Protective regime and counter-reforms of Alexander 3. Counter-reforms of Alexander III (briefly)

Alexander III. After the assassination of Emperor Alexander II the Liberator by Narodnaya Volya terrorists on March 1, 1881, Emperor Alexander III (1881–1894) took the throne. Alexander Alexandrovich initially prepared for a military career, and not for governing the country, since he was the second son of Alexander II. However, after the death of the heir (Nikolai), he began to be involved in state affairs. He began to participate in meetings of the State Council and the Cabinet of Ministers, so to speak, to undergo an internship and at the same time master the course of sciences necessary for the monarch. The worldview of Alexander III was greatly influenced by law professor K.P. Pobedonostsev, who was among the teachers of the future emperor.

After the regicide, Alexander III showed some confusion and even appointed a regent in case of his own violent death - his brother Vladimir. It is not surprising that from the first steps of the state activity of the new monarch, a policy of counter-reforms began, which became one of the main reasons for the first bourgeois-democratic revolution in Russia.

The new emperor Alexander III hesitated for a long time before considering the project of M.T. Loris-Melikov, actually approved by his predecessor. Finally, on March 8, 1881, the project was submitted for discussion by the Council of Ministers. At a meeting with the participation of the emperor, nine ministers spoke out in support of the ideas of the project, and five ministers and K.P. Pobedonostsev spoke out against the constitutional reform.

Alexander III, after listening to the ministers, rejected the "constitution of Loris-Melikov". The emperor called constitutional ideas criminal, called on his subjects to serve him faithfully, to protect autocratic power. In protest resigned: author of the project M.T. Loris-Melikov, Minister of War D.A. Milyutin, Minister of Finance A.A. Abaza and some other liberal-minded officials. One of them, addressing the emperor, wrote: "History will judge us." At the time, this was an unheard-of audacity.

The new government of Alexander III took a course towards strengthening the autocracy, strengthening the role of the nobility and strengthening the repressive apparatus. It was for this purpose that Alexander III adopted legal acts that buried all hope of liberal minds for progressive changes in state power and administration, for the creation of a constitutional monarchy in Russia.

Already in April 1881, the tsar's manifesto "On the inviolability of autocracy" appeared, hastily prepared by K.P. Pobedonostsev. The manifesto buried the liberals' hopes for constitutional changes in the political system. This legal act became a turning point in the policy of tsarism, the beginning of counter-reforms.

The main directions of counter-reforms. Counter-reforms were carried out almost simultaneously in several directions. Judicial, zemstvo, city counter-reforms were carried out, other measures were taken to tighten the regime: censorship was intensified, restrictions were introduced in the field of public education, and the rights of national minorities were limited.

The main activities of the new government were the eradication of freethinking and sedition, the protection of the existing regime, and the curtailment of liberal reforms.

K.P. Pobedonostsev, appointed to the post of Chief Procurator of the Synod, proposed "freeze Russia": to cover up "talking shops", zemstvos, democratic and liberal publications. On his initiative and with the approval of the monarch, in August 1881, a special "Regulations on Measures to Protect State Order and Public Peace" was adopted. According to the Regulation, the authorities could:

- without trial or investigation to expel unwanted persons;

– to close educational institutions without trial due to student unrest;

- declare any province, county in the position of "reinforced and emergency protection";

- introduce security departments to combat revolutionary sedition, etc.

In 1882, a censorship charter was introduced that limited the freedom of the press. The new university charter, published in 1884, abolished the autonomy of higher educational institutions, abolished the election of the rector, dean and professors. University professors began to be appointed by order of the Minister of Public Education. Vigilant supervision was established for the students. The tuition fees at universities have been increased.

New circular of the Minister of Public Education I.D. Delyanova, published in 1887, actually closed access to the gymnasium for children of low-income parents. It contained instructions that "the children of coachmen, lackeys, cooks, laundresses, small shopkeepers and the like ... should not be taken out of the environment to which they belong." Therefore, the circular of 1887 was popularly called "about the cook's children". Disciplinary sanctions were strengthened in schools. School teachers felt even greater control from the priests and local authorities.

Judicial counter-reform It began with a change in the existing procedure for conducting an inquiry and preliminary investigation. The rights of the gendarmerie in these institutions were expanded, which undoubtedly led to a reduction in the powers of full-time forensic investigators.

In 1878, after the assassination by Narodnik terrorists of General Mezentsev, who headed the gendarme department, a law was passed that changed the jurisdiction of cases of state crimes. They were transferred under the jurisdiction military courts. Cases of armed resistance to the authorities, attacks on police officers and other officials in the performance of their duties were transferred to the military district courts.

The Imperial Decree of May 20, 1885 introduced the Supreme Disciplinary Presence of the Senate, which received the right to remove or move judges to a lower position. Proposals on such measures of influence on judges were prepared by the Ministry of Justice.

In February 1887, a decree appeared that allowed any business at the discretion of superiors declared secret, and the hearing was to be held behind closed doors.

In 1889, the powers of jurors were limited, and in 1891, the openness of the civil court.

A serious blow was dealt to the institution of magistrates. In 1889, the “Regulations on Zemstvo district chiefs” were published, according to which the election of magistrates was abolished, county presences for peasant affairs were abolished. In districts, instead of justices of the peace, the positions of zemstvo district chiefs were introduced. Zemsky district chiefs were appointed by the governor from local nobles in agreement with the marshal of the nobility. Their nominations were approved by the Minister of the Interior. They had to have a noble rank, three years of experience in judicial institutions and sufficient education. Zemstvo district chiefs were entrusted with police and judicial functions. They were empowered to consider land disputes, to oversee the communal peasant self-government, volost peasant courts. Criminal and civil cases, which previously belonged to the magistrates' courts, were transferred to their jurisdiction.

The confusion of administrative, supervisory, judicial, police powers, of course, contradicted the most important principle of the legal reform of 1864 - the separation of the functions of administration, police and court. In fairness, it should be noted that in Moscow, St. Petersburg and Odessa, the institution of magistrates was preserved.

In 1892, in connection with the growth of the revolutionary, including the workers', movement, martial law law, which allowed the introduction of a special regime in areas "dangerous in a revolutionary sense." The law endowed the Minister of the Interior, governors-general with emergency powers. For resistance to the authorities, under the laws of martial law, the death penalty was introduced by hanging.

Zemstvo self-government counter-reform(1890) met the interests of the nobility. In connection with the introduction of new zemstvo chiefs, the tsarist government revised the provision on zemstvo and city local governments. According to the new Regulations on Zemstvos, instead of the qualification principle for the formation of local governments, class principle acquisition. Changes were made to the rules for electing representatives, which led to the fact that in local governments the vast majority now consisted of personal and hereditary nobles.

The new procedure for the formation of local governments led to the fact that the number of deputies to the zemstvo assembly from the peasants decreased, and from the nobles, on the contrary, increased. Now the governor himself could appoint representatives to the zemstvos from among the peasant electors. At the same time, the control of government bodies over the activities of zemstvos and city governments was strengthened. Administrative functions and judicial power were transferred into the hands of zemstvo landowners, to whom rural and volost assemblies began to obey.

Urban counter-reform significantly increased the property qualification, which ensured the reduction of the representatives of the poor in the city duma and increased the number of the rich in the dumas by about three times. The new City Regulations (1892) significantly raised the level of property qualification for city voters. Thus, not only representatives of small business, but also part of the middle bourgeoisie were excluded from the elections to the city local governments.

Both zemstvo and city counter-reforms were carried out in order to limit the powers of liberal local governments, to strengthen the influence of the conservative nobility in them, tighten control by provincial and government officials.

As can be seen from the above facts, the counter-reforms intensified from year to year and affected many areas of the Russian state and law. They were aimed at strengthening the autocracy, but, ultimately, served as the preconditions for popular anger, which resulted in the first Russian revolution of 1905–1907.

It should be borne in mind that the reactionary measures were to some extent a response to revolutionary, anti-government speeches and were caused primarily by the assassination of Alexander II. It would be wrong to say that during the reign of Alexander III, only counter-reforms were carried out in Russia and nothing positive was done. The economic policy of Alexander III contributed to the more rapid development of capitalism in our country.

After the sudden death of Alexander II in 1881, Alexander III took the throne. His policy was far from ideal, and the ongoing reforms caused the crisis of royal power that the country faced in the 20th century. Many close associates of the emperor believed that he was wasting money on illogical and often contradictory reforms, but the ruler himself preferred not to hear murmurs. Nicholas II will have to pay heavily for such an attitude of monarchs. Despite the fact that the reforms of Alexander III raised many questions, the monarch had a clear algorithm of actions, which he preferred to follow. The transformations of the emperor often directly contradicted the measures of Alexander II, which clearly demonstrated the conflict between father and son.

The desire to stop the terror of Narodnaya Volya and to establish order in the country explains the transition of Alexander III in 1881 to a policy of counter-reforms.

The "New Deal" was intended to strengthen the power of the nobility in the field. Reforms of the 1860s and 70s did not develop, but were conserved and even truncated. The rejection of liberal reforms, the national-chauvinistic course of the government slowed down the process of economic and social development of the country (B.V. Ananyich, V.G. Chernukha).

M.N. Katkov is a well-known conservative publicist, one of the ideologists of the counter-reforms of the 1980s. 19th century, editor-in-chief of the Moskovskie Vedomosti newspaper.

Foreign policy

Bulgarian affairs occupied an important place. The struggle to strengthen the Bulgarian statehood ended in failure in 1887. - Neutrality of Russia and Germany (Bismarck's goal is to prevent Russian-French rapprochement).

Conclusions on the reforms of Alexander III

During the reign of Alexander III, the country developed one-sidedly. Despite the fact that heavy industry and railway construction made a big step forward, the social reforms of Alexander III cannot be called logical. The emperor continued to work on the peasant reform, trying to rebuild the state on a new model of social perception of classes. However, many actions of Alexander III in this direction were illogical and incomplete. The economic transformations of the monarch can also be called illogical. The successor, Nicholas II, had to reap the fruits of the restless counter-reforms, simultaneously fighting the growing wave of popular discontent.

The theme of "Counter-reforms of Alexander 3" is key to understanding why three subsequent revolutions took place in Russia, the murder of the royal family and much more in the first quarter of the 20th century. And although Alexander the Third was the penultimate ruler of the Romanov dynasty (except for Mikhail Romanov), the accents made during his reign were continued by his son Nicholas II.

Reasons for counter-reforms

The reasons for such a policy should be sought, in my opinion, in the Manifesto "On the Inviolability of the Autocracy" of April 29, 1881. At the very beginning we find these lines: “It was pleasing to God, in His inscrutable destinies, to end the glorious Reign of Our Beloved Parent with a martyr’s death, and to lay upon Us the Sacred Duty of Autocratic Rule”.

Thus, we see that the first, and, it seems, the main reason for the policy of counter-reforms was rooted in the author of the Manifesto: he sincerely believed that God punished his father, Alexander II, for his reforms, and now he placed his son on the throne, placing on him "sacred duty". Let me remind you that at that time the conservative ideology in Russia was represented by the Theory of Official Nationality, and the words of the document directly appeal to it.

The second reason for the counter-reforms follows from the first: the ruling circles in Russia were against rapid development, rapid changes. And they have already begun: the stratification of the peasantry, caused by the increase in property inequality in the countryside, the growth of the proletariat - the working class. The old government could not keep track of all this, because it thought in terms of old archetypes: how can society be protected from its development?

Characteristics of counter-reforms

Printing and education

• 1882 Tightening censorship. Closing of liberal newspapers and magazines (“Domestic Notes”, “Delo”…)
• 1884 Reactionary university charter. Cancellation of university self-government.
• 1887 Circular "On the cook's children" (prohibition of admission to the gymnasium of children of the lower classes).

These actions were taken against, one of which again granted university self-government to the country.

Local government

• The institute of zemstvo chiefs (from the nobility) was introduced to strengthen control over the zemstvos
• The rights and powers of zemstvos are limited.
• Zemstvos increased the number of deputies from the nobility at the expense of the number of deputies from other estates

These actions were implemented in order to downplay the role of local self-government, to turn zemstvos into a purely executive and administrative body of government. The latter did not trust his people. How will he manage himself?

Judicial counter-reform

• An emergency law was adopted to combat the revolutionary movement (1881). In accordance with it, in the event of revolutionary unrest, the governors received the right to introduce a state of emergency in the provinces, which unleashed their hands against the revolutionaries, or their accomplices.
• The openness of legal proceedings in political cases was limited (1887).
• The magistrates' courts were liquidated (1889), which could deal with petty court cases.

These actions were aimed at limiting the capabilities of the courts. Many people know that the court has become more objective, the jury was introduced, which could go far behind the defense. No wonder the second half of the 19th century was the heyday of the legal profession, which, for example, showed .

Peasant question

Although Alexander the Third could not reverse the peasant reform, contrary to our expectations, something useful for the peasants was done. Thus, in 1881, the temporarily obligated position of the peasantry was abolished. Now all the peasant communities were transferred to the purchase of land from the landowner, simply - to the purchase. In the same year, redemption payments decreased by one ruble.

In 1882, the Peasants' Bank was established for settlements on the peasant issue and redemption payments. And in the period from 1882 to 1887, the poll tax was abolished.

But not everything was so rosy. So in 1893 the state limited the exit of peasants from the community. Alexander the Third saw in the peasant community a guarantee of the preservation of both autocracy and stability in Russia. Moreover, by doing so, the state reduced the flow of peasants to the city and their replenishment of the impoverished proletariat.

Consequences of counter-reforms

The policy of counter-reforms did not contribute to the development of those directions that were laid down in the previous reign. The life of the peasants was both miserable and remained so. The following example can be given to characterize life.

Somehow L.N. Tolstoy, traveling around Russia, saw a peasant who was carrying a cartload of potato tops. "Where are you taking?" - the Great Russian writer asked the peasant. "Yes, here - from the master." "For what?" Tolstoy asked. “For this tops, which we will now eat, we will have to sow, grow and reap the master’s field next year,” the poor fellow answered (Told according to the book by S.G. Kara-Murza “The Civil War in Russia”).

The more terrible is the meaning of the words of Nicholas II, that all moods for change are groundless. The more definite is the understanding of the causes of the three revolutions in Russia in the first quarter of the 20th century.

Post Scriptum: Of course, we could not cover many important aspects of the topic in this short article. You can get a holistic view of the history of Russia and World history, as well as understand how to solve exam tests in history, by studying, as well as on our USE preparation courses .

Sincerely, Andrey Puchkov

Years of government 1881-1894

Unlike Alexander 2, Alexander 3 was a conservative. A regulation on enhanced security was created.

Counter-reforms of Alexander III:

Like his predecessor, he early joined the affairs of state, showed himself as an outstanding military man. He went down in history as a peacemaker king, as he was a staunch opponent of resolving international problems by military means. His political views were deeply conservative. They consisted in adherence to the principles of unlimited autocracy, religiosity and Russophilism. This prompted him to take measures aimed at strengthening the existing system, planting Orthodoxy and Russification of the outskirts of Russia. His inner circle consisted of the most reactionary political and public figures, among whom the Chief Prosecutor of the Synod K.P. Pobedonostsev, Minister of the Interior Count D.A. Tolstoy and publicist M.N. Katkov. Shocked by the murder of his father and under pressure from his entourage, Alexander III rejected the proposals of M.T. Loris-Melikova. In April 1881, the manifesto "On the inviolability of autocracy" was published. In August, followed by the "Decree on measures to protect state order and public peace ...". This document went down in history as the “Regulation on Enhanced Security”, as it gave the government the right to introduce a state of emergency and military courts, and freed the hands of local administrative and police authorities in their punitive activities. The "liberal bureaucrats" were dismissed. The era of the strengthening of the reactionary tendency in domestic politics began.

The desire to stop the terror of Narodnaya Volya and establish order in the country explains the transition of Alexander III in 1881 to a policy of counter-reforms. Counter-reforms - the name of the measures taken by the government of Alexander III to revise the results of the reforms of the 60s, adopted in historical literature.

The essence of the counter-reforms

Support for the nobility as the main social pillar of the government, the allocation of quotas for the nobles in zemstvo elections. The government, through a specially established bank, issued soft loans to the nobles for housekeeping on estates.

Limitation of local government. Increased government control over the zemstvos.

Russification of national outskirts. All national outskirts were included in the provinces.

Higher education continued to develop, a large number of departmental and non-state universities appeared.

Tightening censorship.

Main directions

1. Restriction of zemstvo and city self-government. were held in 1890 and 1892. The initiator of the Zemstvo counter-reform was D.A. Tolstoy

Establishment of positions of zemstvo district chiefs, control over peasant self-government, the solution of land issues.

A new regulation on provincial and district zemstvo institutions, a change in the zemstvo electoral system, an increase in the number of deputies from the nobility and their reduction from other estates.

The new "City Regulation", a change in the city electoral system, the removal of small owners from elections due to an increase in the property qualification required to participate in the electoral process.

2. Strengthening the police regime and the elimination of certain provisions of the judicial reform of 1864

- “Regulations on measures to protect the state. order and public peace”, security departments have been created, and a political investigation is being introduced.

The openness of legal proceedings in political cases has been limited, justices of the peace have been eliminated.

3. Introduction of additional restrictions in the field of press and education

New "Temporary rules on the press" - any press organ can be closed.

The university charter of 1884 abolished the autonomy of the universities, introduced by Alexander II, and gave all intra-university life under the control of government officials. According to this charter, politically unreliable, albeit with a worldwide reputation, scientists were expelled from universities

On June 5, 1887, a circular was issued, infamously known as the Circular on the Cook's Children. They were instructed to limit access to the gymnasium to “children of coachmen, lackeys, cooks, laundresses, small shopkeepers and the like, whose children, with the exception of perhaps gifted with extraordinary abilities, should not at all be taken out of the environment to which they belong.”

Tolstoy and Delyanov convinced the emperor that the universities, where the "revolutionary contagion" nestled, should also be taken seriously. On August 23, 1884, a new university charter was introduced, which destroyed the traditional university self-government for the entire educated world. Both teachers and students became dependent on officials - trustees of educational districts. The students were the worst. They not only lost the opportunity to listen to the lectures of excellent professors who left the universities, but also had to pay much more for their education.

Innovations in the field of the Peasantry

In 1881, all former landowning peasants were transferred to mandatory redemption, their dependent temporary position was abolished, and redemption payments were reduced.

A number of measures aimed at combating peasant land shortages were developed and carried out. In this regard, three main measures should be mentioned: firstly, the establishment of the Peasants' Bank, with the help of which the peasants could get cheap credit for the purchase of land; secondly, the facilitation of the lease of state lands and quitrent items that were or could be leased, and, finally, thirdly, the settlement of settlements.

In 1884, the rules on the lease of state lands stated that, according to the law, lands were given on a 12-year lease and, moreover, only those peasants who lived no further than 12 versts from the rented quitrent could take them without auction.

Results of the counter-reform

The counter-reforms of Alexander III, although they slowed down the revolutionary movement in Russia, at the same time “froze” the accumulated social contradictions and made the situation in the country, especially in the countryside, even more explosive. The wave of protests has subsided. Historian M.N. Pokrovsky pointed to the "undoubted decline of the revolutionary labor movement in the mid-80s", which, in his opinion, was the result of measures taken by the government of Alexander III.

Terrorist activity has also declined. After the assassination of Alexander II, there was only one successful attempt by the Narodnaya Volya in 1882 on the Odessa prosecutor Strelnikov, and one failed in 1884 on Alexander III. After that, there were no terrorist attacks in the country until the beginning of the 20th century.

On March 1, 1881, Emperor Alexander II Nikolaevich died at the hands of the Narodnaya Volya, and his second son Alexander ascended the throne. At first he was preparing for a military career, because. the heir to power was his elder brother Nikolai, but in 1865 he died.

In 1868, during a severe crop failure, Alexander Alexandrovich was appointed chairman of the committee for the collection and distribution of benefits to the starving. When he was before accession to the throne, he was the ataman of the Cossack troops, chancellor of the University of Helsingfors. In 1877 he took part in the Russian-Turkish war as a detachment commander.

The historical portrait of Alexander III was more like a mighty Russian peasant than the sovereign of the empire. He possessed heroic strength, but did not differ in mental abilities. Despite this characteristic, Alexander III was very fond of theater, music, painting, and studied Russian history.

In 1866 he married the Danish princess Dagmar, in Orthodoxy Maria Feodorovna. She was smart, educated, and in many ways complemented her husband. Alexander and Maria Feodorovna had 5 children.

Domestic policy of Alexander III

The beginning of the reign of Alexander III fell on the period of the struggle of two parties: the liberal (desiring the reforms initiated by Alexander II) and the monarchist. Alexander III abolished the idea of ​​the constitutionality of Russia and set a course for strengthening the autocracy.

On August 14, 1881, the government adopted a special law "Regulations on Measures to Protect State Order and Public Peace." To combat unrest and terror, states of emergency were introduced, punitive measures were used, and in 1882 the secret police appeared.

Alexander III believed that all the troubles in the country come from the freethinking of subjects and the excessive education of the lower class, which was caused by his father's reforms. Therefore, he began a policy of counter-reforms.

Universities were considered the main center of terror. The new university charter of 1884 sharply limited their autonomy, student associations and student courts were banned, access to education for representatives of the lower classes and Jews was limited, and strict censorship was introduced in the country.

changes in the Zemstvo reform under Alexander III:

In April 1881, the Manifesto on the independence of the autocracy was published, compiled by K.M. Pobedonostsev. The rights of the zemstvos were severely curtailed, and their work was taken under the strict control of the governors. Merchants and officials sat in the city dumas, and only wealthy local nobles sat in the zemstvos. Peasants lost the right to participate in elections.

Changes in judicial reform under Alexander III:

In 1890, a new regulation on zemstvos was adopted. Judges became dependent on the authorities, the competence of the jury was reduced, the world courts were practically eliminated.

Changes in the peasant reform under Alexander III:

The poll tax and communal land use were abolished, and compulsory land redemption was introduced, but redemption payments were reduced. In 1882, the Peasants' Bank was established, designed to issue loans to peasants for the purchase of land and private property.

Changes in the military reform under Alexander III:

The defense capability of border districts and fortresses was strengthened.

Alexander III knew the importance of army reserves, so infantry battalions were created, reserve regiments were formed. A cavalry division was created, capable of fighting both on horseback and on foot.

To conduct combat in mountainous areas, batteries of mountain artillery were created, mortar regiments, siege artillery battalions were formed. A special railway brigade was created to deliver troops and army reserves.

In 1892, mine river companies, serf telegraphs, aeronautic detachments, and military pigeon houses appeared.

Military gymnasiums were transformed into cadet corps, for the first time non-commissioned officer training battalions were created, which trained junior commanders.

A new three-line rifle was adopted, a smokeless type of gunpowder was invented. The military uniform has been changed to a more comfortable one. The order of appointment to command positions in the army was changed: only by seniority.

Social policy of Alexander III

"Russia for the Russians" is the emperor's favorite slogan. Only the Orthodox Church is considered truly Russian, all other religions were officially defined as "non-denominational confessions."

The policy of anti-Semitism was officially proclaimed, and the persecution of Jews began.

Foreign policy of Alexander III

The reign of Emperor Alexander III was the most peaceful. Only once did Russian troops clash with Afghan troops on the Kushka River. Alexander III protected his country from wars, and also helped to extinguish hostility between other countries, for which he received the nickname "Peacemaker".

Economic policy of Alexander III

Under Alexander III, cities, factories and plants grew, domestic and foreign trade grew, the length of railways increased, and the construction of the great Siberian Railway began. In order to develop new lands, peasant families were resettled in Siberia and Central Asia.

In the late 1980s, the state budget deficit was overcome, and revenues exceeded expenditures.

The results of the reign of Alexander III

Emperor Alexander III was called "the most Russian Tsar." He defended the Russian population with all his might, especially on the outskirts, which contributed to the strengthening of state unity.

As a result of the measures taken in Russia, a rapid industrial boom took place, the exchange rate of the Russian ruble grew and strengthened, and the well-being of the population improved.

Alexander III and his counter-reforms provided Russia with a peaceful and calm era without wars and internal unrest, but also engendered in the Russians a revolutionary spirit that would break out under his son Nicholas II.