Human physiology. normal physiology

ON THE. Agadzhanyan, V.M. Smirnov

NORMAL
PHYSIOLOGY
Textbook
3rd edition, corrected and enlarged

Recommended by the Educational and Methodological Association for Medical
and pharmaceutical education of Russian universities as
textbook for medical students
Recommended by the Educational and Methodological Association for Classical
university education as a textbook for students
higher educational institutions studying in the direction
020200 "Biology", specialty 020205 "Physiology"
and related areas and specialties

Medical News Agency
Moscow
2012

UDC 612(075.8)
BBC 28.707 + 28.073ya7
A23

Reviewers:
IN AND. Torshin, professor, head. Department of Normal Physiology, PFUR;
E.A. Yumatov, Dr. med. Sciences, Professor of the Department of Normal Physiology of the First
MGMU them. THEM. Sechenov.

Agadzhanyan N.A.
Normal Physiology: Textbook / N.A. Agadzhanyan, V.M. Smirnov. - 3rd ed.,
correct and additional - M .: LLC "Publishing House" Medical Information Agency ",
2012. - 576 p.: ill.
ISBN 978-5-9986-0086-9
The textbook was written in accordance with the curriculum of the course "Normal Physiology" and reflects many years of experience in teaching the subject in the departments of normal
Physiology RNIMU them. N.I. Pirogov and RUDN. In addition to the chapters on issues
physiology of individual organs and systems, the textbook includes the chapters "Physiology of the cell", "Characteristics of regulatory mechanisms", "General physiology of excitable
tissues”, as well as “Human Ecology and Fundamentals of Valeology” and “Physiology of Labor
activities". Particular attention is paid to debatable issues, including the problems of cell interaction with the help of electric fields. Strong assimilation
material is facilitated by illustrations and tables.
The first two editions of the textbook were a great success with students and teachers.
medical universities. The third edition has been substantially revised in the light of modern advances in physiology.
For students of various faculties of medical and biological universities.
UDC 612(075.8)
BBC 28.707 + 28.073ya7

ISBN 978-5-9986-0086-9

© Agadzhanyan N.A., Smirnov V.M., 2012
© Design. OOO Publishing House
"Medical information
agency", 2012
All rights reserved. No part of this book is
may be reproduced in any form without
written permission from the copyright holders.

Foreword ................................................................ ................................................. ............................... ten
List of abbreviations................................................... ................................................. ................ 12
Introduction ................................................ ................................................. ...................................... fifteen
The formation of physiology as a science ............................................... .................................... fifteen
Physiological concepts .................................................................. ................................................. .. sixteen
Reliability of physiological systems - body reserves .............................................. 18
Periods of development of the human body .............................................................. ............................... 22
Extension of human life .............................................................. ................................................. .. 22

Chapter 1. Physiology of the cell............................................... ................................................. 25
1.1.
1.2.
1.3.
1.4.
1.5.
1.6.

The function of the cell and its organelles .............................................. ............................................... 25
Structural and functional characteristics of the cell membrane ........... 29
Primary transport of substances .............................................................. ................................... 32
Secondary transport of substances .............................................................. ................................... 36
Ion channels ................................................................ ................................................. ............... 39
Properties of biological tissue. Irritants ................................................................ .... 40

Chapter 2. General physiology of excitable tissues .............................................. ...... 42
2.1.
2.2.
2.3.
2.4.

Discovery of "animal" electricity............................................... ......................... 42
Resting potential .................................................................. ................................................. ............ 43
Action potential (excitation).................................................. ............................... 48
Local potentials .............................................................. ................................................. 52

2.5. Changes in cell excitability during its excitation.
Lability................................................. ................................................. .................... 54
2.6. Criteria for assessing excitability.
The use of electric current in medicine .............................................................. .... 56

Chapter 3
neuromuscular junction .............................................................. ................................. 61
3.1. Structural and functional characteristics of sensory receptors ........ 62
3.2. Physiology of nerve fibers ............................................................... ...................................... 65
3.3. Physiology of the neuromuscular synapse .............................................. ................... 71

Chapter 4. Physiology of muscles .............................................. ................................................. .75
4.1.
4.2.
4.3.
4.4.
4.5.

Structural and functional characteristics of skeletal muscle .............................. 75
Mechanism of skeletal muscle contraction .............................................................. ................ 78
Types of muscle contractions ............................................................... ............................................... 81
Indicators of physical activity of muscles and muscle fatigue ............... 84
Structural and functional features of smooth muscles .............................................. 86

Chapter 5. Characteristics of Regulatory Mechanisms............................................... 89
5.1. The nervous mechanism of regulation .............................................................. ................................................. 90
5.2. Humoral and myogenic regulation ............................................................... ......................... 95
5.3. Unity and features of regulatory mechanisms.
Functions of the blood-brain barrier ............................................................... .............. 96
5.4. The systemic principle of regulation of body functions .............................................. 98
5.5. Types of regulation of body functions ............................................................... ........................100

Chapter 6. Central nervous system............................................... .........................103
6.1. Structural and functional characteristics of the central nervous
systems ................................................. ................................................. ......................103
6.2. Mediators and receptors of the central nervous system....................................................109
6.3. The mechanism of excitation of neurons .............................................................. ...............................113
6.4. Characterization of the spread of excitation in the central nervous
system ................................................. ................................................. ...............................115
6.5. Properties of nerve centers .................................................................. .........................................117
6.6. Postsynaptic inhibition .................................................................. ...............................122
6.7. Presynaptic inhibition .................................................................. .................................125
6.8. General characteristics of inhibition in the central nervous system ........ 126
6.9. Coordinating activity of the central nervous system.
Integrative role of the nervous system .............................................................. ...................127
6.10. Structural and functional characteristics of the spinal cord....................................131
6.11. The conduction function of the spinal cord .............................................................. ...............133
6.12. Somatic reflexes of the spinal cord............................................................... .................135
6.13. Mechanism of the stepping reflex of the spinal cord....................................................138
6.14. Muscle tone in the spinal organism .............................................. ......................140

6.15.
6.16.
6.17.
6.18.
6.19.
6.20.
6.21.
6.22.
6.23.
6.24.
6.25.

Motor systems of the brainstem and cranial nerves..................................................141
Tonic reflexes of the brainstem .............................................................. ......................145
Conductive function of the brain stem .............................................................. ...................147
Integrative systems of the brainstem ....................................................... ......................148
Functions of the cerebellum .................................................. ................................................. ......151
Physiology of the diencephalon .............................................................. .........................153
Functions of the basal nuclei .............................................................. .............................................156
Limbic system .................................................................. ................................................. ..157
Neuronal organization of the neocortex. Corticalization of Functions...................158
The main functional areas of the neocortex .............................................................. .......159
Methods of research of the central nervous system...............................................165

Chapter 7 ......................169
7.1.
7.2.
7.3.
7.4.
7.5.
7.6.
7.7.
7.8.
7.9.
7.10.

General characteristics of the autonomic nervous system .................................................... 169
Sympathetic nervous system .............................................................. ...............................173
Parasympathetic nervous system ............................................................... .......................177
Intraorganic nervous system ............................................................... ...................................179
Regulation of synapse function, sympathetic and parasympathetic
interactions ................................................. ................................................. ............181
Interaction between the departments of the autonomic nervous system ............... 182
Centers of the autonomic nervous system ............................................................... ...................184
Afferent pathways of the autonomic nervous system ..........................................................186
The tone of the vegetative centers ............................................... ...............................................188
Trophic action of the nervous system .............................................................. .................189

Chapter 8
8.1.
8.2.
8.3.
8.4.
8.5.
8.6.
8.7.

Characteristics of hormonal regulation ............................................................... .............192
Hormones of the pituitary gland, epiphysis, thymus .............................................. ......................198
Functions of thyroid hormones .............................................................. .................203
Physiology of the parathyroid glands. Calcitriol ..........................................204
Functions of pancreatic hormones .............................................................. ..........206
Adrenal hormones .................................................................. .............................................209
Sexual glands .................................................................. ................................................. ...........212

Chapter 9. The blood system ............................................... ................................................. ...........216
9.1.
9.2.
9.3.
9.4.
9.5.
9.6.
9.7.
9.8.

Blood as the internal environment of the body .............................................. ...................216
Physiology of erythrocytes .................................................. ...............................................219
Physiology of leukocytes .................................................. .............................................223
Properties and functions of platelets ....................................................... ...............................227
Blood group systems ............................................................... ................................................. ...228
Vascular-platelet (primary) hemostasis ..................................................230
Coagulation hemostasis .................................................................. .........................................232
Mechanism of fibrinolysis .............................................................. ...............................................236

Chapter 10 ................................................. ..238
10.1.
10.2.
10.3.
10.4.
10.5.
10.6.

Structural and functional characteristics of the respiratory system .................238
Mechanism of inhalation and exhalation. Ventilation volume .............................................................. ...243
Gas exchange between the alveoli and the blood of the body 254
Transport of oxygen in the blood .............................................................. ......................................256
Transport of carbon dioxide in the blood .............................................................. ......................259
Breathing control .................................................................. ................................................. ......262
10.6.1. Respiratory center .................................................................. ................................................. ..262
10.6.2. Self-regulation of inhalation and exhalation ............................................... .................................264
10.6.3. Humoral regulation of respiration .................................................................. ...............................266
10.6.4. Influence of intero- and exteroceptive zones on respiration....................................................................268
10.7. Breathing in different conditions .................................................................. .........................................269

Chapter 11 .................................272
11.1. Story. Characteristics of the circulatory system...............................................272
11.2. Cycle of cardiac activity .............................................................. ....................................274
11.3. Features of the properties of the heart muscle
and its energy supply ....................................................... ...............................277
11.4. Automatic heart .............................................................. ................................................. ..........281
11.5. Basic methods for studying the activity of the heart .................................................. 285
11.6. Regulation of the activity of the heart .................................................................. .................................291
11.7. Basic indicators and regularities of hemodynamics .............................................299
11.8. Classification of vessels .................................................................. ...............................................302
11.9. The movement of blood through the arteries .............................................. ...............................................303
11.10. The movement of blood through the capillaries .............................................. ...............................307
11.11. The movement of blood through the veins ............................................... ...............................................309
11.12. Peculiarities of blood flow in individual organs .............................................................. ......311
11.13. Regulation of vascular tone .............................................................. .........................................314
11.14. Regulation of systemic arterial pressure .............................................................. .320
11.14.1. Rapid Response Mechanism .................................................................. .........................320
11.14.2. Mechanism of non-rapid and slow response .............................................. 324
11.15. Blood circulation during physical and emotional stress.......................325

Chapter 12 ....................................328
Chapter 13 .........................................332
13.1. General characteristics of the digestive system .............................................................. ......332
13.2. The state of hunger and satiety .............................................................. ...................................337
13.3. Digestion in the mouth .............................................................. .........................................338
13.4. The act of swallowing .................................................. ................................................. ...................344
13.5. Digestion in the stomach............................................................... ...................................................346
13.6. Digestion in the duodenum ............................................................... ...........356
13.7. Physiology of the liver .................................................................. ................................................. ......358
13.8. Digestion in the small intestine .............................................................. ......................................362

13.9. Absorption of nutrients .................................................................. ...............................367
13.10. Digestion in the large intestine .............................................................. .................................368

Chapter 14 Nutrition. Thermoregulation...................372
14.1. Basic concepts ................................................................ .....

Smirnov V.M.

The textbook was created according to the program in physiology. Along with the traditional material, it includes the original. Materials are presented on the features of the physiology of children and adolescents, as well as the aging organism. Particular attention is paid to debatable issues. The book is well illustrated.
For students of medical and pediatric faculties of medical universities.

Foreword

Section I. INTRODUCTION TO PHYSIOLOGY

Chapter 1. General characteristics of the organism
1.1. Profiling the teaching of physiology
1.2. Periods of development of the human body
1.3. Basic physiological concepts
1.4. Reliability of physiological systems
1.5. Characteristics of aging processes
1.5.1. Human lifespan. Concepts of aging and old age
1.5.2. Theories of aging. Aging Options
1.5.3. Age-related changes in the body and their prevention
1.6. biological age

Chapter 2 Cell Physiology
2.1. Cell functions
2.2. Functions of cell organelles
2.3. Structural and functional organization of the cell membrane
2.4. Functions of the cell membrane
2.5. Mechanisms of transport of substances across the cell membrane
2.5.1. Classification of transport of substances and its significance
2.5.2. primary transport
2.5.3. secondary transport
2.5.4. ion channels
2.6. Economical transport of substances
2.7. Basic properties of cells and tissues

Chapter 3. Principles, types and mechanisms of regulation of body functions
3.1. Nervous mechanism of regulation
3.1.1. Types of influences of the nervous system and mechanisms for their implementation
3.1.2. Unidirectional sympathetic and parasympathetic influences
3.1.3. The reflex principle of nervous regulation
3.1.4. Development of the concept of reflex. Nervism and nerve center
3.2. Characteristics of hormonal regulation
3.3. Regulation by metabolites and tissue hormones. Myogenic mechanism of regulation
3.4. Unity and features of regulatory mechanisms. Functions of the blood-brain barrier
3.5. System principle of regulation
3.5.1. The structure of functional systems and the multiparametric principle of their interaction
3.5.2. Systemogenesis
3.6. Types of regulation of body functions and their reliability

Section II. PHYSIOLOGY OF EXCITABLE TISSUES

Chapter 4
4.1. The discovery of "animal electricity" and its essence
4.2. Resting potential (RP)
4.2.1. General characteristics and immediate cause of the formation of PP
4.2.2. The role of cell membrane permeability and its surface charges in the formation of PP
4.2.3. The role of ion pumps in the formation of PP
4.3. Action potential (AP)
4.3.1. General characteristics and mechanism of occurrence
4.3.2. Study of ionic currents. The reserve of ions in the cell
4.4. Local potential. Assessment of cell membrane permeability
4.5. Changes in cell excitability during its excitation. Lability
4.6. Assessment of cell excitability. Accommodation. The use of electric current in medicine
4.7. The effect of direct current on tissue

Chapter 5. Receptor, nerve, synapse
5.1. General physiology of sensory receptors
5.1.1. The concept of receptors
5.1.2. Receptor classification
5.1.3. Receptors as sensory transducers
5.1.4. Properties of receptors and regulation of their excitability
5.1.5. Encoding the strength of the stimulus in the receptor and afferent neuron
5.2. Physiology of nerve fibers and nerves
5.2.1. Classification of nerve fibers
5.2.2. The mechanism of conduction of excitation along the nerve fiber
5.2.3. Conduction of excitation in the nerve trunks
5.2.4. Characteristics of the conduction of excitation along nerve fibers
5.2.5. axon transport
5.2.6. Development and regeneration of neuron processes
5.2.7. Features of the physiology of the nerves of children
5.3. synaptic transmission
5.3.1. Classification of synapses and their characteristics
5.3.2. The mechanism of synaptic transmission and its regulation
5.3.3. Characteristics of the conduction of excitation in chemical synapses
5.3.4. Features of the physiology of synapses in children
5.4. Changes in nerve conductors, peripheral synapses and receptors during aging

Chapter 6
6.1. Skeletal muscles
6.1.1. Structural and functional characteristics
6.1.2. mechanism of muscle contraction
6.1.3. Types of muscle contraction
6.1.4. motor units
6.1.5. Muscle strength, its work and power
6.2. Smooth muscles
6.2.1. Structural and functional features of smooth muscles
6.2.2. Mechanism of contraction and plasticity of smooth muscle
6.3. Features of the physiology of the muscles of children
6.3.1. Structural and functional characteristics
6.3.2. Features of muscle properties
6.4. Changes in muscle tissue during aging.

Chapter 7. General Physiology of the Central Nervous System
7.1. Functions of the central nervous system
7.2. Functions of CNS cells and cerebrospinal fluid
7.3. Classification of neurons and synapses of the CNS
7.4. Mediators and receptors of the CNS
7.5. The mechanism of excitation of neurons
7.6. Features of the spread of excitation in the central nervous system
7.7. Properties of nerve centers
7.8. Inhibition in the CNS
7.8.1. Postsynaptic inhibition
7.8.2. presynaptic inhibition
7.8.3. The role of various types of inhibition and their localization in the central nervous system
7.9. CNS coordination activity
7.10. The integrating role of the nervous system
7.11. Age-related changes in the central nervous system during aging

Chapter 8
8.1. Spinal cord. - V.M. Smirnov
8.1.1. Structural and functional characteristics
8.1.2. Conductor function
8.1.3. Spinal cord reflexes
8.1.4. The mechanism of the stepping reflex
8.1.5. Regulation of muscle tone
8.2. brain stem
8.2.1. Brain stem functions implemented by the nuclei of cranial nerves
8.2.2. Reticular formation of the brain stem
8.2.3. Stem reflexes to maintain posture
8.2.4. Functions of the blue spot
8.2.5. Conductor function of the brain stem
8.3. diencephalon
8.3.1. thalamus
8.3.2. Hypothalamus
8.4. Cerebellum
8.4.1. Functional organization and connections of the cerebellum
8.4.2. Functions of the cerebellum
8.5. limbic system
8.5.1. Structural and functional organization of the limbic system
8.5.2. Functions of the limbic system
8.6. Basal ganglia
8.6.1. Functional connections of the basal ganglia
8.6.2. Functions of the basal ganglia
8.7. New cerebral cortex
8.7.1. Structural and functional characteristics
8.7.2. Sensory areas of the cortex
8.7.3. Association areas of the cortex
8.7.4. Motor areas of the cortex
8.7.5. Interhemispheric relationships
8.8. CNS research methods
8.8.1. Electroencephalographic method
8.8.2. evoked potential method
8.8.3. Other methods of studying the central nervous system
8.9. Features of the physiology of the central nervous system of a developing organism
8.9.1. Antenatal period
8.9.2. neonatal period
8.9.3. Breast age
8.9.4. Other age periods

Chapter 9
9.1. Functional features of the VNS and its departments
9.2. Sympathetic nervous system
9.3. adrenal medulla
9.4. parasympathetic nervous system
9.5. Allosteric (electrophysiological) and allochronic (biochemical) action of the mediator
9.6. Intraorganic nervous system and tissue receptors
9.7. Regulation of synapse function
9.8. Interaction between departments of VNS
9.9. Centers of the autonomic nervous system
9.10. Afferent pathways of the autonomic nervous system
9.11. Autonomic reflex arc
9.12. The tone of the vegetative centers
9.13. Trophic action of the nervous system
9.14. Features of the autonomic nervous system of children

Chapter 10
10.1. General characteristics of the endocrine glands and hormones
10.1.1. Concepts and classification. Hormone transport
10.1.2. Features of the action of hormones and their half-life
10.1.3. The mechanism of action of hormones
10.2. Regulation of hormone formation
10.3. Methods for studying the functions of the endocrine glands
10.4. Pituitary
10.4.1. Adenohypophysis hormones
10.4.2. Hormones of the neurohypophysis
10.5. Pineal gland (pineal gland)
10.6. Thyroid
10.6.1. Regulation of formation and transport of iodinated thyroid hormones
10.6.2. Physiological role of iodinated thyroid hormones
10.6.3. The physiological significance of thyrocalcitonin
10.7. parathyroid glands
10.8. Thymus gland (thymus)
10.9. Pancreas
10.9.1. Structural and functional characteristics
10.9.2. Pancreatic hormones
10.10. adrenal glands
10.10.1. Structural and functional characteristics
10.10.2. Hormones of the cortical layer of the adrenal glands and the regulation of their formation
10.10.3. Hormones of the adrenal medulla and regulation of their formation
10.11. gonads
10.12. Hormones of the placenta. The concept of tissue hormones and antihormones
10.13. Features of the endocrine system of children
10.13.1. Pituitary
10.13.2. gonads
10.13.3. Other endocrine glands
10.14. Endocrine system of the aging organism

Section III. PHYSIOLOGY OF INTERNAL ORGANS AND SYSTEMS OF THE BODY

Chapter 11
11.1. Blood as the internal environment of the body
11.1.1. Concepts, general characteristics of blood. Physico-chemical constants
11.1.2. The composition of plasma and the importance of its elements
11.2. Physiology of red blood cells
11.2.1. Structural and functional characteristics
11.2.2. RBC metabolism
11.2.3. The number of red blood cells and their functions
11.2.4. Hemoglobin compounds and their functions
11.3. Regulation of erythropoiesis
11.4. Physiology of leukocytes
11.4.1. Structural and functional characteristics of leukocytes
11.4.2. Structural and functional features of granulocytes
11.4.3. Structural and functional features of agranulocytes
11.5. Regulation of leukopoiesis
11.6. Blood aggregate regulation system (PACK)
11.6.1. Vascular-platelet mechanism of hemostasis
11.6.2. Coagulation mechanism of hemostasis
11.6.3. Regulation of the blood coagulation process
11.6.4. Mechanisms of anticoagulation
11.6.5. fibrinolysis
11.7. Blood groups
11.7.1. AB0 system
11.7.2. Rhesus system (Rh)
11.8. Features of the blood system of children
11.9. Features of the blood system during aging

Chapter 12
12.1. Story. Concepts. The role of the respiratory system
12.2. external respiration
12.2.1. Functions of the external link of the respiratory system
12.2.2. Negative pressure in the pleural space
12.2.3. Mechanism of inhalation and exhalation
12.2.4. Energy expenditure for ventilation
12.2.5. Forced breathing. Breath types. Ventilation volume. Alveolar ventilation
12.2.6. Gas exchange between alveoli and blood
12.3. Gas transport by blood
12.3.1. Oxygen transport
12.3.2. Transport of carbon dioxide
12.4. The role of the respiratory system in pH regulation
12.5. Breathing regulation
12.5.1. Characteristics of the respiratory center
12.5.2. Self-regulation of inhalation and exhalation
12.5.3. The role of airway receptors and exteroreceptors
12.5.4. Neurohumoral regulation of respiratory intensity
12.6. Breathing in different conditions
12.7. Features of the respiratory system of children
12.7.1. Ventilation
12.7.2. Gas transport by blood
12.7.3. Breathing regulation
12.8. The respiratory system of an aging organism

Chapter 13
13.1. Opening of blood circulation. General plan of the structure of the cardiovascular system
13.2. The cycle of cardiac activity
13.3. Features of the properties of the heart muscle
13.3.1. excitability and conduction
13.3.2. Contractility, extensibility and elasticity
13.4. Features of the energy supply of the heart muscle
13.5. Automation of the heart and arrhythmia in its activity
13.6. Methods for studying the activity of the heart
13.6.1. Electrocardiography and vectorcardiography
13.6.2. Auscultation and phonocardiography. Phase analysis of the cardiac activity cycle
13.6.3. Cardiac blood volumes and methods for their study
13.6.4. Other methods for studying and evaluating the activity of the heart
13.7. Regulation of the activity of the heart
13.7.1. Extraorgan nerves of the heart
13.7.2. Intracardiac regulatory mechanisms
13.7.3. Humoral mechanism of regulation. Cortical influences
13.8. Hemodynamics
13.8.1. Basic patterns
13.8.2. Functional classification of vessels
13.8.3. Basic parameters of the cardiovascular system
13.8.4. The movement of blood through the arteries
13.8.5. microcirculation
13.8.6. The movement of blood through the veins
13.8.7. Features of blood flow in organs
13.9. Regulation of vascular tone
13.9.1. Nervous regulation
13.9.2. Myogenic and humoral regulation
13.10. Regulation of systemic arterial pressure
13.10.1. circulatory center
13.10.2. Instability of blood pressure. Factors affecting its value
13.10.3. Rapid response mechanisms
13.10.4. Non-fast and slow response mechanisms
13.11. Conjugate reflexes of the cardiovascular system
13.12. Blood circulation with changes in body position, physical and emotional stress
13.13. lymphatic system
13.13.1. Structural and functional characteristics
13.13.2. Mechanism of lymph formation
13.13.3. The mechanism of lymph movement and its regulation
13.14. Features of the blood circulation of the fetus and children
13.14.1. The scheme of the fetal circulation and its restructuring after birth
13.14.2. The heart of the fetus and children of different ages
13.14.3. Vascular system of children of different ages
13.15. The cardiovascular system of an aging organism

Chapter 14
14.1. Concepts
14.2. General characteristics of the digestive system
14.2.1. Digestive functions of the digestive system
14.2.2. Non-Digestive Functions of the Digestive System
14.2.3. Features of the regulation of the functions of the digestive system
14.2.4. Patterns of the activity of the digestive system
14.2.5. Types of digestion
14.3. States of hunger and satiety
14.4. Digestion in the mouth. The act of swallowing
14.4.1. Mechanical processing of food in the oral cavity
14.4.2. Methods for studying the functions of the masticatory apparatus and salivary glands
14.4.3. Chemical processing of food in the mouth
14.4.4. Regulation of the activity of the salivary glands
14.4.5. The act of swallowing
14.5. Digestion in the stomach
14.5.1. general characteristics
14.5.2. secretory function of the stomach
14.5.3. Regulation of gastric secretion
14.5.4. Methods for studying the secretion of gastric glands
14.5.5. Motor function of the stomach
14.5.6. Regulation of gastric motility
14.5.7. Evacuation of gastric contents into the duodenum
14.5.8. Methods for studying the motor function of the stomach
14.6. Digestion in the duodenum
14.6.1. Role of the pancreas
14.6.2. Digestive functions of the liver
14.6.3. Non-digestive functions of the liver
14.6.4. Methods for studying the functions of the liver
14.7. Digestion in the small intestine
14.7.1. Secretory activity of the small intestine
14.7.2. Regulation of intestinal secretion
14.7.3. Abdominal and parietal digestion in the small intestine
14.7.4. Motor function of the small intestine
14.7.5. Regulation of the motor activity of the small intestine
14.8. Suction
14.8.1. General suction characteristic
14.8.2. Absorption of water, mineral salts and carbohydrates
14.8.3. Absorption of products of hydrolysis of proteins and fats
14.9. Digestion in the large intestine
14.9.1. Passage of intestinal chyme into the large intestine
14.9.2. secretory function of the colon
14.9.3. The value of the microflora of the colon
14.9.4. Motor function of the colon
14.9.5. defecation
14.10. Features of the digestive system of children
14.11. Changes in the digestive system during aging

Chapter 15 Nutrition
15.1. The main stages of metabolism and energy
15.2. Metabolism
15.2.1. Nutrient intake and expenditure study
15.2.2. Protein metabolism
15.2.3. lipid metabolism
15.2.4. Carbohydrate metabolism
15.2.5. Mineral exchange
15.2.6. Water exchange
15.2.7. vitamins
15.3. energy exchange
15.3.1. General patterns
15.3.2. Types of energy consumption
15.3.3. Determining the income and consumption of energy
15.3.4. Regulation of energy exchange
15.4. Nutrition
15.5. Features of metabolism and energy in children
15.5.1. Metabolism and nutrition
15.5.2. energy exchange
15.6. Features of nutrition in the elderly and senile age

Chapter 16
16.1. Temperature of different parts of the body
16.2. Heat production
16.3. heat transfer mechanisms. Comfort temperature and body reactions outside its zone
16.4. Body temperature regulation mechanisms
16.5. Hyperthermia and Hypothermia
16.6. Adaptation to periodic changes in ambient temperature. Hardening and health
16.7. Features of thermoregulation in children
16.8. Features of thermoregulation in the elderly

Chapter 17
17.1. Characteristics of the extraction system
17.2. Structural and functional characteristics of the kidney
17.2.1. Functional unit of the kidney, features of the blood supply to the kidneys
17.2.2. The functions of the kidneys. The process of urination and its mechanisms
17.3. Significance of different parts of the nephron in urination
17.3.1. The role of the glomeruli
17.3.2. The role of the proximal convoluted tubules
17.3.3. The role of the nephron loop
17.3.4. The role of the distal convoluted tubules and collecting ducts
17.4. Methods for studying the excretory function of the kidneys
17.5. Regulation of the urinary function of the kidneys
17.6. The role of the kidneys in maintaining body parameters
17.6.1. Regulation of osmotic pressure and water volume
17.6.2. The role of the kidneys in the regulation of blood pressure
17.6.3. The role of the kidneys in the regulation of the ionic composition of blood plasma and the acid-base state
17.7. Quantity and composition of final urine
17.8. Urine excretion
17.9. artificial kidney
17.10. Features of the excretory system of the fetus and children
17.10.1. Maturation of the urinary function of the kidney
17.10.2. Composition and volume of urine. urinary excretion
17.10.3. regulation of kidney function. The role of the kidney and other factors in maintaining homeostasis in children
17.11. Formation and excretion of urine in the aging body

Section IV. INTEGRATIVE ACTIVITY OF THE ORGANISM

Chapter 18
18.1. General physiology of analyzers
18.1.1. Structural and functional characteristics
18.1.2. Properties of analyzers, evaluation criteria and regulation of activity
18.1.3. Encoding information in analyzers
18.2. visual analyzer
18.2.1. Structural and functional characteristics
18.2.2. Mechanisms that provide clear vision in various conditions
18.2.3. Color vision, visual contrasts and sequential images
18.3. auditory analyzer
18.3.1. General characteristics of the auditory analyzer
18.3.2. Departments of the auditory analyzer
18.3.3. Perception of pitch, intensity of sound and localization of sound source
18.4. Vestibular analyzer
18.5. Motor (kinesthetic) analyzer
18.6. Internal (visceral) analyzers
18.7. Temperature Analyzer
18.8. Tactile Analyzer
18.9. Taste Analyzer
18.10. Olfactory analyzer
18.11. Pain analyzer
18.11.1. Structural and functional characteristics
18.11.2. Types of pain and methods for its study
18.12. Pain (antinociceptive) system
18.13. Features of the activity of analyzers in children
18.13.1. visual analyzer
18.13.2. Other analyzers
18.14. Features of the sensory systems of an aging organism

Chapter 19
19.1. Physiological basis of behavior
19.1.1. innate activity of the organism
19.1.2. Physiology of motivations
19.1.3. Architecture of a holistic behavioral act
19.2. Learning
19.2.1. Forms of learning.
19.2.2. The main patterns of formation and manifestation of conditioned reflexes and their characteristics. Methods for studying GNI
19.2.3. Classification of conditioned reflexes
19.2.4. The mechanism of formation of conditioned reflexes
19.2.5. Memory
19.2.6. Inhibition of conditioned reflexes
19.3. Dynamics of cortical processes
19.4. Analytical-synthetic activity of the brain
19.4.1. Certain types of analytical and synthetic activities
19.5. Types of higher nervous activity
19.6. Experimental neuroses
19.7. Features of human GNI
19.8. Wakefulness and sleep. dreams
19.9. Physiological bases and forms of mental activity
19.9.1. Attention, sensation and perception
19.9.2. Emotions (feelings)
19.9.3. Thinking
19.9.4. Consciousness
19.9.5. Conscious and subconscious brain activity
19.9.6. Speech
19.10. Higher nervous activity of children
19.10.1. Antenatal and neonatal periods
19.10.2. Breast age (1 - 12 months)
19.10.3. Nursery (1-3 years)
19.10.4. Preschool and junior school periods
19.10.5. Teenage years
19.10.6. Basic provisions for the formation of typological features of the GNI of children
19.10.7. Sleep in ontogeny
19.11. Changes in higher nervous activity during aging

Chapter 20
20.1. General characteristics of labor activity
20.2. Brainwork
20.3. Physical work
20.4. monotonous work
20.5. performance
20.6. Fatigue
20.7. Rest and prevention of fatigue
20.8. Recovery

Chapter 21
21.1. The concept of biological rhythms
21.2. Factors that form biorhythms
21.3. Classification of biorhythms and their characteristics
21.4. Geosocial biorhythms
21.5. Geophysical biorhythms
21.6. The biological clock
21.7. Stability and variability of biorhythms
21.8. Desynchronosis
21.9. Biorhythms and performance

Chapter 22
22.1. Classification and characteristics of adaptive mechanisms
22.2. Stressors and stages of body resistance
22.3. Mechanisms of resistance development and deadaptation
22.4. Features of adaptation of the body to individual factors
22.4.1. Adaptation to different temperature
22.4.2. Adaptation to physical activity and hypokinesia
22.4.3. Adaptation to hypoxia, psychogenic factors and weightlessness

Chapter 23
23.1. Human ecology as a science
23.2. Elements of the biosphere and human life
23.3. Ecological aspects of the formation of typological and individual characteristics
23.3.1. Races of man
23.3.2. Constitutional types
23.4. Urbanization as a risk factor for human health
23.5. Ecology and life expectancy
23.6. Birth control and quality of life
23.7. The doctrine of health (valeology)
23.8. Shaping health
23.9. Assessment of individual health

Chapter 24
24.1. Human sexual development
24.2. The role of endocrine glands in the development and implementation of sexual functions
24.3. Central regulation of sexual functions
24.4. Physiological patterns of pregnancy, childbirth and lactation
24.4.1. Pregnancy
24.4.2. birth act
24.4.3. Lactation
24.5. Physiological aspects of sex education

Bibliography

download electronic medical book human physiology Smirnov V.M. download a book for free

For the first time, a textbook has been written, the volume of which is much less than other similar textbooks. At the same time, its content corresponds to the programs of the medical, pediatric, rehabilitation and dental faculties, with the exception of specialized issues that are studied using brief additional textbooks. This was achieved due to the clarity of the presentation of the material and the exclusion of its repetition in various chapters.
In the textbook " normal physiology” presents modern ideas in all areas of physiology, it contains many original (author's) illustrations. The sequence of chapters in the textbook is such that the study of each previous section contributes to a better understanding and assimilation of the following material.
A special feature of the textbook is that at the end of many chapters there are diagrams of functional systems that ensure self-regulation of the body's vital indicators. This contributes to the integration of the proposed material and the development of students' creative, logical thinking.

Agadzhanyan N.A., Smirnov V.M. Normal physiology download

cell physiology

Functions of the cell and its organelles
Structural and functional characteristics of the cell membrane
Primary transport of substances
Secondary transport of substances
ion channels
Properties of biological tissue. Irritants

Characteristics of regulatory mechanisms

Nervous mechanism of regulation
Humoral and myogenic regulation
Unity and features of regulatory mechanisms. Functions of the blood-brain barrier
The systemic principle of regulation of body functions
Types of regulation of body functions and their reliability

General physiology of excitable tissues

Story. The essence of the excitation process
resting potential
action potential
Local potentials
Changes in cell excitability during its excitation. Lability
Criteria for assessing excitability. Accommodation. The use of electric current in medicine

Sensory receptors. Nerve fibers, neuromuscular junction

Structural and functional characteristics of sensory receptors
Physiology of nerve fibers
Physiology of the neuromuscular junction

Muscle Physiology

Structural and functional characteristics of skeletal muscle
Mechanism of skeletal muscle contraction
Types of muscle contractions
Indicators of physical activity of muscles
Structural and functional features of smooth muscles

central nervous system

Structural and functional characteristics of the central nervous system
Mediators and receptors of the central nervous system
The mechanism of excitation of neurons
Characteristics of the spread of excitation in the central nervous system
Properties of nerve centers
Postsynaptic inhibition
presynaptic inhibition
General characteristics of inhibition in the central nervous system
Coordination activity and integrative role of the central nervous system
Structural and functional characteristics of the spinal cord
The conduction function of the spinal cord
Somatic reflexes of the spinal cord
Muscle tone in the spinal cord
motor systems of the brainstem
Conductor function of the brain stem
Integrative systems of the brainstem
Functions of the cerebellum
Physiology of the diencephalon
Functions of the basal nuclei
Functions of the limbic system
Neuronal organization of the neocortex. Function corticalization
Main functional areas of the neocortex
Methods for studying the central nervous system

autonomic nervous system

General characteristics of the autonomic nervous system
Sympathetic nervous system
parasympathetic nervous system
Intraorganic nervous system
Regulation of synaptic functions
Interaction between divisions of the autonomic nervous system
Centers of the autonomic nervous system
Afferent pathways of the autonomic nervous system
The tone of the vegetative centers
Trophic action of the nervous system

Hormonal regulation of body functions

Characteristics of hormonal regulation
Pituitary, pineal and thymus hormones
Functions of thyroid hormones
Physiology of the parathyroid glands. Calcitriol
Functions of pancreatic hormones
Adrenal hormones
gonads

Blood system

Blood as the internal environment of the body
Physiology of red blood cells
Physiology of leukocytes
Properties and functions of platelets
Blood group systems
Vascular-platelet (primary) hemostasis
Coagulation hemostasis
Mechanism of fibrinolysis

Respiratory system

Structural and functional characteristics of the respiratory system
Mechanism of inhalation and exhalation. Ventilation volume
Gas exchange between the alveoli and the body's blood
Transport of oxygen in the blood
Transport of carbon dioxide in the blood
Breathing regulation
Breathing in different conditions

The cardiovascular system

Story. Characteristics of the cardiovascular system
The cycle of cardiac activity
Features of the properties of the heart muscle and its energy supply
Automatic heart
Basic methods for studying the activity of the heart
Regulation of the activity of the heart
The main indicators and patterns of hemodynamics
Vessel classification
The movement of blood through the arteries
The movement of blood through the capillaries
The movement of blood through the veins
Features of blood flow in individual organs
Regulation of vascular tone
Regulation of systemic arterial pressure
Blood circulation during physical and emotional stress

lymphatic system
Digestive system

General characteristics of the digestive system
States of hunger and satiety
Digestion in the mouth
The act of swallowing
Digestion in the stomach
Digestion in the duodenum
Physiology of the liver
Digestion in the small intestine
Absorption of nutrients
Digestion in the large intestine

Metabolism and energy. Nutrition. thermoregulation

Basic concepts
Metabolism and nutrition
Energy exchange in the body
thermoregulation

excretory system

Characteristics of the extraction system
The role of various departments of the nephron in the formation of urine
Regulation of urine formation
The role of the kidneys in the regulation of physiological parameters of the body
Composition, quantity and excretion of urine
Methods for studying the excretory function of the kidneys

Sensor systems

General characteristics of sensor systems
Properties of sensory systems and adaptation of the body to the environment
Criteria for assessing the sensitivity of sensory systems and the regulation of their activity
Coding information in the nervous system
vision system
hearing system
Body position systems
Taste and smell systems
Tactile system and ambient temperature system
Sensory systems of the internal environment of the body

pain system

Sensory part of the pain system
Anesthetic part of the pain system (with the participation of A. F. Belov and V. A. Pravdivtsov)

Higher nervous and mental activity

Physiological basis of behavior
Innate activity of the organism and imprinting
The structure of a holistic behavioral act (acquired behavior)
Memory
Short-term (electrophysiological) memory
Intermediate (neurochemical) memory
Long-term (neurostructural) memory
Remembrance and forgetting
The role of individual brain structures in the formation of memory
Learning
The conditioned reflex is one of the forms of learning. Methods for studying higher nervous activity
Classification of conditioned reflexes
Inhibition of conditioned reflexes as one of the forms of learning
Other forms of learning
Types of higher nervous activity and personality temperament
Wakefulness and sleep. dreams
Forms of mental activity and consciousness
Characteristics of individual forms of mental activity
Physiology of motivations and needs
Emotions
Thinking is the main form of mental activity
Conscious and unconscious activities of the body
Features of human mental activity

biological rhythms

Concepts. Factors that form biorhythms
Characteristics of biorhythms and their classification
The biological clock
Biorhythms and performance

Adaptive mechanisms of the body

Characterization and classification of adaptive mechanisms
Stressors and stages of body resistance
Mechanisms of development of resistance and disadaptation
Adaptation to physical activity and hypokinesia
Protection against germs and foreign bodies

Human ecology and the basics of valeology

Characteristics of ecology as a science
Ecological aspects of the formation of races and human constitutions
Basic principles of human health formation

Physiology of labor activity
Playback

Physiological patterns of pregnancy and childbirth
Human sexual development
sexual behavior

Bibliography

M.: 2009. - 520 p.

The textbook is written in accordance with the curriculum and reflects many years of teaching experience at the Department of Normal Physiology of the Russian State Medical University. N. I. Pirogov and PFUR. In addition to chapters covering the physiology of individual organs and systems, the textbook includes the chapters “Cell Physiology”, “Characteristics of Regulatory Mechanisms”, “General Physiology of Excitable Tissues”, as well as “Human Ecology and Fundamentals of Valeology” and “Physiology of Labor Activity”. Particular attention is paid to debatable issues, including the interaction of cells with the help of electric fields. Strong assimilation of the material is facilitated by illustrations and tables. Recommended by the Educational and Methodological Association for Medical and Pharmaceutical Education of Russian Universities as a textbook for students of medical universities. For students of various faculties of medical universities.

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Table of contents
List of abbreviations 9
Foreword.. 11
Introduction 12
Chapter 1 Cell Physiology 20
1.1. Functions of the cell and its organelles 20
1.2. Structural and functional characteristics of the cell membrane 24
1.3. Primary transport of substances 27
1.4. Secondary transport of substances 30
1.5. Ion channels 33
1.6. Properties of biological tissue. Irritants 35
Chapter 2. Characteristics of regulatory mechanisms 37
2.1. Nervous mechanism of regulation 37
2.2. Humoral and myogenic regulation 42
2.3. Unity and features of regulatory mechanisms. Functions of the blood-brain barrier 44
2.4. Systemic principle of regulation of body functions 45
2.5. Types of regulation of body functions and their reliability 50
Chapter 3 General Physiology of Excitable Tissues 52
3.1. Story. The essence of the excitation process 52
3.2. Resting potential 53
3.3. Action Potential 58
3.4. Local potentials 63
3.5. Changes in cell excitability during its excitation. Lability 65
3.6. Criteria for assessing excitability. Accommodation. The use of electric current in medicine 67
Chapter 4. Sensory receptors. Nerve fibers, neuromuscular synapse 72
4.1. Structural and functional characteristics of sensory receptors 72
4.2. Physiology of nerve fibers 75
4.3. Physiology of the neuromuscular junction 81
Chapter 5 Muscle Physiology 85
5.1. Structural and functional characteristics of skeletal muscle 85
5.2. Mechanism of skeletal muscle contraction 88
5.3. Types of muscle contractions 91
5.4. Indicators of physical activity of muscles 93
5.5. Structural and functional features of smooth muscles 94
Chapter 6. Central Nervous System 98
6.1. Structural and functional characteristics of the central nervous system 98
6.2. Mediators and receptors of the central nervous system 103
6.3. Mechanism of excitation of neurons 107
6.4. Characteristics of the spread of excitation in the central nervous system 109
6.5. Properties of nerve centers 111
6.6. Postsynaptic inhibition 116
6.7. Presynaptic inhibition 119
6.8. General characteristics of inhibition in the central nervous system 121
6.9. Coordination activity and integrative role of the central nervous system 122
6.10. Structural and functional characteristics of the spinal cord 126
6.11. Conductor function of the spinal cord 128
6.12. Somatic reflexes of the spinal cord 129
6.13. Muscle tone in the spinal organism 136
6.14. Brain stem motor systems 137
6.15. Conductor function of the brain stem 141
6.16. Brainstem Integrative Systems 142
6.17. Functions of the cerebellum 144
6.18. Physiology of the diencephalon 146
6.19. Functions of the basal nuclei 149
6.20. Functions of the limbic system 150
6.21. Neuronal organization of the neocortex. Corticalization of functions 151
6.22. The main functional areas of the neocortex 152
6.23. Methods of research of the central nervous system 158
Chapter 7. Autonomic Nervous System 161
7.1. General characteristics of the autonomic nervous system 161
7.2. Sympathetic nervous system 167
7.3. Parasympathetic nervous system 172
7.4. Intraorganic nervous system 174
7.5. Regulation of synaptic functions 176
7.6. Interaction between divisions of the autonomic nervous system 178
7.7. Centers of the autonomic nervous system 179
7.8. Afferent pathways of the autonomic nervous system 181
7.9. Tone of vegetative centers 183
7.10. Trophic action of the nervous system 185
Chapter 8. Hormonal regulation of body functions 187
8.1. Characteristics of hormonal regulation 187
8.2. Hormones of the pituitary, epiphysis and thymus 192
8.3. Functions of thyroid hormones 196
8.4. Physiology of the parathyroid glands. Calcitriol 198
8.5. Functions of pancreatic hormones 200
8.6. Adrenal hormones 202
8.7. Gonads 205
Chapter 9. Blood System 209
9.1. Blood as the internal environment of the body 209
9.2. Physiology of erythrocytes 211
9.3. Physiology of leukocytes 215
9.4. Properties and functions of platelets 218
9.5. Blood group systems 219
9.6. Vascular-platelet (primary) hemostasis 221
9.7. Coagulation hemostasis 223
9.8. Mechanism of fibrinolysis 227
Chapter 10 Respiratory System 229
10.1. Structural and functional characteristics of the respiratory system 229
10.2. Mechanism of inhalation and exhalation. Ventilation volume 233
10.3. Gas exchange between the alveoli and the body's blood 242
10.4. Oxygen transport by blood 244
10.5. Transport of carbon dioxide by blood 248
10.6. Breathing regulation 250
10.7. Breathing in different conditions 257
Chapter 11 Cardiovascular System 260
11.1. Story. Characteristics of the cardiovascular system 260
11.2. Cycle of cardiac activity 262
11.3. Features of the properties of the heart muscle and its energy supply 265
11.4. Automatic heart 269
11.5. Basic methods for studying the activity of the heart 272
11.6. Regulation of the activity of the heart 277
11.7. Basic indicators and patterns of hemodynamics.". 284
11.8. Classification of vessels 287
11.9. The movement of blood through the arteries 288
11.10. The movement of blood through the capillaries 291
11.11. The movement of blood through the veins 293
11.12. Features of blood flow in individual organs 295
11.13. Regulation of vascular tone 297
11.14. Regulation of systemic arterial pressure 302
11.15. Blood circulation during physical and emotional stress 308
Chapter 12 Lymphatic System 311
Chapter 13 Digestive System 315
13.1. General characteristics of the digestive system 315
13.2. States of hunger and satiety 320
13.3. Digestion in the oral cavity 321
13.4. act of swallowing 326
13.5. Digestion in the stomach 329
13.6. Digestion in the duodenum 337
13.7. Physiology of the liver 339
13.8. Digestion in the small intestine 342
13.9. Absorption of nutrients 347
13.10. Digestion in the large intestine 348
Chapter 14 Nutrition. Thermoregulation 352
14.1. Basic concepts 352
14.2. Metabolism and nutrition 353
14.3. Energy exchange in the body 361
14.4. Thermoregulation 366
Chapter 15
15.1. Characteristics of the extraction system 369
15.2. The role of various departments of the nephron in the formation of urine 373
15.3. Regulation of urine formation 379
15.4. The role of the kidneys in the regulation of physiological parameters of the body 381
15.5. Composition, amount and excretion of urine 386
15.6. Methods for studying the excretory function of the kidneys 388
Chapter 16 Sensory Systems 391
16.1. General characteristics of sensor systems 391
16.2. Properties of sensory systems and adaptation of the organism to the environment 396
16.3. Criteria for assessing the sensitivity of sensory systems and the regulation of their activity 398
16.4. Coding information in the nervous system 400
16.5. Vision System 404
16.6. Hearing system 412
16.7. Body posture systems 416
16.8. Taste and smell systems 419
16.9. Tactile and Ambient Temperature System 422
16.10. Sensory systems of the internal environment of the body 423
Chapter 17 Pain System 425
17.1. Sensory part of the pain system 425
17.2. Anesthetic part of the pain system (with the participation of A. F. Belov and V. A. Pravdivtsov) 428
Chapter 18. Higher nervous and mental activity 432
18.1. Physiological basis of behavior 432
18.1.1. Innate activity of the organism and imprinting 432
18.1.2. The structure of a holistic behavioral act (acquired behavior) 434
18.2. Memory 436
18.2.1. Short-term (electrophysiological) memory 437
18.2.2. Intermediate (neurochemical) memory 438
18.2.3. Long-term (neurostructural) memory 440
18.2.4. Remembering and forgetting 442
18.2.5. The role of individual brain structures in the formation of memory 444
18.3. Learning 446
18.3.1. The conditioned reflex is one of the forms of learning. Methods for studying higher nervous activity 446
18.3.2. Classification of conditioned reflexes 450
18.3.3. Inhibition of conditioned reflexes as one of the forms of learning 452
18.3.4. Other forms of learning 454
18.4. Types of higher nervous activity and personality temperament 457
18.5. Wakefulness and sleep. Dreams 459
18.6. Forms of mental activity and consciousness 461
18.6.1. Characteristics of individual forms of mental activity 462
18.6.2. Physiology of motivations and needs 463
18.6.3. Emotions 464
18.6.4. Thinking is the main form of mental activity 467
18.7. Conscious and unconscious activity of the organism 468
18.8. Features of human mental activity 470
Chapter 19 Biological Rhythms 474
19.1. Concepts. Factors that shape biorhythms 474
19.2. Characteristics of biorhythms and their classification 475
19.3. Biological clock > 480
19.4. Biorhythms and performance 481
Chapter 20
20.1. Characterization and classification of adaptive mechanisms 483
20.2. Stressors and stages of body resistance 486
20.3. Mechanisms of development of resistance and disadaptation 487
20.4. Adaptation to physical activity and hypokinesia 488
20.5. Protection against germs and foreign bodies 490
Chapter 21
21.1. Characteristics of ecology as a science 493
21.2. Ecological aspects of the formation of races and human constitutions 494
21.3. Basic principles of human health formation 497
Chapter 22
Chapter 23 Playback 507
23.1. Physiological patterns of pregnancy and childbirth 507
23.2. Human sexual development 508
23.3. Sexual behavior 510
References 518