weights and the ability to keep it in the right position depend on them.
The musculature of the upper limb consists for the most part of long muscles thrown over the shoulder, elbow and wrist joints.
The shoulder joint is covered by the deltoid muscle. It is attached, on the one hand, to the collarbone and scapula, on the other hand, to the humerus. The deltoid muscle abducts the arm from the body to shoulder level and is partially involved in abduction forward and in abduction of the arm back.
HUMAN MUSCLES
Human muscles: front view
1. Long palmar muscle.
2. Superficial finger flexor.
4. Triceps muscle of the shoulder.
5. Coracobrachial muscle.
6. Large round muscle.
7. Broad muscle of the back.
8. Serratus anterior.
9. External oblique muscle of the abdomen.
10. Iliopsoas muscle.
11.13. Quadriceps.
12. Tailor muscle.
14. Tibialis anterior.
15. Achilles tendon.
16. Calf muscle.
17. Slim muscle.
18. Superior extensor tendon retinaculum
19. Tibialis anterior.
20. Peroneal muscles.
21. Shoulder muscle.
22. Long radial extensor of the hand.
23. Finger extensor.
24. Biceps muscle of the shoulder.
25. Deltoid muscle.
26. Large pectoral muscle.
27. Sternohyoid muscle.
28. Sternocleidomastoid muscle.
29. Chewing muscle.
30. Circular muscle of the eye
Human muscles: rear view
1. Sternocleidomastoid muscle.
2. Trapezius muscle.
3. Deltoid muscle.
4. Triceps muscle of the shoulder.
5. Biceps brachii.
6. Radial flexor of the hand.
7. Shoulder muscle.
8. Aponeurosis of the biceps muscle of the shoulder.
9. Gluteus maximus.
10. Biceps femoris.
11. Calf muscle.
12. Soleus muscle.
13.15. Long peroneal muscle.
14. Tendon of the long extensor of the finger.
16. Iliotibial tract (part of the wide fascia of the thigh).
17. Muscle that strains the wide fascia of the thigh.
18. External oblique muscle of the abdomen.
19. Broad muscle of the back.
20. Rhomboid muscle.
21. Large round muscle.
22. Pelvic muscle.
Biceps arm (biceps), being on the anterior surface of the humerus, produces mainly flexion of the arm at the elbow joint.
Triceps (triceps), being on the back surface of the humerus, produces mainly extension of the arm in the elbow joint.
The flexors of the hand and fingers are located on the forearm in front.
On the back of the forearm are the extensors of the hand and fingers.
The muscles that rotate the forearm inward (pronation) are located on its front surface, the muscles that rotate the forearm outward (supination) are located on the back surface.
The muscles of the lower extremities have greater massiveness and strength than the muscles of the upper extremities. Starting from the lumbar vertebrae of the inner surface of the innominate bone, the psoas muscle is thrown in front through the bones of the pelvis and is attached to the femur. It flexes the hip at the hip joint. This muscle plays a role in stretching, as the leg has to assume different flexion positions. One of the elements of the bend is the “carry” position, where the leg is lifted forward and up.
The gluteus maximus is responsible for rearward hip extension. It starts from the bones of the pelvis and is attached at the lower end to the femur at the back. The muscles that abduct the thigh to the side are located under the gluteus maximus muscle and are called the gluteus medius and minimus.
On the inner surface of the thigh is a group of adductor muscles. The strongest of all leg muscles - the quadriceps muscle - is located on the thigh in front, its lower tendon is attached to the tibia, that is, below the knee joint. This muscle, together with the iliopsoas muscle, bends (lifts) the thigh of the leg forward and upward. Its main action is the extension of the leg in the knee joint (it plays an important role in kicks).
The leg flexors are located mainly on the back of the thigh. The extensors are located on the anterior surface of the lower leg, and the flexors of the foot are located on the posterior surface. The strongest muscle in the lower leg is the triceps (calf or "calf"). With its lower end, this muscle is attached by a strong cord, the so-called Achilles tendon, to the calcaneus. Contracting, the triceps flexes the foot, pulling the heel up.
NERVOUS SYSTEM
The brain and spinal cord form the so-called nervous system. Through the sense organs, it perceives all impressions from the external world and induces the muscles to produce certain movements.
The brain serves as an organ of thinking and has the ability to direct voluntary movements (higher nervous activity). The spinal cord controls involuntary and automatic movements.
In the form of white cords, the nerves that emerge from the brain and spinal cord branch like blood vessels throughout the body. These threads connect the centers with the nerve terminal apparatuses embedded in various tissues: in the skin, muscles and in various organs. Most of the nerves are mixed, that is, they consist of sensory and motor fibers. The former perceive impressions and direct them to the central nervous system, the latter transmit impulses emanating from the central nervous system to the muscles, organs, etc., thereby causing them to contract and act.
At the same time, the nervous system, having a connection with the outside world, also establishes a connection with the internal organs and maintains their coordinated work. In this regard, we will analyze the concept of reflex.
For the movement of certain parts of the body, the participation of many muscles is necessary. In this case, not only certain muscles are involved in the movement, but each muscle must develop only a strictly defined force of movement. All this is controlled by the central nervous system. First of all, responses to irritation (reflex) always go from it along the motor nerves to the muscles, and along the sensitive ones to the brain and spinal cord. Therefore, the muscles, even in a calm state, are in some tension.
If an order is sent to any muscle, for example, to the flexor, to bend the joint, irritation is simultaneously sent to the antagonist (opposite to the acting muscle) - the extensor, but not of an excitatory, but of an inhibitory nature. As a result, the flexor contracts and the extensor relaxes. All this ensures consistency (coordination) of muscle movement.
For the practical study of the art of attacking the vital points, the nerves of the central nervous system, their roots in the body and the places where they are closest to the surface of the skin, should be especially well studied. These places are subjected to compression and shock.
When it hits a nerve ending, a person feels like an electric shock and loses the ability to defend himself.
There is a division into the nerves of the skin, muscles, joints - on the one hand, and the nerves that regulate the internal organs, circulatory system and glands - on the other hand.
There are four main motor nerve plexuses:
cervical plexus;
Brachial plexus;
Lumbar plexus;
The sacral plexus.
From the brachial plexus originate the nerves responsible for the mobility of the upper limbs. When they are damaged, temporary or irreversible paralysis of the hands occurs. The most important of these are the radial nerve, median nerve, and ulnar nerve.
Nerves responsible for the movement of the lower extremities emerge from the sacral plexus. These include the femoral nerve, sciatic nerve, superficial peroneal nerve, and saphenous nerve of the leg.
All motor nerves usually follow the contours of the bones and form a knot with blood vessels. These motor nerves usually run deep within the muscles and are therefore well protected from external influences. However, they pass through the joints and in some cases even come to the surface (under the skin). It is in these relatively unprotected places that strikes should be struck.
METHODS OF AFFECTING VITAL POINTS ON THE HUMAN BODY
As noted in the introduction, the classifications of vital points on the human body are quite diverse. At the same time, the topography of zones belonging to one or another classification group on the human body is often identical, but the results from different lesions can either coincide or differ quite a lot.
An example of the coincidence of topography and the consequences of a lesion is a series of points around the elbow joint (we are not talking here about energy points and the corresponding methods of lesion). In this area there are anatomically present: the joint itself, created by the articulation of the humerus, ulna and radius bones, the ulnar and radial nerves, passing in this place almost on the surface, as well as various muscles, some of which are transferred through the joint (not to mention large blood vessels ). Based on this, we can act on the joint by twisting it, bending it, etc., attacking the nerves with a blow or pressure, or squeezing and twisting the muscles. The consequences of the vast majority of the technical actions listed above are identical - the hand will be immobilized (joint fracture, muscle strain, brief paralysis, etc.).
But the capture and impact, carried out in the region of the oblique muscles of the abdomen, will be very different. When grabbing the muscle, the opponent will feel a sharp pain, possibly unbearable - but if the grip is released, the pain will stop almost immediately and no serious consequences (except for the usual “bruise” as a serious consequence) will occur. However, if a blow is struck in the same area with sufficient force and at the right angle, the enemy can not only be severely maimed, but also killed almost immediately (which, for example, is possible with a ruptured spleen).
From this follows a logical conclusion that the difference should be sought not so much in the points themselves, but in the methods of defeating them, about which we want to say a few words before proceeding to the description of the vital points presented in our book. After the analysis carried out by the author in order to study the methods of influencing points in various martial arts systems, a small list arose that quite fully reflects the entire range of influences that vital points on the human body can be subjected to. These methods are as follows:
Compression (clamp);
Twisting (twisting);
Squeezing (squeezing);
Pressing (indentation);
Impact (interruption).
All methods can be used either individually or in combination - in any of the following groups of techniques.
IMPACT ON BONES AND JOINTS
A strong blow to the bone can destroy (break) it, which in itself leads to partial immobilization of the part of the body where this or that bone is located. Sharp shocking pain occurs due to damage to the nerves that lie close to the bone that is being broken.
Therefore, if they want to immobilize an arm or leg, they first of all seek to break one or another bone in the corresponding limb with a sharp and strong blow at the right angle, since this sometimes allows you to achieve the maximum possible effect with minimal effort.
In addition, the bones can also be impacted for another purpose - to damage nearby organs, nerves or blood vessels with fragments of a broken bone or cartilage. So, for example, a broken rib causes severe pain, but much more serious consequences can occur if fragments of the rib pierce the lung and blood begins to flow into its cavity. In this case, hemothorax occurs and the person slowly and painfully dies from suffocation.
The joints are affected in order to disrupt their physiological functioning. If a joint is blocked or damaged, it cannot move. Compared to breaking a bone, this is a more benign method, since it is not at all necessary to completely destroy the joint in order to subjugate the enemy to your will. The fact is that when exposed to the joint, the adjacent ligaments, muscles and nerves also suffer, which leads to severe pain. All this makes the enemy incapable of further resistance. It should be noted that techniques of this type can only be applied to the movable joints of the human body.
IMPACT ON MUSCLE
Muscles are most often affected by gripping, pressing, or twisting, but impact damage to one or another muscle is also possible. Any effect on the muscle is based on the principles common to all methods. As you know, each muscle serves to flex or extend the limbs, turn the head, etc., any movement is accompanied by muscle contraction. Extension or flexion depends on the location of the muscle. Biceps and triceps are good examples. Here, one muscle is responsible for flexion, and the other for extension of the arm in the elbow joint. If any of these muscles are caught or contracted in a certain sensitive area, they are forced into an unnatural position, which excites the nerves, causing severe pain and local paralysis.
Muscle twisting refers to the stretching and eversion of certain muscle groups. When a muscle stretches and wraps, it temporarily loses its ability to function. The movement of the body part for which the muscle is responsible may be difficult or even impossible. In addition, during this exposure, the nerves are compressed, which causes severe pain.
Techniques for grabbing and pressing on the muscles do not require much precision, since the target is a certain zone, not a point. To effectively influence the muscles, it is enough to apply an adequate external influence in the form of pressure, twisting or impact.
IMPACT ON THE RESPIRATORY AND CIRCULATION ORGANS
The impact on the respiratory organs can be carried out in three main ways: by clamping, squeezing or interrupting the windpipe, squeezing the diaphragm or hitting it, and hitting or pressing on sensitive points of the so-called. "respiratory" muscles responsible for the expansion and contraction of the ribs. To compress the lungs, one must have a fairly deep knowledge of the nerves covering the large array of muscles that surround the lungs. By acting on these nerves, it is possible to force the muscles to contract with such force that the opponent will pass out from pain and as a result of a lack of oxygen.
The most accessible areas for pressure to occlude blood vessels are points located on and near the carotid artery and jugular vein. As a result of the overlap of these largest vessels, blood stops flowing to the brain, which leads to loss of consciousness and death. In addition, a correctly delivered blow to the heart, liver, spleen, kidneys or abdominal aorta also leads to very severe damage to the circulatory system of the body, often with a fatal outcome.
IMPACT ON THE NERVE AND INTERNAL ORGANS
The main areas where points for nerve damage are located can be considered: nerve connections; unprotected nerves; nerve troughs.
In addition, there are many important points related to both the central and autonomic nervous systems, which are extremely important for the defeat of the internal organs of the enemy.
Nerve junctions are usually referred to as points located where nerves cross joints. Places like knees, wrists, fingers, elbows, ankles are not protected by muscles. Twisting will easily cause pain and damage. Other sites where the nerves are close to the surface of the skin may also be attacked.
For example, in the elbow joint, the ulnar nerve is located close to the surface and is not protected by muscles. If the elbow is bent at a certain angle, exposing the nerve, a slight blow or compression of this area is enough to make the arm numb and lose sensation.
Another example. Lightly hitting the opponent on the outside of the kneecap will damage the peroneal nerve. As a result, his leg will become numb and temporarily unable to use it. A weak blow leads to a temporary incapacitation, a strong one can cripple.
Some joints, such as the elbows, knees, shoulders, and hips, also have nerves that run inside the joint or are protected by a thick layer of muscle. However, other nerves in the same location - such as those in the armpit or abdomen - are only covered by thin tissue. Depending on the strength of the attack in these areas, you can either temporarily neutralize the enemy, or make him a cripple, or kill him.
Although the nerves of the head, neck, and torso are often deep and well-protected, there are specific points that can be attacked.
In any depression in the human body, the nerves can be attacked with great efficiency. A hollow is a depression in the body where the covering tissue is soft. For example, notches above and below the collarbone, where many nerves are located that control the movement of the hand. You can also give an example of a cavity behind the ear or behind the lower jaw. There are many nerves of the brain here, these places can be effectively attacked, causing the enemy, pain, numbness and temporary loss of consciousness.
There are many points vulnerable to attacks on the neck and back. These points are directly connected with the central nervous system, so exposure to them almost always leads to death.
Active influences on the nerves of the autonomic nervous system can also lead to death. This is possible due to the fact that the autonomic nervous system is responsible for the functions of internal organs. Blows to the area of the liver, spleen, stomach, heart can be fatal if applied with the proper force and at the right angle. A blow to the solar plexus causes pain and spasm of the abdominal muscles, as well as breathing problems. The enemy is unlikely to be able to provide any effective countermeasures after such an impact.
On the next page we list the points described in our book. Since most of these points are taken from Gyokko-ryu, all the names of the points are given in Japanese (their translation is given in brackets).
We tried to pay enough attention to each point, indicating not only its location, the direction of the impact and the possible consequences of the lesion, but also the corresponding anatomical data about the nerves, muscles or internal organs, which are affected by the impact. We believe that these data will not be superfluous and the reader will pay enough attention to them when reading the book.
LIST OF POINTS CONSIDERED IN THE BOOK
Crown and articulation of the frontal and temporal lobes of the skull.
- I'm a man(An arrow hitting the head) - the base of the back of the head.
- Kasumi(Mist, fog) - temple.
- Jinchu(Center of a person) - the base of the nose and the tip of the nose.
- Menbu(Face) - bridge of the nose.
- Ying(Shadow) - the angle between the upper and lower jaw.
- Happa(Eight ways to leave) - a pat on the ear.
- Yugasumi(Evening fog) - a soft place under the ear.
- Hiryuran(The flying dragon is struck) - eyes.
- Tenmon(Heaven's Gate) - the protruding edge of the zygomatic bone near the zygomatic cavity
- Tsuyugasumi(The haze dissipates) - jaw ligaments.
- Mikatsuki(Jaw) - the lateral part of the lower jaw on the left and right
- Asagasumi, Asagiri(Morning mist) - bottom edge
- Uko(Door in the rain) - side of the neck.
- Keichu(Middle of the neck) - the back of the neck.
- Matsukaze(Wind in the pines) - upper and lower end of the carotid artery
- Murasame(Rain in the village) - in the middle of the carotid artery.
- Tokotsu(Independent bone) - Adam's apple.
- Ryu Fu(Willow breath) - above and below the Adam's apple.
- Sonu(Trachea) - interclavicular fossa.
- Sakkotsu(Clavicle) - collarbone.
- Rumont(Dragon Gate) - above the collarbone near the shoulder.
- Dantu(Center of the chest) - the upper part of the sternum.
- soda(Great spear) - the seventh protruding vertebra.
- Kinketsu(Forbidden move) - sternum.
- Butsumetsu(Buddha's death day) - ribs under the pectoral muscles in front and behind.
- Jujiro(Crossroads) - right on the shoulder.
- Daimon(Big gate) - the middle of the shoulder at the junction
- Sei(Star) - right in the armpit.
- Cheers canon(Outside the devil opens) - lower ribs under the pectoral muscles
Xing chu(Center of the heart) - the middle of the chest.
- Danko(Heart) - the region of the heart.
- Wakitsubo(Side of the body) - the last ribs on the side under the arms.
- Katsusatsu(Point of life and death) - the spine at the level of the waist
- Suigetsu(Moon on water) - solar plexus.
- Inazuma(Lightning) - area of the liver, "floating" ribs.
- Kanzo(Region of the liver in the back) - behind at the level of the lower back on the right
- Jinzo(Kidneys) - on both sides of the spinal column just above the katsusatsu point
- Sisiran(Tiger struck) - stomach.
- Gorin(Five rings) - five points around the center of the abdomen.
- Kosei(Power of the tiger) - groin and genitals.
- Kodenko(Small heart) - sacrum.
- Bitei(Coccyx) - at the end of the spine between the buttocks.
- Koshitsubo(Cauldron of the thighs) - the inner crest of the pelvic bones, the fold of the groin.
- Sai or Nasai(Leg) - inside and outside the middle of the thigh.
- Ushiro Inazuma(Lightning at the back) - behind the thigh, starting from the buttocks and up to the middle of the muscle
- Ushiro Hizakansetsu(Knee joint) - knee joint front and back.
- utchirobushi(Shin bone from the inside) - just above the head of the bone from the inside.
- Kokotsu(Small bone) - lower leg from the inside.
- Soubi(calf muscle) - calf muscle.
- Kyokei(Hard directions) - on top of the foot.
- Akiresuken(Achilles tendon) - just above the heel.
- Dzyakkin(weak muscle) - in the upper arm between bone and muscle
- Hoshizawa(Cliff under the stars) - “shock” point just above the elbow joint
- Udekansetsu(Arm joint) - the area under the elbow.
- Kotetsubo(point of the forearm) - the radial nerve at the top of the forearm
- Miyakudokoro(Inner slope of the cliff) - at the crook of the wrist from the inside.
- Sotoyakuzawa(Outer slope of the cliff) - at the crook of the wrist on the outside
- Kote(Forearm) - the head of the ulna.
- Yubitsubo(Finger cauldron) - the base of the thumb.
- Gokoku(Five directions) - a point in the hole between the thumb and forefinger.
- haishu(Palm outside) - the outer side of the hand.
VITAL POINTS: FRONT VIEW
LIFEPOINTS: SIDE VIEW
VITAL POINTS: BACK VIEW
VITAL POINTS: UPPER AND LOWER LIMB
1. TEN TO, TEN DO(TOP OF THE HEAD) - articulation of the frontal and parietal bones of the skull ( TEN TO) and articulation of the occipital and parietal bones of the skull ( TEN DO)
Skull: top view
With a moderate impact - concussion, loss of coordination of movements, fainting. A strong blow with a fracture of the skull leads to death due to damage to the tissues and arteries of the frontal and parietal lobes of the brain by fragments of the parietal bones. The direction of impact is towards the center of the head (the shock wave should ideally reach the corpus callosum, thalamus and then the optic chiasm and pituitary gland).
Brain: the direction of blows when hitting points ten then and ten do
2. I am MEN(ARROW HITTING THE HEAD) - base of the occiput
Point Defeat I am Maine largely depends on the direction of the blow, as well as its strength. A light blow, directed strictly horizontally, leads to muscle spasms of varying severity and headache (symptoms may appear the next day). A blow of the same force, but directed slightly upward, strikes the cerebellum and leads to loss of consciousness. A medium-strength blow directed upward at an angle of about 30 degrees, as well as with a slight deviation to the left or right, causes shock and loss of consciousness due to damage to the occipital nerves and short-term infringement of the spinal cord. A strong blow leads to immediate death due to a fracture of the cervical vertebrae (in particular, processes atlanta), infringement of the spinal cord by fragments of cartilage or its complete rupture, damage by fragments of the bone of the occipital and vertebral arteries.
Muscles of the back of the neck and neck
3. KASUMI (MIST, FOG)- temple
With a moderate impact - pain shock, concussion, loss of consciousness. With a strong blow - a fracture of flat bones and a rupture of the temporal artery. A fracture in the temporal region of the skull with damage to the anterior and middle branches of the cerebral artery most often causes death. The cerebral artery supplies blood to the skull and the membrane that covers the brain. The artery branches into the cranium and contracts or expands if these branches break as a result of a fracture, which at best causes a prolonged loss of consciousness.
Head arteries
1. Superficial temporal artery.
2. Occipital artery.
3. Sternocleidomastoid muscle (dissected and turned back).
4. Lingual nerve cranial nerve XII.
5. Internal jugular vein.
6. Internal carotid artery.
7. Cutaneous branches of the cervical nerve plexus.
8. Cervical lymph node with a lymphatic vessel.
9. The place of division of the carotid artery.
10. Temporal muscle.
11. Maxillary artery.
12. Chewing muscle, (together with the zygomatic arch bent forward).
13. Lower jaw.
14. Facial artery.
15. External carotid artery.
16. Submandibular gland.
17. Larynx.
18. Common carotid artery.
19. Thyroid gland.
20. Posterior cerebral artery.
21. Cerebellar arteries.
22. Vertebral artery.
23. Anterior cerebral artery.
24. Middle cerebral artery.
25. S-shaped segment (carotid siphon) near the base of the skull.
26. Trapezius muscle.
4.JINTCHU(HUMAN CENTER) - base of the nose
A split lip, broken or knocked out front teeth, and watery eyes are minimal results. Pain and tearing occur due to nerve endings close to the surface of the skin. The impact may result in a fracture of the upper jaw due to the spherical nature of the skull.
The skull will shrink to the limit, and then "explode", resulting in a fracture. The broken area is usually on one side or the other, away from the impact point. Pain shock can lead to death.
Facial bones of the skull
5. MENBU(FACE) - nose bridge
Facial bones of the skull: front and side view
Darkening of the eyes, fracture of the bridge of the nose with severe bleeding. A short-term loss of consciousness is possible. Compound fracture and/or displacement of the nasal bone and nasal septum as a result of a blow to the top of the nose. Needless to say, a hematoma will follow due to the rupture of a large number of blood vessels in this area. Shock and pain can lead to loss of consciousness.
Temporary blindness can be the result of severe tearing due to damage to pain receptors in the nasal region (damage to the nasal part of the anterior ethmoidal nerve - a branch of the trigeminal nerve). We must know that in many cases the blow itself cannot be the cause of death, but the accidental side effects that arise as a result of the blow being struck can lead to death.
6. IN(SHADOW) - the angle between the upper and lower jaw
Sharp shocking pain with a strong deep indentation of the phalanx of the finger into a point towards the center of the head, leading to an instant spasm of the facial muscles ("grimace of pain"). Damage to the upper part of the facial nerve can lead to partial paralysis of the mimic muscles of the face. Possible rupture of the ligaments of the lower jaw.
Some muscles and nerves of the face
1. Frontal muscle.
2. Circular muscle of the eye.
3. Large zygomatic muscle.
4. The circular muscle of the mouth.
5. Muscle that lowers the corner of the mouth.
6. Superior branch of the facial nerve.
7. Lower branch of the facial nerve.
8. Facial nerve, exit from the base of the skull.
9. Flat cervical muscle.
7. HAPPA(WHEATY'S EIGHT WAYS) - slap on the ear
Ringing in the ears and darkening of the eyes (due to the branching of deep blood vessels in this region of the skull) will be the mildest result of the impact. The facial nerve passes along with the auditory nerve to the inner ear and under the mucous membrane of the middle ear follows to the base of the skull. It can be easily damaged by damage to the middle ear or trauma to the skull, so hearing and balance disorders are often accompanied by paralysis of facial muscles. Contusion with a disorder of the functions of the vestibular apparatus (from mild to severe), if the blow is applied correctly. Rupture of the eardrums, severe bleeding, deep fainting, shock.
Organs of hearing and balance
1. Lateral ventricle of the brain.
2. Thalamus (interbrain).
3. Islet.
4. Third ventricle (interbrain).
5. Temporal lobe.
6. The inner ear in the petrous part of the temporal bone - the cochlea and the internal auditory meatus.
7. Middle ear with auditory ossicles.
8. External auditory canal and outer ear.
9. Tympanic membrane and lateral semicircular canal.
10. Internal jugular vein.
11. Internal carotid artery and cervical border (sympathetic) trunk.
12. Inner capsule.
13. Location of the primary acoustic center of the cortex (the so-called transverse gyrus of Herschl).
14. Location of the secondary acoustic center of the cortex (Wernicke's speech center).
15. Auditory radiance, bundles of fibers of the central auditory pathway.
16. Hippocampus cortex (limbic system).
17. Brain stem (midbrain).
18. Stony part of the temporal bone.
19. Temporomandibular joint and head of the joint of the lower jaw.
20. Base of the skull.
21. Maxillary artery.
22. Muscles of the pharynx.
23. Vestibular-auditory nerve.
24. Facial nerve.
25. Internal auditory canal.
26. Snail.
27. Superior semicircular canal.
28. Ampoules of the semicircular canal with vestibular organs for balance coordination.
29. Posterior semicircular canal.
30. Lateral semicircular canal.
31. Pressure equalization valve.
32. Medium articulated body.
33. Lateral loop part of the ear canal.
34. Cerebellum.
35. Rhomboid fossa.
36. Canal of the facial nerve.
37. Fossa of the sigmoid sinus of the brain.
38. Cast.
39. Furrow.
40. Vertebral artery.
41. The vestibule of the ear labyrinth with an elliptical sac and with a membranous vesicle.
8. YUGASUMI(EVENING MIST) - soft spot under the ear
Muscles of the head and face
Sharp, shocking pain when struck or pressed with the tip of the finger backwards inwards. The lesion is directed to the facial and abducens nerves. The abducens nerve is the motor nerve of the facial muscles. It enters, together with the auditory nerve, into the temporal bone, then, close under the mucous membrane of the middle ear, it follows the canal of the facial nerve inside the parotid salivary gland is divided into branches. Nerve damage leads to paralysis of facial muscles (relaxed sagging of the corners of the mouth, lower eyelids, etc.) and distortion of the face. There are also hearing impairments. All sounds are perceived as painfully loud (so-called hyperacoustics).
Exit of the facial nerve from the base of the skull
1. Superior branch of the facial nerve.
2. Facial nerve emerging from the base of the skull.
3. The lower branch of the facial nerve.
9. HIRYURAN(FLYING DRAGON DAMAGED) - eyes
Loss of vision and impaired coordination and space, internal hemorrhage and damage to the cornea of \u200b\u200bthe eye. With deep penetration of the fingers into the eye sockets, a complete irreparable loss of vision is possible due to the destruction of the eyeballs, rupture of the optic nerve. As a result of deep penetration, damage to the cerebral cortex is instantaneous death due to internal hemorrhage.
Organs of vision and eye muscles
2. Lens.
3. Cornea.
4. Sclera and retina.
5. Optic nerve with ciliary nerve.
6. Ring-shaped muscle of the eyelid.
7. The muscle that lifts the upper eyelid.
8. The muscle that lifts the eyelid (smooth muscle, contracts involuntarily, automatically).
9. Conjunctiva.
10. Rainbow defense.
11. Ciliary body and suspensory ligament of the lens.
12. Vitreous body (transparent).
13. Optic nerve papilla.
10. TENMON(SKY GATES) - the protruding inner edge of the zygomatic bone at the articulation with the frontal bone near the eye socket
Facial part of the skull, side view
Sharp pain, severe hematoma, constant lacrimation, shock in case of a fracture and damage to the eye by bone fragments. Temporary or irreversible paralysis of the eye muscles leads to misalignment of the eyes (strabismus). If the superior branch of the cranial nerve is damaged, the eyeball may no longer be able to turn outward. The result will be convergent strabismus. With the defeat of autonomic (parasympathetic) nerve fibers for the internal eye muscles, it can lead to a violation of accommodation and pupil motility.
Branching of the cranial nerve (approximately)
11. TSUYUGASUMI(THE DARK CLEARS) - jaw ligaments
Nerves of the face
1. Block nerve going to the oblique superior eye muscle.
2. Nerve of the eye muscles.
3, 4. Glossopharyngeal nvrv.
5. Vagus nerve.
6. Abducens nerve.
Sharp pain, involuntary opening of the mouth, "grin of pain" occurs when the finger (fingers) is strongly pressed on one or both sides on the junction of the lower and upper jaws. The defeat of the glossopharyngeal nerve with a fracture of the condylar or coronoid processes can seriously affect the masticatory and speech apparatus, up to paralysis of the masticatory muscles.
Muscles and ligaments of the jaw
12.MIKATSUKI(JAW) - the lateral part of the lower jaw on the left and right
Lower jaw
Severe pain up to loss of consciousness with a crack or fracture of the bone. A fracture or displacement of the lower jaw is the result of a blow to either side of the mandibular bone. If two blows are made at the same time, a double fracture is evident (on both sides). But if one blow was delivered earlier, the jaw is repelled to the second tool of impact, a fracture is possible only on one side. To prevent future deformation of the jawline, the teeth and splinters must be temporarily held together. Of course, it will be very difficult to eat and talk until everything falls into place.
Lower jaw
Direction of blows
13. ASAGIRI(MORNING MIST) - lower edge of the chin
14. Brief conclusions The necessity of writing this chapter is caused by the general psychological mechanism of cognitive processes: getting acquainted with something fundamentally new, a person nevertheless looks for relevant analogies in his past experience. And it is in the wrong selection of analogies
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The main human need is the preservation of life and health. A healthy person is one who is free from disease and physical defects. In order to maintain health for as long as possible, it is necessary to study your body, to know what processes are going on inside, to study the factors and conditions that cause pathological changes.
This is done by scientific disciplines that study the human body, develop prevention and treatment methods for diseases. There are 2 main areas: anatomy and physiology.
What is anatomy
Anatomy is a science that studies the structure of the body, organs and systems as a whole.
The discipline originated in ancient Greece BC. The name comes from the Greek word "anatomy", which means "dissection" when translated.
In those days, the study of the human body was carried out by opening a dead body. The first to conduct such experiments on animals was the scientist Alkemon, in order to study the structure of internal organs.
Hippocrates described the bones of the skull, the structure of the vertebrae, ribs, internal organs. This served as a powerful impetus for the study of the discipline in the future. Today, anatomy has several branches:
- normal anatomy- the science of a healthy body;
- pathological anatomy- a discipline that explores deviations from the norm, pathological changes in organs and systems;
- topographic anatomy studies layer-by-layer anatomical regions, the projection of organs on the skin ( holotopy), the location of organs relative to each other ( syntopy), relation to the skeleton ( skeletopy), blood supply, innervation and lymph outflow in normal and pathological conditions.
What is physiology
normal physiology explores the functions and processes of a healthy body. pathological physiology studies how the processes of vital activity change with any pathology, the factors leading to the disease, the pathogenesis of these phenomena.
It is generally accepted that physiology officially arose in 1628., when William Harvey (an English physician) published his treatise, in which he described the presence of large and small circles of blood circulation and the effect of the heart on the circulatory system.
Types of physiology:
- Age, which explores the vital activity of the human body, the formation, development and extinction of its functions;
- labor physiology studies professional factors that affect life processes;
- aviation considers changes in the reactions of the body in conditions of low atmospheric pressure and space;
- ecological detects and studies the reactions in the body under changing climate and geographic environment, increasing endurance to adverse factors;
- evolutionary studies the processes of physiology, their mechanisms of regulation and development, similarities in organisms that are at different evolutionary stages.
Human anatomy and physiology are inseparable from each other. A set of cells form a tissue, the tissue turns into an organ, the organs turn into systems. The structure of organs is directly connected with their functions.
For example, the stomach consists of a mucous, submucosal, muscular, serous layer. Its main functions are the mixing of the food eaten and its splitting, for further movement through the gastrointestinal tract. The muscle layer contracts, when food enters, the food is mixed and rubbed to a thick consistency. The cells of the mucous layer secrete pepsin and hydrochloric acid. Pepsin is needed to convert proteins into polypeptides and amino acids, and hydrochloric acid forms the necessary acidity for the action of proteolysis enzymes and kills bacteria.
Having knowledge about the structure of an organ, one can understand its functional abilities, and vice versa, understanding the functions of an organ, one can explain its structure.
Based on the knowledge of human anatomy and physiology, it is possible to solve the problems of maintaining health and well-being, to carry out preventive and therapeutic measures.
For example, with atherosclerosis of the coronary vessels, an atherosclerotic plaque appears on the wall of the arteries, which leads to circulatory disorders, hypoxia and the development of coronary heart disease, its adverse consequences. One of the reasons for the development of this plaque is elevated cholesterol levels. It is with the help of knowledge of the pathogenesis of the disease that it is possible to prevent the development of the disease by reducing foods containing saturated fats in the diet (sausages and flour products, cakes).
Anatomy and physiology are two pillars on which the entire medical industry is built.
Physiology.
Anatomy
Lecture number 1. “Anatomy and physiology as sciences that study the structures and mechanisms of meeting human needs. Man as a biosocial being. Anatomical and physiological aspects of human needs. Man as a subject of study of anatomy and physiology. 4
Lecture number 2. "Fundamentals of Cytology - Cell". 7
Lecture number 3. Fundamentals of Histology - Tissues. eight
Lecture number 4. “The internal environment of the body. Blood. Homeostasis, composition, properties and functions of blood. fourteen
Lecture number 5. "General questions of anatomy and physiology of the human movement apparatus". nineteen
Lecture number 6. "The skeleton of the upper and lower limbs". 23
Lecture number 7. "Head Skeleton". 27
Lecture number 8. "Muscular system. Structure and function of muscles. Muscles of the head and neck. 31
Lecture number 9. "Muscles of the body". 35
Lecture number 10. "Muscles of the upper limb". 39
Lecture number 11. "Muscles of the lower limb". 41
Lecture number 12. "Fascia of the muscles." 43
Lecture number 13. "Physiology of Muscles". 45
Lecture No. 14. “The process of physiological regulation. Nervous mechanisms of physiological regulation. General principles of the structure of the nervous system. nervous activity. 46
Lecture number 15. "Functional anatomy of the spinal cord". 49
Lecture №16 Brain. Brain stem and diencephalon. 54
Lecture No. 17 Big brain (cerebrum). 58
Lecture number 18. Cranio-cerebral nerves. 63
Lecture number 19. autonomic nervous system. 68
Lecture No. 20. Morpho - a functional characteristic of sensory systems. The doctrine of analyzers. visual analyzer. 72
Lecture number 21. Auditory and vestibular analyzers. 76
Lecture number 22. Skin analyzer. 78
Lecture number 24. The cardiovascular system. 86
Lecture No. 25. Anatomy and physiology of blood vessels. 89
Blood pressure, regulation of blood circulation. 89
Lecture number 27. Venous system. 94
Lecture number 28. Features of the fetal circulation. 98
Lecture number 29. Morpho is a functional characteristic. 98
respiratory system. 98
Lecture number 30. Lungs, pleura, respiratory cycle, lung volumes, respiratory physiology. 101
Lecture No. 31. Digestive system and digestion. Oral cavity. Digestion in the mouth. 105
Lecture number 32. Throat, esophagus, stomach. 108
Lecture No. 33. Liver and pancreas. 111
Lecture number 34. Small intestine. 114
Lecture number 35. Colon. Peritoneum. 116
Lecture No. 36. Metabolism of proteins, fats and carbohydrates. 119
Lecture number 37. Water and mineral exchange. Vitamins. 121
Lecture number 38. Energy exchange. Thermoregulation. 126
Lecture number 39. General morphology and functional characteristics of the isolation process. Anatomy of the organs of the urinary system. 128
Lecture No. 40. Physiology of excretion. 131
Lecture No. 41. Male reproductive system. 133
Lecture No. 42. Female reproductive system. 136
Lecture No. 43. Lymphatic system. 140
Lecture No. 44. Immunity, organs of the immune system. 142
Lecture No. 45. Mental activity is the physiological basis of psycho-social needs. Conditioned reflexes, types. Types of VND. Forms of mental activity. 146
Lecture No. 46. Consciousness, memory, physiology of sleep. 150
Lecture number 1. “Anatomy and physiology as sciences that study the structures and mechanisms of meeting human needs. Man as a biosocial being. Anatomical and physiological aspects of human needs. Man as a subject of study of anatomy and physiology"
Anatomy and Physiology human - the main subjects of theoretical and practical training of health workers. Anatomy is the science of the form, structure and development of the body. The main method of anatomy was the dissection of the corpse (anatemne - dissection). Human anatomy studies the shape and structure of the human body and its organs. Physiology studies the functions and processes of the body, their relationship. Anatomy and physiology - the components of biology, belong to the biomedical sciences. Anatomy and physiology - the theoretical foundation of clinical disciplines. The fundamental basis of medicine is the study of the human body. “Anatomy in alliance with physiology is the queen of medicine” (Hippocrates). The human body is an integral system, all parts of which are interconnected and with the environment. In the early stages of the development of anatomy, only a description of the organs of the human body, which were observed during the autopsy of corpses, was carried out, so descriptive anatomy appeared. At the beginning of the 20th century, systematic anatomy arose, because. The body began to be studied by organ systems. During surgical interventions, it was necessary to accurately determine the location of organs, so topographic anatomy appeared. Taking into account the requests of artists, a plastic anatomy, describing external forms, stood out. Then functional anatomy was formed, because. organs and systems began to be considered in relation to their functions. The section that studies the motor apparatus gave rise to dynamic anatomy. Age anatomy studies the changes in organs and tissues in connection with age. Comparative studies the similarities and differences between the human body and animals. Since the invention of the microscope, microscopic anatomy has evolved.
1. descriptive
2. systematic
3. topographic
4. plastic
5. functional
6. dynamic
7. age
8. comparative
9. microscopic
10. pathological
Anatomy methods:
1. dissection, autopsy, dissection on the corpse with a scalpel on the corpse.
2. observation, examination of the body with the naked eye - macroscopic anatomy
3. study with a microscope - microscopic anatomy
4. using technical means (X-rays, endoscopy)
5. method of injection of dyes into organs
6. corrosion method (dissolution of tissues and vessels, the cavities of which were filled with insoluble masses)
Physiology- experimental science. For experiments, methods of irritation, removal, organ transplantation, fistulas are used.
The father of physiology is Sechenov (transport of gases through the blood, theories of fatigue, active rest, central inhibition, reflex activity of the brain).
Sections of physiology:
1. medical
2. age (gerontology)
3. physiology of labor
4. sports physiology
5. nutritional physiology
6. physiology of extreme conditions
7. pathophysiology
Main methods of physiology are: experiment and observation. The experiment (experiment) can be acute, chronic and without surgical intervention.
1. Acute - vivexia (live cutting) - Harvey 1628. About 200 million experimental animals died at the hands of experimenters.
2. Chronic - Basov 1842 - for a long time studying the function of the body. First performed on a dog (gastric fistula).
3. Without surgical intervention - the 20th century - registration of electrical potentials of working organs. Receiving information simultaneously from many bodies.
These sections study a healthy person - normal anatomy and physiology.
Man is a biosocial being. An organism is a biological system endowed with intelligence. The laws of life (self-renewal, self-reproduction, self-regulation) are inherent in a person. These regularities are implemented with the help of the processes of metabolism and energy, irritability, heredity and homeostasis - relatively dynamic constancy of the internal environment of the body. The human body is multilevel:
molecular
cellular
tissue
organ
systemic
The relationship in the body is achieved through nervous and humoral regulation. A person constantly has new needs. Ways to satisfy them: self-satisfaction or with outside help.
Mechanisms of self-satisfaction:
congenital (changes in metabolism, the work of internal organs)
Acquired (conscious behavior, mental reactions)
Needs Satisfaction Structures:
1. executive (respiratory, digestive, excretory)
2. regulatory (nervous and endocrine)
The human body is divided into parts:
torso
limbs
Organ system- a group of organs similar in origin, structure and functions. Organs are located in cavities filled with fluid. They communicate with the external environment. The set of anatomical terms that determine the position of organs in the body and their direction is the anatomical nomenclature.
Conditionally carried out in the human body lines and planes:
1. frontal (parallel to the forehead line)
2. sagittal (perpendicular to forehead line)
3. medial (passes through the middle of the body)
Organs are characterized in relation to axes and planes:
1. proximal (upper)
2. distal (lower)
3. ventral (posterior)
4. dorsal (back, dorsal)
5. medial (closer to the midline)
Body types:
brachymorphic - short and wide people, the heart is large, the lungs are wide, the diaphragm is high
dolichomorphic - long bones, the heart stands upright, the lungs are long, the diaphragm is low
Healing arose before the first information about the structure of the body of man and animals appeared. In ancient times, the autopsy of animals was performed during sacrifices and cooking, the autopsy of a person during embalming. Medicine in ancient Greece achieved unprecedented success for that time. For the first time, accurate information about the structure of the body appeared with the doctor and philosopher Hippocrates. Aristotle first called the heart the main organ that sets the blood in motion. The Alexandria school was of great importance for the development of medicine and anatomy. its physicians were allowed to dissect corpses for scientific purposes. By the beginning of our era, the ground was prepared for the development of medicine.
Claudius Galen created the first theory of blood circulation: the liver is the central hematopoietic organ, and the heart is the main circulator in the body. In the countries of the West and East, religious prohibitions dominated, which hampered the development of medicine. Abu - Ali - Ibn - Sina (Avicenna) - a Tajik scientist - collected all the known information about medicine of that time in the book "Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology". Special schools emerged in France and Italy. Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564), a Belgian scientist of that time, is considered the founder of modern anatomy. He, risking his life, obtained corpses for study in cemeteries and, based on his own dissection, created the work "seven books on the structure of the human body." Hippocrates is considered the grandfather of anatomy. Servetus and Harvey disproved Galen's theory of circulation. Servetus correctly described the pulmonary circulation, Harvey - the large one. Malpighi's discovery of capillaries (1661) was important for the approval of these theories. Azelio described the lymphatic vessels in the mesentery of a dog. Very important for the development of physiology was the discovery in the 1st half of the 18th century of the reflex by the French physiologist Rene Descartes and Darwin's theory that organisms develop in the process of evolution under the influence of the struggle for existence, natural selection and heredity. In 1839, Schwann discovered the cellular theory of organisms, in which he proved that new cells are formed by dividing mother cells, animal cells differ from plant cells ... In the 17th century, the first medical school was created in Moscow under the apothecary order. The founder of the first anatomical school - Zagorsky, his student - Buyalsky - professor of the department of anatomy - proposed a method for embalming corpses. The founder of topographic anatomy - Pirogov N.I. - developed a method of sequential cuts of frozen corpses to study the topography of organs. The development of anatomy was facilitated by the works of Mechnikov, Bekhterev, Timiryazev, Severtsov, Vorobyov, Stefanis, Zernov.
Vorobyov developed a method for studying the nervous system using a binocular loupe with preliminary processing of the material with solutions of weak acids.
Zbarsky, together with Zernov, developed the method of embalming (Lenin). Tonkov, together with his students, conducted experiments and studies of the vascular system. Shevkunenko studied blood vessels and peripheral nerves. Achievements in the study of the lymphatic system are associated with the names of Iosifov, Stefanis, Zhdanov.
Significant results were obtained due to the discovery of new methods of electrical recording of the activities of organs. The study of nervous regulation was one of the greatest achievements of physiology in the 19th century (Sechenov - the process of inhibition, 1862). At the beginning of the 20th century, I.P. Pavlov created the doctrine of GNI and two signal systems. Posnikov discovered the causes of death at the organ level. Claude Bernard - about the internal environment of the body (pH), Ovsyannikov - s / s center, Sechenov - blood gas transfer, fatigue, active rest, inhibition center, reflex activity of the brain, Vvedensky - registration of biopotentials, parabiosis. 1889 - Lunin - the discovery of vitamins, Anokhin - functional systems.
Pavlov's contributions to the study of the physiology of blood circulation and digestion are also enormous. He and his students developed a method of physiological surgery. At present, great success has been achieved in the study of the physiological processes occurring in individual cells and their structural elements. Advances in electrophysiology are closely related to the use of electronics and radio engineering. Electrophysiological studies have gained great importance in medicine (electrocardiography, electroencephalography).