Main menu go to content. History of development, dynamics and prospects of oil and gas production in Russia and foreign countries

Introduction

Oil and gas have been known to mankind since prehistoric times. Archaeological excavations have established that oil was produced on the banks of the Euphrates 6-4 thousand years BC. e.

Until the middle of the nineteenth century. oil was extracted in small quantities, mainly from shallow wells near its natural outlets on the day surface. The origin of the oil and gas industry began in the late 60s of the last century with the start of oil drilling. Oil and natural gas are now at the heart of the global energy mix. Oil refining products are widely used in all branches of industry, agriculture, transport and everyday life.

The share of oil in the total consumption of energy resources is constantly growing: if in 1900 oil accounted for 3% of world energy consumption, then by 1914 its share had grown to 5%, in 1939 - up to 17.5%, reached 24% in 1950, 41.5% in 1972 and approximately 65% ​​in 2000.

The oil industry in different countries of the world has existed for only 110-140 years, but over this period of time, oil and gas production has increased by more than 40 thousand times. The rapid growth in production is associated with the conditions of occurrence and extraction of this mineral. Oil and gas are confined to sedimentary rocks and are distributed regionally. Moreover, in each sedimentation basin there is a concentration of their main reserves in a relatively limited number of deposits. All this, taking into account the growing consumption of oil and gas in industry and the possibility of their quick and economical extraction from the bowels, make these minerals an object of priority exploration.

A Brief History of the Development of the Oil and Gas Business

Approximately 3 thousand years BC. e. The inhabitants of the Middle East are beginning to use oil as fuel, for the manufacture of weapons, for lamps and building materials (bitumen, asphalt). Oil was collected from the surface of open reservoirs.

347 CE e. In China, for the first time, wells were drilled in the ground to extract oil. Hollow bamboo trunks were used as pipes.

7th century AD e. In Byzantium or Persia, a super weapon of that time was invented - "Greek fire", made on the basis of oil.

1264. The Italian traveler Marco Polo, passing through the territory of modern Azerbaijan, reported that local residents collected oil seeping from the ground. Around the same time marked the beginning of the oil trade.

Approximately 1500. In Poland, for the first time they began to use oil for street lighting. Oil came from the Carpathian region.

1848 The world's first oil well of a modern type was drilled on the Absheron Peninsula near Baku.

1849 Canadian geologist Abraham Gesner was the first to obtain kerosene.

1858 Oil began to be produced in North America (Canada, Ontario).

1859 Beginning of oil production in the USA. The first well (21 meters deep) was drilled in Pennsylvania. It allowed to produce 15 barrels of oil per day.

1962 The emergence of a new unit of volume, which measured the amount of oil - "barrel", "barrel". Oil was then transported in barrels - railway tanks and tankers had not yet been invented. A barrel of oil is 42 gallons (one gallon is about 4 liters). This volume of an oil barrel is equal to the volume of a barrel officially recognized in Great Britain for transporting herring (the corresponding decree was signed in 1492 by King Edward the Fourth). For comparison, a "wine barrel" is 31.5 gallons, a "beer barrel" is 36 gallons.

1877 For the first time in the world, Russia is starting to use tankers to deliver oil from Baku fields to Astrakhan. Around the same year (data from various sources differ), the first railroad tank car was built in the United States to transport oil.

1886 German engineers Karl Benz and Wilhelm Daimler created a car powered by a gasoline engine. Previously, gasoline was only a by-product formed during the manufacture of kerosene.

1890 German engineer Rudolf Diesel invented a diesel engine that can run on by-products of oil refining. Now the industrialized countries of the world are actively restricting the use of diesel engines, which cause significant damage to the environment.

1896 Inventor Henry Ford created his first car. A few years later, for the first time in the world, he began to use the conveyor assembly method, which significantly reduced the cost of cars. This was the beginning of the era of mass motorization. In 1916, there were 3.4 million cars in the United States, three years later their number increased to 23.1 million. During the same time, the average car began to cover twice the distance in a year. The development of the automotive industry has led to a rapid growth in the number of gas stations. If in 1921 there were 12 thousand gas stations in the USA, then in 1929 - 143 thousand. Oil began to be considered, first of all, as a raw material for the production of gasoline.

1904 The largest oil-producing countries were the United States, Russia, modern-day Indonesia, Austria-Hungary, Romania and India.

1905 In Baku (Azerbaijan, then the Russian Empire), the first large-scale fire in non-oil fields occurred in world history.

1907 British Shell and Dutch Royal Dutch merged to form Royal Dutch Shell

1908 The first oil fields were discovered in Iran. Anglo-Persian Oil Company Anglo Persian Oil, which later became British Petroleum, was created to operate them.

1914-1918. World War I. For the first time, a war was waged, among other things, to gain control over oil fields.

1918 For the first time in the world, Soviet Russia nationalized oil companies.

1932 Oil fields are discovered in Bahrain.

1938 Oil fields have been discovered in Kuwait and Saudi Arabia.

1951 For the first time in US history, oil has become the main source of energy, pushing coal into second place.

1956 Suez Crisis. After the Anglo-French troops invaded Egypt, world oil prices doubled in a short time.

1956 Oil fields have been discovered in Algeria and Nigeria.

1959 The first attempt to create an international organization of oil suppliers. The Arab Petroleum Congress was held in Cairo (Egypt), the participants of which concluded a gentlemen's agreement on a joint oil policy, which was supposed to increase the influence of the Arab states in the world.

1960 In Baghdad (Iraq), the Organization of Petroleum Exporting States (OPEC) was formed. Its founders were Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and Venezuela. Currently, OPEC includes 11 countries.

1967 Six Day War between Israel and a coalition of Arab states. World oil prices rose by about 20%.

1968 Large oil fields have been discovered in Alaska.

1969 The first major environmental disaster caused by an oil spill. The cause was an accident on an oil platform off the coast of California.

1973 First oil embargo. On the eve of the Jewish holiday Yom Kippur, Syrian and Egyptian troops, supported by the USSR, attacked Israel. Israel turned to the United States for help, which responded to this request with consent. In response, the Arab oil-exporting countries decided to reduce oil production by 5% every month and completely ban oil exports to countries that supported Israel - the United States, the Netherlands, Portugal, South Africa and Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe).

As a result, world non-oil prices rose from $2.90 to $11.65. In the US, motor gasoline has risen in price by 4 times. The United States has introduced tough measures aimed at saving oil. In particular, all gas stations did not work on Sunday, one filling of the car was limited to 10 gallons (about 40 liters). The US began building an oil pipeline from Alaska. European states and the United States have begun large-scale scientific research to find alternative energy sources.

1986-1987 years. "Tanker war" between Iraq and Iran - attacks by aviation and naval forces of the warring parties on oil fields and tankers. The United States created an international force to protect communications in the Persian Gulf. This marked the beginning of the permanent presence of the US Navy in the Persian Gulf.

1988 The largest accident on an oil platform in history. The British platform in the North Sea Piper Alpha caught fire. As a result, 167 people out of 228 who were on it died.

1994 Created the first car using hydrogen as a fuel - VW Hybrid.

1995 General Motors has unveiled its first electric car, the EV1.

1997 Toyota created the first mass-produced car powered by gasoline and electricity - the Prius.

1998 Large scale economic crisis in Asia. World oil prices have fallen sharply. The reason for this was an unusually warm winter in Europe and North America, an increase in oil production in Iraq, oil consumption by Asian countries and a number of other factors. If in 1996 the average price of a barrel of oil was $20.29, in 1997 - $18.68, then in 1998 it fell to $11. The fall in oil prices led to the largest financial crisis in Russia. To stop the fall in prices, OPEC countries have reduced oil production.

A 50-year moratorium has been signed on the development of oil fields in the Antarctic region.

Major oil mergers: British Petroleum acquired Amoco and Exxon acquired Mobil.

1999 Merger of major French oil companies: Total Fina and Elf Aquitaine.

2002 As a result of the nationwide strike, Venezuela has sharply reduced oil exports. Saudi Arabia was the top oil supplier to the US in 2001, according to the Energy Information Administration. In 2002, Canada became the largest supplier of oil to the US market (1926 thousand barrels per day). The top ten countries that supply oil to the US now include only two countries from the Persian Gulf - Saudi Arabia (1,525 thousand barrels) and Iraq (449 thousand barrels). Most of the US oil is obtained from Canada (1926 thousand), Mexico (1510 thousand), Venezuela (1439 thousand), Nigeria (591 thousand), Great Britain (483 thousand), Norway (393 thousand), Angola ( 327 thousand) and Algeria (272 thousand).

The construction of the Baku-Ceyhan oil pipeline has begun.

Major oil companies Conoco and Phillips have merged.

Off the coast of Spain, the tanker Prestige crashed - twice as much fuel spilled into the sea as in 1989 (Exxon Valdez).

Mass sales of cars running on alternative fuels began.

2003 The US started the war in Iraq. British Petroleum has acquired 50% of the major Russian oil company THK. The US Senate rejected a proposal to start oil development in the largest reserve in Alaska. World oil prices have risen significantly (the main reasons are the war in Iraq, the strike in Venezuela, the devastating hurricane in the Gulf of Mexico) and have reached about $30 per barrel.

2004 Oil prices reached a record, exceeding $40 per barrel. The main factors are the US problems in Iraq and the growth in the consumption of petroleum products in Asian countries, especially in China, which for the first time in history began to import oil. The world's top five oil importers include the United States, Japan, South Korea, Germany, and Italy.

Modern methods of extracting oil were preceded by primitive methods:

Collection of oil from the surface of reservoirs;

Processing sandstone or limestone impregnated with oil;

Extraction of oil from pits and wells.

Collection of oil from the surface of open reservoirs - this seems to be one of the oldest ways to extract it. It was used in Media, Assyro-Babylonia and Syria BC, in Sicily in the 1st century AD, etc. In Russia, oil extraction by collecting oil from the surface of the Ukhta River in 1745 was organized by F.S. Pryadunov. In 1858, on about. Cheleken and in 1868 in the Kokand Khanate, oil was collected in ditches, arranging a dam from planks. American Indians, when they discovered oil on the surface of lakes and streams, put a blanket on the water to absorb the oil, and then squeezed it into a vessel.

Processing of sandstone or limestone impregnated with oil, for the purpose of extracting it, they were first described by the Italian scientist F. Ari-osto in the 15th century: not far from Modena in Italy, oil-containing soils were crushed and heated in boilers; then they were placed in bags and pressed with a press. In 1819, in France, oil-bearing limestone and sandstone layers were developed by the mine method. The mined rock was placed in a vat filled with hot water. With stirring, oil floated to the surface of the water, which was collected with a scoop. In 1833...1845. oil-soaked sand was mined on the shores of the Sea of ​​Azov. Then it was placed in pits with a sloping bottom and poured with water. The oil washed out of the sand was collected from the surface of the water with bunches of grass.

Extraction of oil from pits and wells also known from ancient times. In Kissia - an ancient region between Assyria and Media - in the 5th century. BC. oil was extracted with the help of leather buckets - wineskins.

In Ukraine, the first mention of oil production dates back to the beginning of the 17th century. To do this, they dug digging holes with a depth of 1.5 ... 2 m, where oil leaked along with water. Then the mixture was collected in barrels, closed from the bottom with stoppers. When the lighter oil floated, the plugs were removed and the settled water was drained. By 1840, the depth of the digging pits reached 6 m, and later oil began to be extracted from wells about 30 m deep.

Since ancient times, on the Kerch and Taman peninsulas, oil has been extracted using a pole, to which a felt or a bundle made from the hair of a horse's tail was tied. They were lowered into the well, and then the oil was squeezed into prepared dishes.

On the Absheron Peninsula, oil production from wells has been known since the 8th century. AD During their construction, a hole was first torn off like an inverted (inverted) cone to the very oil reservoir. Then ledges were made on the sides of the pit: with an average cone immersion depth of 9.5 m - at least seven. The average amount of earth excavated when digging such a well was about 3100 m 3 . Further, the walls of the wells from the very bottom to the surface were fastened with a wooden frame or boards. In the lower crowns, holes were made for the flow of oil. It was scooped from wells with wineskins, which were lifted with a manual collar or with the help of a horse.

In his report on a trip to the Apsheron Peninsula in 1735, Dr. I. Lerkhe wrote: “... in Balakhani there were 52 oil wells 20 sazhens deep (1 sazhen = 2.1 m), some of which hit hard, and every year deliver 500 batmans of oil...” (1 batman = 8.5 kg). According to Academician S.G. Amelina (1771), the depth of oil wells in Balakhany reached 40...50 m, and the diameter or square side of the well section was 0.7...! m.

In 1803, the Baku merchant Kasymbek built two oil wells in the sea at a distance of 18 and 30 m from the shore of Bibi-Heybat. The wells were protected from water by a box of tightly knocked together boards. Oil has been extracted from them for many years. In 1825, during a storm, the wells were broken and flooded with the waters of the Caspian Sea.

By the time of the signing of the Gulistan peace treaty between Russia and Persia (December 1813), when the Baku and Derbent khanates merged into our country, there were 116 wells with black oil and one with “white” oil on the Absheron Peninsula, annually giving about 2400 tons of this valuable oil. product. In 1825, 4126 tons of oil were already extracted from wells in the Baku region.

With the well method, the technique of oil extraction has not changed over the centuries. But already in 1835, an official of the mining department, Fallendorf on Taman, first used a pump for pumping oil through a lowered wooden pipe. A number of technical improvements are associated with the name of the mining engineer N.I. Voskoboinikov. To reduce the amount of excavation, he proposed to build oil wells in the form of a shaft, and in 1836-1837. carried out the reconstruction of the entire system of storage and distribution of oil in Baku and Balakhani. But one of the main deeds of his life was the drilling of the world's first oil well in 1848.

For a long time, oil production through drilling in our country was treated with prejudice. It was believed that since the well cross-section is smaller than that of an oil well, then the oil inflow to the wells is significantly less. At the same time, it was not taken into account that the depth of the wells is much greater, and the complexity of their construction is less.

A negative role was played by the statement of Academician G.V. Abiha that the drilling of oil wells here does not live up to expectations, and that "... both theory and experience equally confirm the opinion that it is necessary to increase the number of wells ..."

A similar opinion existed regarding drilling for some time in the United States. So, in the area where E. Drake drilled his first oil well, it was believed that “oil is a liquid flowing out in drops from coal deposited in nearby hills, that it is useless to drill the ground for its extraction and that the only way to collect it is to dig trenches where it would accumulate.

However, the practical results of drilling wells have gradually changed this opinion. In addition, statistical data on the influence of the depth of wells on oil production testified to the need for the development of drilling: in 1872, the average daily oil production from one well 10 ... 11 m deep was 816 kg, in 14 ... 16 m - 3081 kg, and with a depth of over 20 m - already 11,200 kg.

During the operation of wells, oil producers sought to transfer them to the flowing mode, because. it was the easiest way to get it. The first powerful oil gusher in Balakhany struck in 1873 at the Khalafi site. In 1878, a large oil gusher was produced by a well drilled in the Z.A. Tagiyev in Bibi-Heybat. In 1887, 42% of the oil in Baku was produced by the fountain method.

Forced extraction of oil from wells led to the rapid depletion of the oil-bearing layers adjacent to their wellbore, and the rest (most) of it remained in the bowels. In addition, due to the lack of a sufficient number of storage facilities, significant oil losses occurred already on the surface of the earth. So, in 1887, 1088 thousand tons of oil were thrown out by fountains, and only 608 thousand tons were collected. Extensive oil lakes formed on the areas around the fountains, where the most valuable fractions were lost as a result of evaporation. The weathered oil itself became unsuitable for processing, and it was burned out. Stagnant oil lakes burned for many days in a row.

Oil production from wells, the pressure in which was insufficient for flowing, was carried out using cylindrical buckets up to 6 m long. A valve was arranged in their bottom, which opens when the bucket moves down and closes under the weight of the extracted fluid when the bucket pressure goes up. The method of extracting oil by means of bailers was called tartan.

First experiments on deep-well pumps for oil production were performed in the USA in 1865. In Russia, this method began to be used from 1876. However, the pumps quickly became clogged with sand and the oil owners continued to prefer the bailer. Of all the known methods of oil production, the main one remained the bailout method: in 1913, 95% of all oil was extracted with its help.

Nevertheless, engineering thought did not stand still. In the 70s of the XIX century. V.G. Shukhov suggested compressor method of oil extraction by supplying compressed air to the well (airlift). This technology was tested in Baku only in 1897. Another method of oil production - gas lift - was proposed by M.M. Tikhvinsky in 1914

Natural gas outlets from natural sources have been used by man since time immemorial. Later found the use of natural gas obtained from wells and wells. In 1902, the first well was drilled in Sura-Khany near Baku, which produced industrial gas from a depth of 207 m.

______________________________ ________________________

Department of Higher Mathematics and Applied Informatics

"History of the development of machines and equipment for oil and gas production"

Is done by a student

Checked:

Samara 2011

• Introduction ............................................................... ... ....

• The history of the development of mining from ancient times to the present ............................. .......................... .... .......

Introduction

Oil is a naturally combustible oily liquid, which consists of a mixture of hydrocarbons of the most diverse structure. Their molecules are both short chains of carbon atoms, and long, and normal, and branched, and closed in rings, and multi-ringed. In addition to hydrocarbons, oil contains small amounts of oxygen and sulfur compounds and very little nitrogen. Oil and combustible gas are found in the bowels of the earth both together and separately. Natural combustible gas consists of gaseous hydrocarbons - methane, ethane, propane.

Oil and combustible gas accumulate in porous rocks called reservoirs. A good reservoir is a sandstone bed embedded in impermeable rocks such as clays or shales that prevent oil and gas from leaking from natural reservoirs. The most favorable conditions for the formation of oil and gas deposits occur when the sandstone layer is bent into a fold, facing upwards. In this case, the upper part of such a dome is filled with gas, oil is located below, and even lower - water.

Scientists argue a lot about how oil and combustible gas deposits were formed. Some geologists - supporters of the hypothesis of inorganic origin - argue that oil and gas deposits were formed as a result of seepage from the depths of the Earth of carbon and hydrogen, their combination in the form of hydrocarbons and accumulation in reservoir rocks.

Other geologists, most of them, believe that oil, like coal, arose from organic matter buried deep under marine sediments, where combustible liquid and gas were released from it. This is an organic hypothesis of the origin of oil and combustible gas. Both of these hypotheses explain part of the facts, but leave the other part unanswered.

The complete development of the theory of the formation of oil and combustible gas is still waiting for its future researchers.

Groups of oil and gas fields, like fossil coal deposits, form gas and oil basins. They, as a rule, are confined to troughs of the earth's crust, in which sedimentary rocks occur; they contain layers of good reservoirs.

Our country has long known the Caspian oil-bearing basin, the development of which began in the Baku region. In the 1920s, the Volga-Ural basin was discovered, which was called the Second Baku.

In the 1950s, the world's largest oil and gas basin, the West Siberian, was discovered. Large basins are also known in other parts of the country - from the shores of the Arctic Ocean to the deserts of Central Asia. They are common both on the continents and under the bottom of the seas. Oil, for example, is extracted from the bottom of the Caspian Sea.

Russia occupies one of the first places in the world in terms of oil and gas reserves. The great advantage of these minerals is the comparative ease of their transportation. Pipelines transport oil and gas thousands of kilometers to factories, plants and power plants, where they are used as fuel, as raw materials for the production of gasoline, kerosene, oils and for the chemical industry.

Several stages can be traced in the formation and development of the oil and gas industry, each of which reflects a constant change in the ratio, on the one hand, of the scale of oil and gas consumption, and on the other, the degree of complexity of their extraction.

At the first stage of the emergence of the oil industry, due to the limited need for oil, it was extracted from a small number of fields, the development of which was not difficult. The main method of lifting oil to the surface was the simplest - flowing. Accordingly, the equipment used for oil production was also primitive.

At the second stage, the demand for oil increased, and the conditions for oil production became more complicated, there was a need to extract oil from reservoirs at greater depths from fields with more complex geological conditions. There were many problems associated with oil production and well operation. To do this, technologies have been developed for lifting liquids by gas-lift and pumping methods. Equipment for well operation by the flowing method, equipment for gas-lift operation of wells with powerful compressor stations, installations for the operation of wells with rod and rodless pumps, equipment for collecting, pumping, separating well products were created and introduced. Petroleum engineering gradually began to take shape. At the same time, a rapidly growing demand for gas arose, which led to the formation of a gas production industry, mainly based on gas and gas condensate fields. At this stage, industrialized countries began to develop the fuel and energy industries and chemistry through the predominant development of the oil and gas industry.

The history of the development of mining from ancient times to the present

The Russian Federation is one of the leading energy powers.

Currently, Russia accounts for more than 80% of the total oil and gas production and 50% of the coal of the former USSR, which is almost a seventh of the total production of primary energy resources in the world.

12.9% of the world's proven oil reserves and 15.4% of its production are concentrated in Russia.

It accounts for 36.4% of the world's gas reserves and 30.9% of its production.

The fuel and energy complex (FEC) of Russia is the core of the national economy, which ensures the vital activity of all sectors of the national economy, the consolidation) of the regions, the formation of a significant part of budget revenues and the main share of the country's foreign exchange earnings.

The fuel and energy complex accumulates 2/3 of the profit created in the branches of material production.

Insufficient replenishment of the resource base is beginning to limit the possibility of increasing oil and gas production.

An increase in per capita energy consumption by 2010, in extreme conditions of development of the economy, is possible through a set of measures for intensive energy saving, optimally sufficient export of energy resources with a slow increase in their production and a restrained investment policy focused on the most efficient projects.

In this case, the use of modern equipment that provides energy-saving technologies in oil production plays a significant role.

Known mine and borehole methods of oil production.

Stages of development of the mine method: digging holes (diggers) up to 2 m deep; construction of wells (pits) up to 35¸45 m deep, and construction of mine complexes of vertical, horizontal and inclined workings (rarely used in the extraction of viscous oils).

Until the beginning of the 80th century, oil was mainly extracted from diggers, which were planted with wattle.

As the oil accumulated, it was scooped out in bags and taken out to consumers.

The wells were fastened with a wooden frame, the final diameter of the cased well was usually from 0.6 to 0.9 m with some increase downwards to improve the flow of oil to its bottomhole.

The rise of oil from the well was carried out with the help of a manual gate (later a horse drive) and a rope to which a wineskin (leather bucket) was tied.

By the 70s of the XIX century. the main production in Russia and in the world already comes from oil wells. So, in 1878 there were 301 of them in Baku, the debit of which is many times greater than the debit of wells. Oil was extracted from wells with a bailer - a metal vessel (pipe) up to 6 m high, in the bottom of which a check valve is mounted, which opens when the bailer is immersed in liquid and closes when it moves up. The hoisting of the bailer (bagging) was carried out manually, then horse-drawn (early 70s of the 19th century) and with the help of a steam engine (80s).

The first deep pumps were used in Baku in 1876, and the first deep rod pump in Grozny in 1895. However, the tethering method remained the main one for a long time. For example, in 1913 in Russia 95% of oil was produced by gelation.

Displacement of oil from a well with compressed air or gas was proposed at the end of the 18th century, but the imperfection of compressor technology delayed the development of this method for more than a century, which is much less laborious compared to the tether method.

The fountain method of extraction was not formed by the beginning of our century either. From the numerous Fountains of the Baku region, oil spilled into ravines, rivers, created entire lakes, burned down, was irretrievably lost, polluted the soil, aquifers, and the sea.

Currently, the main method of oil production is pumping with the help of electric centrifugal pump units (ESP) and sucker rod pumps (SHSN).

Oil and gas. Fountain and gas lift methods of oil and gas production. Oil production gas pump

Oil is underground under such pressure that when a path is laid to it in the form of a well, it rushes to the surface. In productive strata, oil is predominantly deposited together with water supporting it. Located at different depths, the layers experience a certain pressure, corresponding to approximately one atmosphere per 10m of depth. Wells with a depth of 1000-1500-2000m have formation pressures of the order of 100-150-200 atm. Due to this pressure, oil moves along the reservoir to the well. As a rule, wells flow only at the beginning of their life cycle, i.e. immediately after drilling. After some time, the pressure in the reservoir decreases and the fountain dries up. Of course, if the operation of the well were stopped at this point, then more than 80% of the oil would remain underground. In the process of well development, a string of tubing (tubing) is lowered into it. When operating a well in a flowing way, special equipment is installed on the surface - a Christmas tree.

We will not understand all the details of this equipment.

We only note that this equipment is necessary for well control.

With the help of X-mas trees, oil production can be regulated - reduced or completely stopped.

After the pressure in the well decreases and the well begins to produce very little oil, experts believe it will be transferred to another method of operation. When extracting gas, the flowing method is the main one.

After the cessation of flowing due to lack of reservoir energy, they switch to a mechanized method of well operation, in which additional energy is introduced from the outside (from the surface). One such method, in which energy is introduced in the form of compressed gas, is gas lift. Gas lift (airlift) is a system consisting of a production (casing) string of pipes and tubing lowered into it, in which the liquid is lifted using compressed gas (air). Sometimes this system is called a gas (air) lift. The method of operating wells in this case is called gas lift.

According to the supply scheme, compressor and non-compressor gas lift are distinguished from the type of source of the working agent - gas (air), and according to the operation scheme - continuous and periodic gas lift.

High-pressure gas is injected into the annular space, as a result of which the liquid level in it will decrease, and in the tubing - increase. When the liquid level drops to the lower end of the tubing, compressed gas will begin to flow into the tubing and mix with the liquid. As a result, the density of such a gas-liquid mixture becomes lower than the density of the fluid coming from the reservoir, and the level in the tubing will increase.

The more gas is introduced, the lower will be the density of the mixture and the greater the height it will rise. With continuous gas supply to the well, the liquid (mixture) rises to the wellhead and pours out to the surface, and a new portion of liquid constantly flows from the reservoir into the well.

The flow rate of a gas-lift well depends on the amount and pressure of the injected gas, the depth of tubing immersion in the liquid, their diameter, the viscosity of the liquid, etc.

The designs of gas lifts are determined depending on the number of rows of tubing that is lowered into the well and the direction of compressed gas movement.

According to the number of rows of pipes to be lowered, the lifts are single- and double-row, and in the direction of gas injection - ring and central. With a single-row lift, one row of tubing is lowered into the well.

Compressed gas is injected into the annular space between the casing and tubing, and the gas-liquid mixture rises through the tubing, or the gas is injected through the tubing, and the gas-liquid mixture rises through the annulus. In the first case, we have a single-row lift of the ring system, and in the second - a single-row lift of the central system. With a two-row lift, two rows of concentrically arranged pipes are lowered into the well. If the compressed gas is directed into the annular space between two tubing strings, and the gas-liquid mixture rises through the internal risers, then such a riser is called a double-row annular system.

Oil extraction with pumps

According to statistics, only slightly more than 13% of all wells in Russia are operated by flowing and gas lift methods (although these wells produce more than 30% of all Russian oil). In general, the statistics by operation methods look like this:

Well operation with rod pumps

When talking about the oil business, an average person has an image of two machines - a drilling rig and a pumping unit.

Short description

Oil is a naturally combustible oily liquid, which consists of a mixture of hydrocarbons of the most diverse structure. Their molecules are both short chains of carbon atoms, and long, and normal, and branched, and closed in rings, and multi-ringed. In addition to hydrocarbons, oil contains small amounts of oxygen and sulfur compounds and very little nitrogen. Oil and combustible gas are found in the bowels of the earth both together and separately.

Content

Introduction ................................................ .......
The history of the development of mining from ancient times to the present .............................................. ...........
Oil and gas. Fountain and gas-lift methods of oil and gas production............d.ob
Extraction of oil using pumps ..............
Classification and composition of machinery and equipment for oil and gas production..................................

The beginning of oil production in Russia was laid by the discovery of the first industrial oil field near the village of Krymskaya (now the city of Krymsk) in the Kudako exploration area, where in a well drilled in 1864 by Colonel of the Russian Mining Department A.V. Novosiltsev, a free flow of oil was obtained. Almost simultaneously in the United States, similar results were noted in well 1, drilled in Pennsylvania by Colonel A. Drake. The further development of the oil and, since the beginning of the 20th century, the gas industry in the world, initiated by these countries, continued to successfully expand, covering more and more new states, not only neighboring them, but also on other continents.

Five main stages can be distinguished in the development of the oil and gas industries in Russia, the USA and the world: initial (before 1900), defining (before 1950), selectively active (before 1960), generally intensive (before 1980) and modern (to the present).

The initial stage is characterized by moderate rates of formation of the oil and gas industry in Russia, the USA and a number of other countries in Europe, America, and Asia. In Russia, the main oil production areas at that time were Baku, Groznensky, Maikop, Embensky, Chelekensky and Ferghana, with the first two accounting for about 96%, and the rest - 4.1%. The total oil production in Russia, reaching 10.6 million tons in 1900, and natural gas - 7 billion m3 was a record in the world (in the USA, respectively, 9 million tons and 6.6 billion m3) with a total oil production in the world 19.9 million tons and gas 14 billion m3. A small amount of hydrocarbon raw materials at that time was mined in Romania, Venezuela, India and other countries.

The defining stage is characterized by the development of the oil industry in more than 60 countries of the world with a noticeable influence of the oil industry in Russia and the United States. In Russia, oil production was carried out in the North Caucasus and Azerbaijan, where in the Maykop region, thanks to the work of the talented oil scientist I.M. Gubkin in 1910 near the station. Oil was discovered the world's first "sleeve-shaped" deposit of light oil, which marked the beginning of the oil "boom" in the North Caucasus. More than 100 oil and gas deposits are put into development here, incl. the famous Khadyzhensko-Neftegorsk zone of gulf-like lithological accumulations of oil, which in the 1930s ensured a high level of annual production - more than 2 million tons.

Notable for this stage was the reversal of prospecting and exploration in most oil and gas regions of the country, incl. in the Volga-Ural, Timan-Pechora, Grozny, Apsheron, Caspian, West Turkmen, Amu Darya, Ferghana, Dnieper-Pripyat and others. In many cases, the reversal of exploration work was preceded by the forecasts of I.M. Gubkin, primarily in the Volga-Ural province. The stratigraphic range of commercial oil and gas content reached its maximum from the Devonian to the Miocene deposits, and the level of oil production in the former USSR increased by 1940 to 31.5 million tons, gas - up to 3.7 billion m3. By 1950, the annual production of oil in the USSR increased to 45.7 million tons, gas - up to 5.8 billion m3. The most important scientific task that was solved at this stage was the development of theoretically substantiated criteria for searching for zones of maximum concentration of hydrocarbons in the section of the sedimentary cover.

Of the foreign countries in this period, the highest and most stable oil production - more than 120 million tons and gas 65-70 billion m3 - was characterized by the United States. Many countries of Europe (Romania, Bulgaria, France, Poland), Asia and the Middle East (India, China, Indonesia, Pakistan, Iran, Iraq, Saudi Arabia), America (Canada, Mexico, Venezuela, Argentina, Brazil), Africa (Algeria, Libya, Nigeria, Egypt). By 1950, there was an increase in world oil and natural gas production, which reached 520 million tons and 290 billion m3.

The third, selectively active stage, which lasted until 1960, was determined by the local intensity of geological exploration, up to large-scale, with significant increases in resources and industrial reserves of oil and gas. So, thanks to the theoretically substantiated forecast of the high prospects of the West Siberian province, made by Academician I.M. Gubkin back in the 30s, exploration work in the north of the region in 1953 revealed the first large Berezovskoye gas field. The development of the oil and gas industry in Russia at this stage was marked by the discovery in 1956 of a number of major gas and gas condensate fields in the North Caucasus, as well as oil fields in Tataria, Bashkiria, the Kuibyshev and Perm regions, including the Romashkino oil giant.

At the same time, by conducting regional geological and geophysical studies, a base was being prepared for the development of large-scale prospecting and exploration work in the main oil and gas regions of the country, which had previously received theoretical confirmation of high prospects: in the northern and central parts of the West Siberian province, Timan-Pechora, Volga-Ural, North Caucasian-Mangyshlak , Amu Darya provinces, Western Kazakhstan, Eastern Siberia and Sakhalin. Due to the high activity of geological exploration and the noted discoveries, oil production in the country increased by 1960 to 147 million tons, gas - 48-50 billion m3.

In foreign countries, in the period under review, there was a progressive development of the oil and gas industries, and primarily in the USA, with annual production exceeding 230-240 million tons of oil and 120 billion m3 of hydrocarbon gas; high stable levels of oil and gas production and, respectively, from 50 to 100 million tons and from 20 to 60 billion m3 remained in Venezuela, Canada, Mexico, Saudi Arabia (including the Arab Emirates), Algeria, Libya and Nigeria. Oil production is also intensifying in other countries of Europe, Asia and America, which was noted in the previous stage. In 1960, the world produced over 1.4 billion tons of oil and about 640 billion m3 of natural gas.

The most remarkable in terms of the rate of development of the oil and gas industries, characterized by maximum values, is the fourth stage, called the stage of general intensification of the development of industries and oil and gas production, which lasted until 1980. In our country, the annual average increase in oil production at that time was at least 20 million tons, and in the period from 1971 to 1980. in some years it reached 25-28 million tons, gas - 25-30 billion m3. Major discoveries, based on a reliable theoretical basis, were made in the West Siberian oil and gas province, on the Yamal Peninsula (more than 20 oil and gas giants), Volga-Ural (8 oil giants), Timano-Pechora (3 unique oil and 1 unique gas condensate fields) ; supergiant oil and gas and gas condensate deposits were discovered in the Caspian, Amudarya and North Caucasian-Mangyshlak provinces. All this made it possible by 1971 to bring the level of annual oil production to 372 million tons, and gas to 198 billion m3; in 1975, 491 million tons and 289 billion m3 were produced, and in 1980 - 603 million tons and 435 billion m3.

The discovery of oil and gas fields within the new highly promising lands of the Leno-Tunguska and Lena-Vilyui provinces significantly strengthened the country's resource base, and the discovery of the Baltic oil-bearing region showed significant untapped reserves of adjacent water areas. This stage is also notable for the development of the oil and gas potential of the shelves of the marginal and inland seas and the active preparation of new highly promising territories by regional work on the Arctic shelves of the Barents, Kara and Pechora Seas.

For foreign countries, this period was characterized by the identification of highly productive complexes and many of the largest, incl. unique, oil and gas fields. In the United States, thanks to the discovery of more than 160 especially large fields, oil production by 1974 reached the maximum value in the entire history of the US oil industry - 534 million tons, gas produced over 490 billion m3. Notable in the development of the oil industry is the discovery within the Arctic part of Alaska of the unique Prudhoe Bay oil field (about 2 billion tons) in terms of reserves. Also, for the first time in the world, in the conditions of the high-mountain fold-thrust system of the Eastern Rocky Mountains, about 30 large gas condensate and gas condensate-oil fields were discovered, confirming the high prospects of fold-thrust belts, in particular, the West Ural belt of the Timan-Pechora province.

By 1980, the production of oil and natural gas in the United States amounted to over 435 million tons and 610 billion m3, respectively. The high level of annual gas production was ensured by the development of gas giants, primarily such as Panhandle, Hugoton, etc. At the same time, oil production in Mexico is growing (up to 95 million tons) and remains high in Venezuela (120 million tons) and Canada (70- 75 million tons). By 1980, oil and natural gas production increased in European countries due to the development of fields in the North Sea-German province and others, especially in Great Britain (89 million tons, 52 billion m3), Norway (92 million tons, 18 billion m3) , and gas - in the Netherlands (up to 75 billion m3).

Oil production continues to be high in the countries of the Near and Middle East, primarily in Saudi Arabia, where the annual levels of oil production provided with resources vary depending on the situation from 265 to 496 million tons (1980), averaging in Iraq 130, in Iran - 75 million tons; these countries, including the Arab Emirates, account for about 40 supergiant oil fields, including unique, the largest in the world - Ghawar (10.4 billion tons of recoverable reserves) and Burgan (9.6 billion tons).

The resource potential of Asian and African countries has increased significantly due to new major discoveries on the shelves of marginal seas. By the end of the stage, annual oil and gas production amounted to 106 million tons and 65 billion m3 in China, 10 million tons and 12 billion m3 in India, 78 million tons and 16 billion m3 in Indonesia; in Nigeria - 104 million tons and 18 billion m3, Algeria - 97 million tons and 29 billion m3, Libya - 86 million tons and 14 billion m3. Thus, the ever-increasing importance of oil and gas in the world economy has led to a rapid increase in their production, the dynamics of which is shown in Fig. 5.

At the turn of the 1960s and 1970s, world oil production almost doubled the level of 1960, amounting to 2.379 billion tons, and natural gas reached 956 billion m3. By 1975, world oil production amounted to 2.560 billion tons, gas production exceeded 1.10 trillion. m3, in 1980 the level of oil production was the highest in the entire previous history - 2.974 billion tons, natural gas - 1.330 trillion. m3.

During the stage under consideration, the development of theoretical foundations and defining indicators of a separate quantitative forecast of oil and gas potential prospects, scientifically substantiated placement of the resource base of hydrocarbon raw materials and directed search for deposits continued. Regional geological, geophysical and geological exploration work was carried out on highly promising lands in order to prepare top-priority targets for the search for new large and unique deposits, incl. on the shelf of external and internal seas of our country and most countries of the world.

The current stage of development of the oil and gas industry in our country and most countries of the world is characterized by the progressive expansion of the hydrocarbon resource base due to the commissioning of priority facilities with the highest density of resources. In the fuel and energy complex of Russia, the dominant role at that time was played by oil and gas production in the West Siberian oil and gas province, which in 1980 amounted to 247 million tons and 228 billion m3; the annual growth rate of oil production at that time reached 24-25 million tons, gas - 26-27 billion m3, which indicates real reserves for the further development of the industry. As a result, the production of Siberian oil and natural gas in 1986 amounted to 365 million tons and 374 billion m3, while in total the country produced 619 million tons of oil and 643 billion m3 of gas. Due to the aggravation of the economic situation in the country since 1988, a decline in the annual amount of oil produced began with a continuing increase (at a slower pace) in gas production to 738 billion m3 in 1990. The latter is associated with new discoveries other unique gas condensate fields, including those on the adjacent Arctic shelf.

The transition to market economic relations in Russia since 1991, the collapse of the USSR and a sharp reduction in funding for exploration led to the total collapse of the oil industry. The gas industry, which has not survived such a deep crisis, based on the presence of a large developing resource base and the timely involvement of prepared fields in development in areas with a well-developed gas production infrastructure, has maintained a steady trend of further increasing gas production.

The decline in oil production in Russia to 390 million tons in 1991 and 265.5 million tons in 1995 required urgent measures to activate it. The process of stabilizing oil production in the country is possible in the coming years, mainly through the use of new advanced technologies for field development and the expansion of the resource base, as well as the commissioning of new large fields, including in deep zones in areas with developed oil production infrastructure. The degree of development of the resource base of HC raw materials for the main oil and gas regions of the country by the beginning of 1999 is shown in fig. 6.

Since 2000, simultaneously with the growth of gas production in the world to 2.2 trillion. m3 per year in Russia, there is a progressive development of both oil and gas production, and above all in the most promising regions, where it will not only be more economically and cost-effective, but also environmentally sound. Such regions are mainly oil-bearing Sredneobskaya, Frolovskaya oil-bearing, Yamal gas-oil-bearing regions of the West Siberian province, the Baltic oil-bearing region, the Arctic gas-oil-bearing shelf of the Barents and Pechora seas; for oil and gas - the Caspian, and in the future, the Lena-Tunguska province and the Arctic shelf of the Kara Sea. Despite ongoing economic difficulties, by 2005 oil production in Russia is projected to be about 400-425 million tons, and natural gas - at least 775 billion m3.

Of the foreign countries, one should single out those in which there was a steady increase in oil and gas production due to a large domestic resource base. Further, a group of countries where, with their own powerful oil and gas potential, due to market considerations, discrete stability was maintained in the production of hydrocarbon raw materials, as well as countries with declining production. The former include those whose resource base has been progressively developing throughout the entire period, replenished by discovered new giant oil and gas fields. On the American continent, among such countries, as can be seen from Fig. 7, include Canada and Mexico with modern levels of oil and natural gas production, respectively, 105-110 million tons, 96.5-99 billion m3 and 155-160 million tons, 42-45 billion m3, which continue to grow. In Europe and Asia, the UK (up to 134 million tons, 65-75 billion m3), China (up to 170-180 million tons, 73-75 billion m3), Indonesia (up to 80- 85 million tons, 44-45 billion m3).

The second group of countries includes the United States, where restrictions are mainly associated with the creation of a state strategic reserve, Venezuela, Norway, the Netherlands (for gas), Saudi Arabia, Iran, Iraq, Algeria, Libya and Nigeria, where hydrocarbon production has stabilized at the level, respectively. : 435-440 million tons and 600-610 billion m3; 95-100 million tons and 18-20 billion m3; 125-135 million tons and 35-40 billion m3; 90-100 billion m3; 280-290 million tons; 115-125 million tons; 85-95 million tons; 50-55 million tons and 30-35 billion m3; 45-50 million tons; 75-80 million tons and 30-35 billion m3.

The third group of countries with relatively low levels of self-sufficiency and hydrocarbon production (20-30 million standard tons) includes Romania, Germany, France, Italy, Bulgaria, Argentina, Egypt, Syria, Tunisia, Angola.

Further development of the oil and gas industries in Russia and leading foreign countries will be based on a strictly balanced development of energy resources and a gradual reduction in the share of oil and gas with their adequate replacement in the first half of the 21st century with thermonuclear energy sources. The oil potential in the world, including water areas, is at least 400 billion tons, which, with modern oil recovery technologies and annual oil consumption in the world of about 2.0 billion tons, can ensure a stable long-term level of its production. The gas potential of the world is more than twice as large as oil equivalent fuel and, with modern gas extraction technologies at the level of annual world consumption (up to 1.0 trillion m3), is capable of creating conditions for sustainable progressive development of the industry.

Thus, taking into account the balanced nature of the use of hydrocarbon and other energy resources with full environmental security of oil and gas production, as well as the current level of production and consumption of hydrocarbon raw materials in the world, a further forecast of the state and strengthening of the resource base can be justified. Oil, gas, condensate, and in the future, at least until the end of the 21st century, will retain a leading role not only as energy, but also as a balanced technological source of raw materials in Russia and in most foreign countries of the world. The theoretical basis for quantitative forecasting of oil and gas content and scientific justification for the directed search for oil and gas fields will be carried out in the new century in invariant forms of mathematical modeling for specific geological and geochemical conditions using more advanced genetic concepts and models.

480 rub. | 150 UAH | $7.5 ", MOUSEOFF, FGCOLOR, "#FFFFCC",BGCOLOR, "#393939");" onMouseOut="return nd();"> Thesis - 480 rubles, shipping 10 minutes 24 hours a day, seven days a week and holidays

Myachina Ksenia Viktorovna Geoecological consequences of oil and gas production in the Orenburg Cis-Urals: dissertation ... Candidate of Geographical Sciences: 25.00.36 Orenburg, 2007 168 p. RSL OD, 61:07-11/130

Introduction

Chapter 1. Landscape and ecological conditions of the study area 10

1.1. Geographical location and natural zoning 10

1.2. Geological structure and relief 12

1.2.1. Geology 12

1.2.2. Tectonics and analysis of the distribution of hydrocarbon deposits 15

1.2.3. Geomorphology and main landforms 18

1.3. Climatic conditions 19

1.4. Hydrological conditions 22

1.5. Soil and vegetation cover 27

1.6. Terrain types 30

1.7. Potential environmental sustainability of landscapes in the Orenburg Cis-Urals 32

1.7.1. Approaches to the definition of sustainability 32

1.7.2. Ranking the study area according to the degree of potential environmental sustainability 36

Chapter 2. Materials and methods of research 38

Chapter 3 Characteristics of the oil and gas complex 43

3.1. History of development of oil and gas production in the world and Russia 43

3.2. History of development of oil and gas production in the Orenburg region 47

3.3. Characteristics of production and transportation facilities 56 hydrocarbon raw materials

Chapter 4 Impact of oil and gas facilities on the environment 70

4.1. Main types and sources of impact 70

4.2. Impact on the components of the natural environment 73

4.2.1. Impact on ground and surface waters 73

4.2.2. Impact on soil and vegetation cover 79

4.2.3. Impact on the atmosphere 99

Chapter 5 Assessment of the geoecological state of the regions of the Orenburg Cis-Urals 102

5.1. Classification of areas according to the degree of technogenic transformation 102

5.2. Geoecological zoning of the Orenburg Urals in connection with the development of oil and gas production 116

Chapter 6. STRONG Problems of protection and optimization of landscapes under the influence

STRONG 122 oil and gas production

6.1. Landscape protection in the oil and gas fields of Russia and the Orenburg Urals 122

6.2. The problem of interaction of oilfield facilities with unique natural objects (on the example of Buzuluk pine forest) 127

6.3. The main directions of landscape optimization in the Orenburg Cis-Urals 130

Conclusion 134

References 136

Photo application 159

Introduction to work

Relevance of the topic. The Orenburg region is one of the leading oil and gas producing regions in the European part of Russia and occupies one of the first places in terms of its oil and gas resource potential. At the beginning of 2004, 203 hydrocarbon deposits were discovered in the region, of which 157 are in exploration and development, 41 are in conservation and state reserves, 5 deposits are not registered due to small reserves (see Figure 1) . Most of the deposits and further prospects for the development of the oil and gas industry in the Orenburg region are associated with its western part, geographically this is the territory of the Orenburg Urals.

The oil and gas industry in the Orenburg region is of predominant importance in the regional economy. At the same time, oil and gas production facilities have a diverse and growing impact on natural complexes and are one of the main causes of environmental imbalance in the regions. In the territories of oil and gas fields, natural landscapes have been transformed into natural-technogenic complexes, where deep, often irreversible changes are found. The reasons for these changes are pollution of the natural environment as a result of oil spills and interstratal waters, emissions of hydrogen sulfide-containing gases into the atmosphere, the impact of oil and gas production on the geological environment during well drilling, associated earthworks, construction and installation, laying work, the movement of transport and construction equipment.

Numerous accidents in pipeline transport of all ranks are a constant factor in the deterioration of the state of natural complexes with a developed hydrocarbon production network.

The oil and gas transportation system of the Orenburg region began to be created in the 40s of the 20th century. Most of the pipeline system, both trunk and field, needs to be reconstructed due to

5 a high degree of deterioration and non-compliance with existing environmental and technological requirements, and, as a result, a high percentage of emergency gusts.

Insufficient knowledge and incomplete understanding of the changes taking place in landscapes can cause an ecological crisis, and in some cases, ecological disasters. Therefore, it is necessary to determine the regularity and degree of change in landscape complexes in order to identify trends in their further transformation in the process of this type of nature management. This may contribute to the development of recommendations to prevent further negative consequences and ensure the environmental safety of the region.

Goals and objectives of the study. The aim of the work is a geoecological assessment of the impact of oil and gas facilities on the natural environment of the Orenburg Cisurals.

To achieve this goal, we decided the following tasks:

The analysis of the current state, the structure of accommodation and
trends in the further development of the oil and gas complex
region;

The main factors and geoecological consequences are identified
technogenic changes and disturbances of landscapes on the territory
oil and gas fields;

The differentiation of the territory of the Orenburg Cis-Urals according to
levels of technogenic transformation of landscapes, based on the system
identifications and generalizations of the main indicators characterizing the degree
technogenic load;

"- a scheme of geo-ecological zoning of the study area was developed on the basis of the differentiation carried out, taking into account the potential environmental sustainability of natural complexes to technogenic impact;

on the basis of modern national and regional environmental policy and practice of oil and gas producing enterprises, basic directions for optimizing nature management and environmental activities have been developed.

Object of study are the natural complexes of the Orenburg Cis-Urals, which are under the influence of oil and gas production facilities.

Subject of study is the current geo-ecological situation in the areas of oil and gas production, the degree of man-made transformation. landscape complexes and their dynamics in connection with the development of this industry.

The following main provisions are put forward for defense:

long-term and large-scale development of oil and gas fields has led to various disturbances of landscape components in the Orenburg Cis-Urals and led to the formation of natural-technogenic complexes that have changed the natural-landscape structure of the territory;

scoring of diagnostic indicators of technogenic impact on areas and the assessment scale of levels of technogenic transformation of landscapes created on its basis makes it possible to distinguish 6 groups of regions of the Orenburg Cis-Urals, differing in the levels of technogenic transformation of natural complexes;

categories of geoecological stress are an integral indicator of the disturbed balance of environmental components in oil and gas production areas and depend not only on the scale and depth of the impact of oil and gas fields, but also on the ecological stability of landscapes at the level of regional and typological units. A scheme for zoning the territory of the Orenburg Cis-Urals by categories of geoecological tension has been developed.

7
the most important indicator of the depth of impact of oil and gas production
on the landscapes of the region is the current ecological state
key natural areas (objects of natural heritage). Development
and preservation of the network of protected areas and the formation of a landscape-ecological
framework, with the obligatory implementation of monitoring, is a tool
counteract further negative impact

oil and gas fields on the natural environment. Scientific novelty

For the first time, the analysis of the current geoecological situation is given in the work.
on the territory of the Orenburg Urals in connection with intensive exploration and
development of hydrocarbon deposits;

For the first time for the territory of the Orenburg Urals used
systemic landscape-ecological approach to research
patterns of changes in natural complexes in areas
oil and gas production;

It has been established that oil and gas production areas are the main centers of ecological disaster and areas of reduced agricultural productivity;

Based on existing schemes of natural and agro-climatic
areas proposed a scheme of potential natural sustainability
landscapes of the Orenburg Urals;

the study area was differentiated according to the levels of technogenic transformation of landscapes and the categories of geoecological tension were introduced, reflecting the geoecological state of the selected areas.

The practical significance of the work is determined by the identification of a significant negative role of oil and gas production as a source of specific impact on the components of the landscapes of the Orenburg Cis-Urals. As a result of the research, information was obtained on the state of natural complexes and the main patterns of their

8 changes in the territories of oil fields. Proposed approaches are promising for determining the level of technogenic transformation of landscapes affected by oil and gas production in various regions. The identified features of the state of natural complexes will provide a differentiated approach to the development of measures for their optimization and conservation in the process of further nature management.

The use of the research results is confirmed by acts on
implementation by the Committee for the Protection of the Environment and Natural Resources
Orenburg region when planning and organizing events for
environmental activities. Created information base
was also used for scientific studies of JSC

OrenburgNIPIneft.

Applicant's personal contribution consists: in the direct participation of the author in field landscape and geoecological studies; analysis and systematization of literary and stock data; development of an assessment scale for the technogenic transformation of natural complexes; substantiation of the scheme of potential natural stability of landscapes of the study area.

Approbation of work and publication.

The main provisions of the dissertation work were reported by the author at scientific and practical conferences, symposiums and schools-seminars of various levels: regional scientific and practical conferences of young scientists and specialists (Orenburg, 2003, 2004, 2005); youth international conference "Ecology-2003" (Arkhangelsk, 2003); Third Republican school-conference "Youth and Russia's paths to sustainable development" (Krasnoyarsk, 2003); The second international scientific conference "Biotechnology - environmental protection" and the third school-conference of young scientists and students "Conservation of biodiversity and rational use of biological resources"

9 (Moscow, 2004); International conference "Natural heritage of Russia: study, monitoring, protection" (Tolyatti, 2004); All-Russian Scientific Conference dedicated to the 200th anniversary of Kazan University (Kazan, 2004); All-Russian conference of young scientists and students "Actual problems of ecology and environmental protection" (Ufa, 2004); Second Siberian International Conference of Young Scientists on Earth Sciences (Novosibirsk, 2004). Based on the results of the work, the author received a youth grant from the Ural Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences. In 2005, the author became a laureate of the competition of scientific works of young scientists and specialists of the Orenburg region for the work "Ecological and geographical zoning of the oil and gas bearing territory of the Orenburg region."

15 papers have been published on the topic of the dissertation. Scope and structure of work. The dissertation consists of an introduction, 6 chapters, a conclusion, a list of references and 1 photo applications. The total volume of the thesis -170 pages including 12 drawings and 12 tables. References contains 182 source.

Tectonics and analysis of the distribution of hydrocarbon deposits

Favorable geological structures for the accumulation of large masses of oil and gas are domes and anticlines.

Hydrocarbons have a lower specific gravity than water and rocks, so they are squeezed out of the parent rocks in which they were formed and move up the cracks and layers of porous rocks, such as sandstones, conglomerates, limestones. Encountering on their way horizons of dense impermeable rocks, such as clays or shale, these minerals accumulate under them, filling all the pores, cracks, voids.

Commercial oil and gas deposits discovered in the region are usually confined to swells and isometric or linearly elongated structural zones (Tatar arch, Mukhanovo-Erokhov trough, Sol-Iletsk arched uplift, near-shore zone of the Caspian syneclise, East Orenburg swell-like uplift , Cis-Ural foredeep). The maximum oil reserves are confined to the Mukhanovo-Erokhovskiy trough, and gas reserves - to the Sol-Iletsk domed uplift (see Figure 2) .

According to the petrogeological zoning, the western part of the Orenburg region belongs to the Volga-Ural and Caspian oil and gas provinces. On the territory of the region, the Volga-Ural province includes the Tatar, Middle Volga, Ufa-Orenburg and South Urals oil and gas regions (NTO).

The Tatar NTO is confined to the southern slopes of the Tatar arch. The Middle Volga NTO is subdivided into the Mukhanovo-Erokhovskiy and Yuzhno-Buzulukskiy oil and gas regions, they correspond to the northern part of the Buzuluk depression (the central part of the Mukhanovo-Erokhovskiy trough) and its southern logloading. The Ufimsko-Orenburg NTO is subdivided into the East Orenburg and Sol-Iletsk oil and gas regions, the South Urals oil and gas region includes the Sakmaro-Iletsk oil and gas region. The Caspian oil and gas province in the territory of the region is tectonically represented by the marginal ledge of the Caspian syneclise and its inner marginal zone. In the area of ​​the northern outer wall of the Mukhanovo-Erokhov trough, the main oil reserves are confined to the Devonian terrigenous complex. Part of the resources is associated with the Lower Carboniferous deposits. The prospective oil reserves of the inner northern side of the Mukhanovo-Erokhov trough are associated with the Devonian terrigenous complex, the Vereian terrigenous subcomplex, and the Visean terrigenous complex. In the axial zone of the Mukhanovo-Erokhov trough, the main oil deposits are associated with Devonian terrigenous formations. The Mogutovskoye, Gremyachevskoye, Tverdilovskoye, Vorontsovskoye and Novokazanskoye oil fields are confined to this zone. The reserves of the southern outer marginal zone of the Mukhanovo-Erokhov trough are concentrated in the Franco-Tournaisian carbonate and Visean terrigenous complexes. Bobrovskaya, Dolgovsko-Shulaevskaya, Pokrovsko-Sorochinsky, Malakhovskaya, Solonovskaya and Tikhonovskaya areas were identified within it. Geological exploration work is being carried out in promising areas of the marginal zone of the Caspian syneclise, the East Orenburg swell-like uplift, the Cis-Ural marginal trough. In these areas, the northern side of the Sol-Iletsk domed uplift is relatively well studied. Prospective gas reserves at the Orenburg field are in the main Upper Carboniferous-Lower Permian strata. In the marginal zone of the Caspian syneclise, large deposits of oil are associated with the productive layers of the Devonian and Carboniferous, gas - with deposits of the Lower Permian and Carboniferous. Within the East Orenburg swell-like uplift, the largest reserves have been identified in comparison with the resources of other geostructural elements of the Orenburg region. They are mainly associated with the Devonian terrigenous, Franco-Tournaisian carbonate and Visean terrigenous complexes. The degree of exploration of promising deposits, the region is high, but uneven. This is especially true of the southern regions, which are associated with the main prospects for oil and gas. For example, in the marginal part of the Caspian depression, the density of deep drilling is more than 3 times less than the average for the region. A potential region in which it is necessary to predict the discovery of large deposits in the longer term is the Cis-Ural marginal trough. This area has large unexplored resources of free gas and oil, the degree of development of which is only 11 and 2%, respectively. The region has a very advantageous geographic and economic position. due to proximity to the Orenburg gas complex. The most realistic prospects for the discovery of new fields in the near future in the area of ​​activity of JSC "Orenburgneft" in the southern part of the Buzuluk depression and the western part of the East Orenburg uplift. There is a unanimous opinion about the high prospects of the Devonian in the southern part of the region within the Rubezhinsky uncompensated trough. In this region, we can count on the discovery of large and medium-sized deposits associated with block-steps by analogy with the Zaikinskaya and Rostashinsky groups of deposits.

The history of the development of oil and gas production in the world and Russia

Until the middle of the 19th century, oil was extracted in small quantities (2-5 thousand tons per year) from shallow wells near its natural outlets to the surface. Then the industrial revolution predetermined a wide demand for fuels and lubricants. The demand for oil began to rise.

With the introduction of oil drilling in the late 60s of the XIX century, world oil production increased tenfold, from 2 to 20 million tons by the end of the century. In 1900, oil was produced in 10 countries: Russia, the USA, the Dutch East India, Romania, Austria-Hungary, India, Japan, Canada, Germany, Peru. Almost half of the total world oil production came from Russia (9,927 thousand tons) and the USA (8,334 thousand tons).

Throughout the 20th century, world oil consumption continued to grow at a rapid pace. On the eve of the First World War, in 1913, the main oil-producing countries were: the USA, Russia, Mexico, Romania, the Dutch East Indies, Burma and India, Poland.

In 1938, 280 million tons of oil were already produced in the world. After the Second World War, the geography of production expanded significantly. In 1945, already 45 countries produced over 350 million tons of oil. In 1950, world oil production (549 million tons) almost doubled the pre-war level and in subsequent years doubled every 10 years: 1,105 million tons in 1960, 2,337.6 million tons in 1970. In 1973 - 1974 as a result of many years of struggle of 13 developing oil-producing countries, united in the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), and their victory over the International Oil Cartel, there was an almost fourfold increase in world oil prices. This caused a deep energy crisis, from which the world emerged in the late 1970s and early 1980s. The established excessively high oil prices forced the developed countries to actively introduce oil-saving technologies. The maximum world oil production - 3,109 million tons (3,280 million tons with condensate) occurred in 1979. But by 1983, production dropped to 2,637 million tons, and then began to increase again. In 1994, 3,066 million tons of oil were produced in the world. The total world oil production accumulated since the beginning of the development of oil fields amounted to about 98.5 billion tons by 1995. Natural gas was first used in 1821 in the USA for lighting. A century later, in the 1920s, the United States was far ahead of other countries in the use of gas. The total world production of natural gas for every 20 years increased by 3-4 or more times: 1901-1920. - 0.3 trillion. m3; 1921-1940 - 1.0 trillion. m3; 1941-1960TG. - 4.8 trillion. m3; 1960-1980 - 21.0 trillion. m3. In 1986, 1,704 billion m of natural gas was produced in the world. In 1993, the total production of natural gas in the world amounted to 2663.4 billion m3. Oil and gas production in the USSR and Russia In pre-revolutionary Russia, the largest oil production was in 1901 - 11.9 million tons. This amounted to more than half of the entire world oil production. On the eve of the First World War (1913), 10.3 million tons of oil were produced in Russia, and at the end of the war (1917) - 8.8 million tons. The oil industry, almost completely destroyed during the years of the world and civil war began to revive since 1920. Before the Second World War, the main oil regions of the USSR were located in Azerbaijan and Ciscaucasia. In 1940, oil production in the USSR reached 31.1 million tons (of which 22.2 million tons in Azerbaijan; 7.0 million tons in the RSFSR). But during the war years, production decreased significantly and amounted to 19.4 million tons in 1945 (11.5 million tons in Azerbaijan; 5.7 million tons in the RSFSR). The share of oil in industry at that time was occupied by coal. In the war and post-war years, new oil fields were consistently involved in the development. In September 1943, a powerful oil fountain was received in Bashkiria from an exploration well near the village of Kinzebulatovo. This made it possible to sharply increase oil production here at the height of the Great Patriotic War. A year later, the first oil was obtained from the Devonian deposits at the Tuymazinskoye field. In 1946, the first oil (Bavlinskoye) field was discovered in Tataria. In the same period, the Romashkinskoye oil field, famous for its reserves, appeared here. In 1950, oil production in the USSR (37.9 million tons) surpassed the pre-war level. The main oil-producing region of the country was a vast territory located between the Volga and the Urals, including the rich oil fields of Bashkiria and Tatarstan, and called the "Second Baku". By 1960, oil production had increased almost 4 times compared to 1950. Devonian deposits became the most powerful oil-bearing complex in the Volga-Ural oil and gas province. Since 1964, the commercial exploitation of West Siberian oil fields has begun. This made it possible to increase oil production in the country in 1970 more than doubled compared to 1960 (353.0 million tons) and to increase annual increases in oil production to 25-30 million tons. In 1974, the USSR took first place in the world in terms of oil production. The West Siberian oil and gas province, which has become the main base for oil and gas production since the mid-1970s, provided more than half of all oil produced in the country. In the first half of the 1980s, the USSR produced 603-616 million tons of oil (with condensate). But in 1985, production fell sharply to 595 million tons, although according to the "Basic Directions for the Economic and Social Development of the National Economy of the USSR", in 1985 it was planned to produce 628 million tons of oil. The maximum oil production in the country - 624.3 million tons - was reached in 1988. Then a decline began - 305.6 million tons in 1997, after which production began to increase again (see Fig. 5). In most of the old oil-producing regions of the North Caucasus and in the Ural-Volga region, the decline in oil production occurred long before 1988. But it was offset by an increase in production in the Tyumen region. Therefore, a sharp drop in oil production in the Tyumen region after 1988 (on average, by 7.17% per year) caused an equally significant drop in the USSR as a whole (by 7.38% per year) and in Russia.

Main types and sources of impact

All technological facilities of the oil and gas complex are powerful sources of negative impact on various components of natural systems. The impact can be divided into several types: chemical, mechanical, radiation, biological, thermal, noise. The main types of impact that cause the most significant damage to the natural environment in the process of the type of nature management under consideration are chemical and mechanical impacts.

Chemical impacts include pollution of soils (the most common impact factor), surface and ground waters with oil and oil products; contamination of landscape components with highly mineralized formation waters, drilling fluids, corrosion inhibitors and other chemicals; air pollution by emissions of harmful substances. Potential sources of chemical impact on the environment are all objects of the oilfield and pipeline systems: drilling rigs, wells for various purposes, tank farms and other objects as part of oilfield facilities, infield and main pipelines.

When drilling, the main source of chemical pollution is drilling fluids, buffer fluids, components injected into productive strata to enhance oil recovery, corrosion and scale inhibitors, and hydrogen sulfide. Drilling sites have pits designed to store drill cuttings, formation waters and other liquid wastes (see photo attachment, photo 1). Damage to the walls of the barns and their overflow leads to leakage of the contents and pollution of the surrounding areas. Of particular danger is open emergency flowing from a well, as a result of which tens of tons of oil can enter the environment. Pollution of the natural environment with oil and oil products is one of the most acute environmental problems in Russia and is annually noted as a priority in the State report "On the state of the environment of the Russian Federation" .

Contamination with hydrocarbons is also possible as a result of emergency situations and leakage of equipment at oilfield facilities, during filtration from pits, sludge reservoirs.

No less acute environmental problems arise during the transportation of oil and oil products. The most economical is the transportation of oil through pipelines - the cost of pumping oil is 2-3 times lower than the cost of transportation by rail. The average range of oil pumping in our country is up to 1500 km. Oil is transported through pipelines with a diameter of 300-1200 mm, subject to corrosion, deposits of resins and paraffins inside the pipes. Therefore, technical control, timely repair and reconstruction are required along the entire length of pipelines. In the study region, 50% of accidents on oil pipelines and 66% of accidents on gas pipelines occur due to aging and wear and tear of equipment. The oil and gas transport network of the Orenburg region began to be created in the 40s of the 20th century. A large part of the pipeline system, both main and field, needs to be reconstructed due to the high degree of deterioration and non-compliance with existing environmental requirements, and, as a result, a high percentage of emergency gusts.

The natural causes of accidents are due to the impacts that the oil pipeline is exposed to from the environment. The pipeline line exists in a certain environment, the role of which is played by the enclosing rocks. The material of the pipeline experiences chemical influences from the environment (corrosion of various types). It is corrosion that is the main cause of emergencies on field oil pipelines. An accident is also possible under the influence of exogenous geological processes, which is expressed in the mechanical impact on the line in the rock mass. The magnitude of stresses arising from the mechanical action of soils on pipes is determined by the steepness of the slope and the orientation of the oil pipeline line on the slope. Thus, the number of pipeline accidents is related to the geomorphological conditions of the territory. The greatest number of accidents is observed when the pipeline crosses the slope line at an angle of 0-15, that is, laid parallel to the slope line. These pipelines belong to the highest and first classes of emergency hazard. In the Orenburg region, approximately 550 km of the main oil product pipelines belong to the IV hazard class, more than 2090 km - to III and about 290 - to II hazard classes.

Separately, it should be noted the problems associated with “ownerless” wells drilled by exploration companies and not on the balance sheet of any of the organizations conducting economic activities. Many of these wells are under pressure and have other signs of oil and gas. Work on their elimination and conservation is practically not carried out due to lack of funding. The most dangerous from an environmental point of view are wells located in swampy areas and near water bodies, as well as those located in the zones of movement of plastic clays and seasonal flooding.

There are more than 2900 wells in the oil fields of the region under study, of which about 1950 are operating. Consequently, a significant number of wells are in long-term conservation, which is not provided for by the instruction on the procedure for liquidation and conservation of wells. Accordingly, these wells are potential sources of emergency oil and gas shows.

Mechanical impact includes violation of soil and vegetation cover or its complete destruction, landscape change (as a result of earthwork, construction and installation, laying work, movement of transport and construction equipment, land withdrawal for the construction of oil production facilities, deforestation, etc.), violation of the integrity of the subsoil during drilling (see photo appendix, photo 3) .

Classification of areas according to the degree of technogenic transformation

For a detailed analysis of the current geoecological situation that has developed in the region under the influence of oil and gas production, first of all, the study area was differentiated according to the degree of technogenic transformation. Differentiation is based on an analysis of the location of hydrocarbon deposits and the identification of a system of basic diagnostic indicators that determine the degree of technogenic transformation of landscapes. Based on the results of the research, an assessment scale for the levels of landscape transformation has been developed.

The administrative regions of the Orenburg Cis-Urals act as differentiation units.

In the Orenburg region, the territory with a developed network of oil and gas production covers 25 administrative districts, including the Orenburg district. On its territory, in addition to several medium-sized gas fields, there is the largest in Europe Orenburg oil and gas condensate field (ONGCF), its area is approximately 48 times larger than the area of ​​​​an average hydrocarbon field (length - 100 km, width - 18 km). The reserves and production volumes of raw materials of this field can be called incommensurable (more than 849.56 billion m of natural gas, more than 39.5 million tons of condensate, as well as oil, helium and other valuable components in the composition of raw materials). As of 01.01.95, the stock of only producing wells on the territory of the OOGCF amounted to 142 units. On the territory of the Orenburg region there are the largest gas and condensate processing centers in Europe - the Orenburg gas processing plant and the Orenburg helium plant, which are the main sources of negative impact on all components of the natural environment in the region.

Taking into account the above features of the Orenburg region, its natural complexes can objectively be attributed to the most technogenically transformed, subject to the maximum load from oil and gas production facilities. On this basis, further scoring of the transformation of natural complexes of the Orenburg region was not carried out.

The assessment of the state of landscapes in other regions was carried out by analyzing 12 diagnostic indicators of technogenic change (Table 9), the choice of each indicator is justified.

Naturally, the mechanical disturbance of the landscape complexes of the region is directly dependent on the total density of hydrocarbon deposits (operating, mothballed, depleted and not registered), on the density of drilled wells for various purposes (exploratory, parametric, producing, injection, etc.), from the presence on the territory of the key structures of oil fields of any purpose (booster pumping stations, oil treatment plants, preliminary water discharge plants, oil loading and unloading points, etc.) (see Table 10). However, this dependence is complicated by the dimension of deposits, the duration and technologies of their exploitation, as well as other factors. Number of major accidents at the fields in 2000-2004 The study area is under the environmental control of the Inspectorate for Environmental Protection of the Orenburg Region and its subdivision (Buzuluk Specialized Inspectorate for State Environmental Control and Analysis). According to the inspection data, a comparative analysis of the accident rate in the production and transportation of hydrocarbon raw materials (oil spills due to rupture of main and field pipelines and well flue lines, uncontrolled oil shows, including open oil gushing) was carried out according to the districts (see Table 10). Only the largest accidents were taken into account, as a result of which oil pollution occurred (with a subsequent high excess of the background value of oil products in the soil) of a large area of ​​land or snow cover (at least 1 ha), and (or) significant oil pollution occurred (with a high excess of MPC) of a reservoir . It can be concluded that Grachevsky, Krasnogvardeysky and Kurmanaevsky districts are leading in terms of the total number of accidents. According to our further conclusions, it is these areas that are included in the zone of ecological crisis, the main reason for which is the extraction and transportation of hydrocarbon raw materials. Terms of field development, technical condition of facilities The time factor here plays a dual role: on the one hand, over the time elapsed since the impact, under the influence of self-healing functions of the OS, the negative impact can be smoothed out, and on the other hand, the technical condition of the field equipment deteriorates over time and can lead to to new pollution. The duration of the development of a deposit serves, as a rule, as an indicator of its system of equipment and the technical condition of objects, and also expresses the degree of accumulated technogenic load on natural components. In addition, when oil fields enter the late stage of development, the volumes of mineralized chemically aggressive water produced are constantly increasing. The average water cut of produced products can exceed 84% and the water/oil ratio is constantly increasing. Buguruslan, Severny, Abdulinsky, Asekeevsky, Matveevsky districts contain the oldest deposits, the development of which began before 1952, which exacerbates the negative. impact on landscapes. According to the materials of OAO OrenburgNIPIneft, the technical condition of the field facilities is unsatisfactory, most of them have not been reconstructed since the year of construction; you can find non-pressurized systems for collecting reservoir products (Baituganskoye field).