Pedagogical theories, systems, technologies.

The textbook reveals the foundations of pedagogy, the problems of didactics, the theory of education from the standpoint of modern pedagogical science and the accumulated experience of practical work. The goals, objectives, principles, methods and forms of training and education in the systems of general and additional education are considered. As examples, innovative teaching technologies used in primary grades are used. Their fundamental foundations and features are determined. The range of the latest holistic educational tasks is shown.

The emergence of pedagogy as a science.
In order for human society to develop, it must pass on social experience to more and more new generations.
The transfer of social experience can occur in different ways. In primitive society, this was carried out mainly through imitation, repetition, copying of the behavior of adults. In the Middle Ages, such transmission was carried out most often through memorization of texts.

Over time, mankind has come to the conclusion that rote repetition or memorization are not the best ways to convey social experience. The greatest effect is achieved with the active participation of the educated person in this process, when he is included in creative activity aimed at understanding, mastering and transforming the surrounding reality.

The thesis that a person, by transforming reality, transforms himself, is of fundamental importance. But he does not deny the importance of the process of transmission by older generations and assimilation by new generations of the social experience of mankind. The transformation of reality is impossible without familiarity with everything that has already been known and created by mankind, without mastering the richness of the accumulated culture.
The need to transfer social experience to the younger generations arose simultaneously with the emergence of society and will exist at all stages of its development. Parents pass on their experience to children, older ones to younger ones, more experienced ones to less experienced ones, etc.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Preface 2
Section I FOUNDATIONS OF GENERAL PEDAGOGY 3
Chapter 1 PEDAGOGY IN THE SYSTEM OF MODERN HUMAN KNOWLEDGE 3
Chapter 2 PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF MODERN PEDAGOGY 13
Chapter 3 SOCIALIZATION AND EDUCATION 21
Chapter 4 PEDAGOGICAL INTERACTION 33
Chapter 5 TEACHER: PROFESSION AND PERSONALITY 50
Section II THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS OF TRAINING 63
Chapter 6 EDUCATION AS A COMPONENT PART OF THE PEDAGOGICAL PROCESS 63
Chapter 7 CONTENT OF EDUCATION AS A MEANS OF LEARNING AND A FACTOR OF DEVELOPMENT 81
Chapter 8 EVOLUTION OF TEACHING METHODS AND THEIR CLASSIFICATION 92
Chapter 9 TEACHING METHODS 97
Chapter 10 FORMS OF ORGANIZATION OF TRAINING 111
Chapter 11 LEARNING TOOLS 125
Chapter 12 TECHNOLOGIES IN LEARNING 135
Chapter 13 DEVELOPMENTAL EDUCATION SYSTEMS USED IN SCHOOL 145
Section III THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS OF EDUCATION 162
Chapter 14 EDUCATION AS A PART OF THE PEDAGOGICAL PROCESS 162
Chapter 15 EDUCATIONAL METHODS 165
Chapter 16 THE ROLE OF THE CHILDREN'S TEAM IN THE EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE CHILD 179
Chapter 17 EDUCATIONAL WORK OF THE CLASS TEACHER 190
Chapter 18 EXTRA-CLASS EDUCATIONAL WORK AT SCHOOL 205
Section IV ISSUES OF CONTINUITY OF PRESCHOOL AND PRIMARY EDUCATION 219
Chapter 19 CREATING A DEVELOPING ENVIRONMENT IN PRESCHOOL INSTITUTIONS 219
Chapter 20 COMMUNICATION AND ACTIVITIES IN PRESCHOOL AND EARLY SCHOOL AGE 230
Section V EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM IN RUSSIA AND PROSPECTS FOR ITS DEVELOPMENT 245
Chapter 21 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM IN RUSSIA 245
Chapter 22 INNOVATIONS AND REFORM IN THE MODERN RUSSIAN SCHOOL IN THE 80-90s 249
Chapter 23 BASIC MANAGEMENT OF GENERAL EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION 259
INDEX 279.

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Section II. Theoretical foundations of learning
Chapter 6
pedagogical process
Chapter 7
learning and development factor
Chapter 8
Chapter 9
Chapter 10
Chapter 11
Chapter 12
Chapter 13

Section III. Theoretical foundations of education
Chapter 14
Chapter 15
Chapter 16
Chapter 17
Chapter 18

Section IV. Issues of continuity of preschool and primary education
Chapter 19
Chapter 20

Section V. Education system in Russia and prospects for its development
Chapter 21
education in Russia
Chapter 22
Russian school in the 80-90s
Chapter 23
educational institution

Subject index

Foreword

Dear Colleagues! You have picked up this manual and are going to study it. This means that you are preparing to become a teacher. The authors of this book hope that you will successfully overcome the difficulties of learning and that in the near future you will come to kindergarten or school in a new capacity.

The profession of a Teacher is the noblest profession on Earth, because the teacher creates with his own hands the character, individuality, personality of the child and, ultimately, the Future of his student.

Try to preserve in your students what is special, individual, bright in them. By organizing the training and educational process, develop these features, teach children not to be afraid of anything, and help them form and feel their personality. This will become possible if you learn not only to hear everything that is said and see everything that your little students do, but also to understand their feelings and experiences. Remember that the main thing is to learn to feel the state of the child and understand the reasons for this state.

An equally important task is to help the child get used to the world around him. The child should constantly feel happy, and therefore it is necessary to help him literally in everything. Each of your lessons should leave only positive, attractive and intriguing sensations in the soul of the child. Children, coming to class, are always waiting for something good and interesting. Do not deceive their expectations - try to maintain the interest that already exists, strengthen it and develop it. The interest of the student is the most important condition for achieving success in training and education, and, consequently, your success as a professional.

It is very easy to recognize a real Teacher, a Master of his craft - it is enough to analyze the child's well-being, the degree of his psychological comfort, and his interest in learning. The feeling of comfort, security and a high level of interest in the activities organized by the teacher are the main indicators of the high skill of the teacher. However, unfortunately, no textbook will teach you this, you will have to master it yourself. The main thing, as is often the case in life, remains behind the scenes.

The teacher achieves the highest skill when everyone in the class is passionate about educational work, when the kindergarten students do not want to go home, when the child feels an impatient desire to come back tomorrow and continue exciting classes. This kind of pedagogy can be called Art, and the Teacher who creates it can be called a Master.

The path to mastery is not easy, but it fills the whole human life with meaning. We wish you to go this way and feel the joy and happiness of joint success. Joint, because in pedagogy success can only be common - a talented teacher and talented students.

Good luck!

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Electronic versions of works are intended for use in educational and scientific purposes.

Udmurt State University

Coursework on the subject:

Pedagogical theories, systems, technologies

Done: Accepted:

Student group 17-31

Lyukshin A. A.

Izhevsk 1999

… We are less than ten years away from the end of the century. And now entire nations, perhaps the whole of humanity as a whole, are trying to realize the nightmare of this century (totalitarianism, world wars, ecological madness, ethical degradation, etc., etc.), trying, as it were, to wake up from its horrors, shake them off and come to something new. It would be naive to think that the forces that caused all this are no longer active. These forces rooted in our minds are very active—and outbursts of monstrous nationalism or unbridled political aggressiveness are just some of their manifestations. But you can feel that new, unexpected and fresh forces are also appearing. Since the end of the 80s, the spirit of freedom has blown over the Earth. Rudolf Steiner called his main philosophical book The Philosophy of Freedom. Modern anthroposophy, in its living and constantly renewing being, has a deep inner connection with this spirit of Liberty at the end of the century.

And Pinsky.

Introduction

A free school is a requirement of today. The experience gained in our century under the conditions of various political systems sharply raises the question of the role of school and education in modern society. The school, the content and teaching methods of which are determined by the state, was often placed at the service of totalitarian regimes. But even in a democracy in public schools, pedagogical orientation depends on the prevailing political trends. A school influenced by political or economic interests, although it can direct the development of a person along a certain channel, is only able to take into account its own conditions and laws of this development to a limited extent. The state-run school has thus become a highly problematic structure under the historical conditions of our century.

This applies to public schools and in a democratic state. Here, too, there are deforming influences arising from the merging of the roles of civil servant and educator. How can young people be educated in the spirit of freedom and responsibility if the school, through its bureaucratic structure, controls teachers through various instructions and petty takes care of them in their pedagogical activities?

The creation of independent from the state, free schools is extremely important. But transforming the school system from government-affiliated to free requires more than just abandoning government and its bureaucracy. It requires the creation of a human-centered pedagogy. The free school would be just a body without a head if it retained the old content and the old teaching methods adopted in public schools, the old forms of teacher training.

Waldorf schools are free public schools.

Waldorf schools show by their example that teaching and education can develop in the sense of a comprehensive education of a person only if the school is free and self-governing. In 1919 Rudolf Steiner wrote: “Healthy relations between the school and the social organism are possible only when people with inclinations, formed through unfettered development, are constantly pouring into the latter. This will happen if the school and the education system are placed on the basis of self-government within the social organism. State and economic life should take into itself people educated in the sphere of free spiritual life; but they must not prescribe the course of instruction according to their needs. What a person needs to know and be able to do at a certain age should be determined only by his nature. The state and the economy must be formed in accordance with the requirements of human nature."

The ideal of a free education system is the intention to build a civilization on such an education of a person that will be freed from restrictions that are alien to its essence. In a government-run school system, the teacher is at the bottom of the hierarchy. His work is largely determined by instruction, and not by understanding and initiative. The instructions that he must follow are, as a rule, drawn up by people who have not seen and do not know specific children. They direct teaching on the basis of either outdated knowledge or pedagogical theory.

The transfer of the school to the power of state administration was in the past a necessary step. With the formation of the first Waldorf school, the next step was taken. Teaching and upbringing were placed on a foundation that allows the teacher to act on the basis of understanding the essence of the growing child with full responsibility and initiative. The internal conditions of life of the Waldorf school include the fact that the teachers working in it must constantly expand their understanding of man; living concrete knowledge of man should be the source of teaching.

In general, the most versatile cooperation between parents and teachers is important for work in Waldorf schools. Only true cooperation can overcome the isolation between the parental home and the school and ensure the participation of parents in the life and development of the school. This cooperation is expressed in various forms and at various levels. Parents and teachers of individual classes meet many times during the school year at classroom parenting evenings. Here, teachers talk about the classroom and learning in various subjects so that parents have an idea of the content of the teaching, the pedagogical views and learning of the class, as well as individual students. Along with visits to families by the classroom teacher, classroom parenting evenings are a meeting place for parents and teachers united by a common interest in raising children. Most Waldorf schools arrange school-wide evenings for parents and talks on a variety of topics - from the specific tasks of the school (new construction, curriculum expansion, etc.) to general issues of pedagogy. At the same time, almost all Waldorf schools offer a variety of courses for parents: a course on special pedagogical issues, a course in the arts (for example, painting, modeling and eurythmy), a course in practical needlework and crafts. Thus, schools become centers of education.

Part of the initiative in the life of the Waldorf school comes from parents or a joint council of parents and teachers. In Waldorf schools, there are bodies of consultations and initiatives (“Parent-Teacher Council”, “Parent-Teacher Circle”, “Circle of Trust of Parents”), in which the most important issues of the life and development of the school are discussed. In this way, parents are involved in the affairs of the school. Parents' interest in school life has increased greatly over the past ten years. In many places, the formation of Waldorf schools is associated with the active and truly sacrificial activities of parent groups.

Waldorf schools are always the fruit of collaboration between teachers and parents. Such cooperation is only possible if the teaching staff is free from the constraints of bureaucratic school administration and is able to make independent decisions. And just as each individual school community will create its own individual forms of cooperation between parents and teachers, it also develops appropriate forms of participation of high school students in the life of the school.

Waldorf schools are comprehensive (unified) schools. But compared with the integrated comprehensive schools that appeared much later, there are fundamental differences. The overall goal is to overcome the anti-pedagogical and anti-social selection prevailing in the traditional school system and create equal conditions for students with different abilities and social backgrounds. However, the integrated complex school is based, like the schools of the old type, on the primacy of intellectual learning. The content and methods, in principle, remained the same.

In contrast, the Waldorf school is based on a deep knowledge of the laws of child development. The orientation of education towards the so-called intellectual functions is seen here as a one-sided approach to the child. For the essence of man encompasses not only science, but art and practice, morality and religion. The approach to the person as a whole is the main pedagogical principle at all stages of the curriculum of the Waldorf school. Taken into account, for example, is the fact that a young person needs a certain amount of general education even after puberty. The ability for independent judgment and personal attitude to the world, the issues of building one's own life - all this becomes relevant when puberty is reached and cannot be developed and formed properly either in the narrow channel of professional training, or with early specialization in the methods and content of modern science (see chapter "Pedagogy and age", "Teaching after 14 years").

The learning process is built in accordance with the age characteristics of the child and changes significantly during the transition from the first seven years of a child's life to the second and from the second to the third.

The curriculum takes into account the features associated with the age of the child. Therefore, students are never left for the second year. As you know, the pedagogical effect of repetition is very doubtful. In addition, poor performance is often not a problem of giftedness, but a problem of motivation and often a violation of motivation caused by the school itself. Here Waldorf pedagogy sees the need for individualization of teaching. But it does not consist in dividing students according to their giftedness into different streams. Individualization should be implemented by the teacher in his preparation for the lesson. A class teacher should strive to move forward in the first place precisely the weaker students. In this case, art and work can often help. The abilities that the student develops in the arts or in the performance of practical work have a beneficial effect on the rest of the study and on the will to succeed in general.

Each achievement of a student is a manifestation of his whole essence, his abilities, his interests, his diligence. In every success one can see a step, however small, along the path of development. And as such, it must be evaluated. In the point system of marks, Waldorf schools see only a humiliation of dignity and the temptation of false vanity. It creates the appearance of an objective assessment, behind which is the need to legitimize the legal act of transferring to the next class or obtaining a certificate from the sum of the assessments. From a pedagogical point of view, it is a defect inherent in the modern education system. Instead of grades, the Waldorf school adopted testimonies—characteristics that describe successes, progress, special abilities and diligence, weaknesses, and forecasts in as much detail as possible. Only one thing should not follow from such evidence - a pessimistic renunciation of the disciple. The characterization of the position of the student at some point in time should take into account the possibility of further development (see Ch. Organization of teaching).

The need to adapt to the content and norms of the state school appears only in the final class of the Waldorf school due to the need to pass state exams to obtain a certificate. The curriculum of the Waldorf school includes 12 years of study. After the 12th or 13th year of study, some students receive either a matriculation certificate, or the so-called "apprenticeship", giving the right to enter a higher school (university). The number of applicants among graduates of Waldorf schools is quite large. Average over the last ten years 34.9 % All students passed the state exam ("Abitur"). Waldorf schools assume that all students should be able to complete a 12-year education. Therefore, this exam, as a rule, can only be taken in the 12th grade. Otherwise, preparation for it could seriously interfere with teaching in the lower grades. Students almost without exception attend a Waldorf school until the end of their 12th year.

A detailed study of the biography of former students of Waldorf schools showed that a 12-year school education is important in the biography of just those students who begin their professional career with study. Most of them have mastered a second profession, and many occupy high leadership positions, many have chosen pedagogy as their field of activity.

The Waldorf school responds to the young man's desire for honest work by teaching a variety of crafts. Art has a particularly deep connection with the personal powers of the soul of a young person, with his active development and his spiritual and creative depths. Without continuous exercises in such areas of art as plastic arts, painting, drawing, music, languages, the education of a person at this age will be insufficient.

On this artistic basis, you can later move on to the picturesque depiction of various topics (landscape, plant, mood in nature, etc.). In music, all children, in addition to singing, participate in playing at least one musical instrument. In elementary grades, everyone plays the flute. Then, according to the degree of giftedness and inclinations, learning to play is differentiated into several instruments. Then you can create an orchestra with the students. Here, as in the school choir, they learn the works of great composers. From a close and active connection with music come effective influences on the deepening of the forces acting in the soul's life. Of similar importance is recitation, choral artistic reading, which is practiced in all classes. Poetry will be fully revealed only to those who not only read poetry to themselves, but also comprehend poetry from its speech, sound side. In eurythmy, a new art form created by Rudolf Steiner, students learn to express in artistic movement the forces at work in language and music.

If children and teenagers make art, they learn to work from a living creative spirit. In any artistic work, even if it is very simple, the child processes the material in such a way that something essential is revealed in it. Art always means the process of spiritualization. This also applies to the youngest person. After all, creative work requires exercises and repetitions, leading to the growth of creative forces and creative experience. Experience and activity acquire the character of a spiritually logical action. A young person develops abilities, thanks to which he not only learns what patterns are inherent in things, but can also give spiritual expressiveness to the material. This is how art leads schoolchildren to an understanding of the creative nature of man.

Schools also have the teaching of crafts in their curriculum for purely pedagogical reasons. It starts for boys and girls at the age of 12 (year 6) with gardening and workshop work. This is the time when the young man, in connection with the second change in physique and the consequent destruction of the harmonic movements of the children, must individually achieve a further expression of his volitional powers. This is where craft plays an important role. Thus, the various methods of processing wood by a student with the help of a tool (rasping, cutting, sawing, planing) require strict efficiency from him and teach differentiated, subtle control of the will. At first, children make something simple, and, moreover, great importance is given to suitability and usefulness in order to exclude all non-committal actions. If then a student in the 9th or 10th year of study, for example, has to make a simple piece of furniture, this will require from him in the sketch a clear practical understanding, a sense of aesthetic form, and in the implementation - a differentiated ability to handle tools and materials.

The pedagogy of the Waldorf schools is built on the knowledge of the growing child and on the conditions and laws of human development. Education and training should always be based on the science of man. In connection with this principle, the question arises: how far do the methods of this science extend? The methods of anthropology common today—by this we mean all the scientific disciplines concerned with the study of man—investigate directly only the physical body, and the spiritual and psychic principles only to the extent that they are manifested through the physical body. But at the same time, the features of upbringing and development, hidden in the spiritual and spiritual, slip out of sight. R. Steiner created methods for the direct study of mental and spiritual reality, including the human soul and spirit. They form the basis of Waldorf pedagogy and the pedagogical activity of teachers in Waldorf schools.

A deep understanding of development in childhood and adolescence shows that it is not just a process of continuously progressive expansion of knowledge and skill. This process is clearly dissected in connection with the fact that metamorphoses occur in the child, as a result of which he acquires a new attitude to the world; the former dominants of study and development fade into the background, giving way to new ones. This occurs most clearly in the seventh year of life and between the ages of 12 and 14. Therefore, Waldorf pedagogy distinguishes three phases of development with very specific tasks, content and methods of education. Unlike the repeatedly criticized theory of phase development, Waldorf pedagogy never considered that human development occurs according to a predetermined, genetically determined program. Although these changes are closely related to the age of the child, however, at each stage it is necessary to stimulate and direct the development process through education and teaching.

Organization of teaching

A school that wishes to embody the ideal of a broad and holistic human education must, in organizing teaching, ensure that the teaching material does not become higher than the person. The tyranny of educational material can very easily limit and deform human development. The main condition is that teaching takes place, if possible, in closer contact between the teacher and the students. If the teacher builds his lessons taking into account the mental characteristics, individual abilities and weaknesses of his students and takes the necessary steps for the development of students, while trying to constantly penetrate spiritually into the material again and again, then textbooks have no function left. Textbooks, as a rule, are too poor in content and they have no relation to a specific pedagogical situation. The task of the textbook is to give a certain average amount of knowledge. If this prevails in teaching, then the school sinks into colorless monotony. On the contrary, the teacher in the Waldorf school is constantly re-developing the material, working with a variety of sources. What is discussed and studied in the process of teaching is then reflected in the workbooks and in the “notebooks of the eras” of the students. Starting from the middle classes, these works become more and more the actual homework and generalizations of the students.

The daily organization of teaching, corresponding to the inner structure of the life of a growing person, comes from the various characteristics of the subjects of study. Those subjects in which one closed special area is studied (for example, native language, history, geography, mathematics, human studies, natural science, physics, chemistry) are given in the form of so-called epochs. During the entire period of 12 years of study (and, if possible, in the 13th year of study in preparation for the final exam) every day from the very beginning of the morning classes, a certain topic is discussed in a double lesson for 3-4 weeks. Occupation with one topic for a long time allows you to concentrate learning, which is achieved only when the next day they repeat, deepen and continue the material covered the day before. This will make it possible, with a wide range of abilities of students, to diligently work on expanding knowledge, maturing abilities and deepening the power of experience. The fear that in connection with such an organization of teaching, students will then forget the material covered, is not confirmed by practice. In fact, experience shows that at the beginning of a new epoch, the material of a similar epoch passed several months ago is quickly restored. As you know, the material that a person intensively and with interest studied, with which he was connected, is best absorbed. Thus, teaching for epochs respects the principle of economy, concentration and fruitful break.

It is also the basis for the hygienic organization of the school day. With its content, it refers to such qualities in the student as perception and mental penetration into the material, i.e. to those spiritual and spiritual forces that are especially fresh and mobile in the morning hours. During the day, teaching by epoch is joined by subjects that require constant training and exercises. These are lessons of a foreign language, art, music, eurythmy, painting, plastic arts, manual labor. These subjects, which constitute the so-called "special teaching", are given in single and double lessons. Those lessons that require the use of physical strength (gardening, craft, physical education) are held, if possible, in the afternoon or before lunch. First mental activity, then everything that requires exercise and art, and then bodily volitional activity. This gives a meaningful sequence of activation of the whole person.

One of the features of the curriculum of the Waldorf schools is the early start of teaching foreign languages. Just the first school years are the time of high language plasticity. English and French lessons begin from the first year of study. In some Waldorf schools, the second language is not French, but Russian. First, children learn a foreign language in the form of small dialogues, poems, songs and plays. When writing and grammar then begin in the fourth year, children usually already have some spoken language. This path eliminates many of the problems that arise when children must learn oral language, reading, and grammar at the same time.

Labor and arts in the Waldorf school.

In recent decades, the school has been more and more limited to the field of scientific considerations, which, moreover, had to be reduced to the level of a child or adolescent. At the same time, it was overlooked that science can shed light only on structures and laws that already exist in the world, and even then only in limited particular aspects. It contributes very little to the creation of peace and life. This is especially true for humans. But artistic ability does not grow through aesthetic analysis; religious feeling does not develop through the philosophy of religion. The same is true in practical areas. Science by itself would impoverish life, especially with its analytical methods. And a school oriented toward a scientific examination of the world cannot awaken the inclinations inherent in the child, fully reveal them in a truly human way. Therefore, teaching in the Waldorf school from the very beginning was expanded to include arts and crafts. Children and teenagers attend classes of painting, drawing, plastic arts (especially starting from the 9th year of study), music (vocal, instrument), eurythmy and artistic speech for all 12 years. The forces of artistic creativity are already stimulated in the lower grades due to the fact that in art classes they refuse purely external display of objects in favor of exercises and work with elements of the corresponding type of art. Simple color compositions and color harmonic combinations in the lower grades, in addition to the ability to manage with colors, develop a sense of the essence of color, the mutual harmony of colors.

Thus, a young man, through gardening, woodworking, pottery (from the 9th year of study) and simple metalworking (from the 9th year of study), achieves a conscious differentiation of his will and realism in thinking. This can only be achieved by precise and substantive work with the exclusion of all game elements, i.e. real craft, not amateur entertainment. Handicraft lessons have different aims until the 11th and 12th years of study, where, for example, when binding books, maximum care and precision should be developed, combined with creative imagery.

It is often argued that the specifics of Waldorf schools lie in arts and crafts lessons, and in features such as general needlework and craft lessons for boys and girls, or that boys learn to spin, weave, or even sew. This is a short-sighted view of the problem. We are talking about the orientation of teaching to the internal laws of the development of a growing person and about the curriculum, correlated with the person as a whole.

preschool education

The first great epoch in the upbringing of a child until about the age of seven is determined by the fact that in the child the soul and spirit have not yet come to inner self-consciousness; they are much more closely connected with the processes of bodily development than later. The consciousness of the child and his experiences depend on what impressions from the physical environment he perceives with his senses. A decisive role in his learning in mastering upright posture and speech, the development of the forces of experience and fantasy, intellect and thinking, is played by examples from the surrounding world. The main form of learning during this period of life was downloaded directly, then indirect imitation. The motivation for imitation is what the child sees and hears. Perceived in sensations or in images, acts directly, unreflected and leads to the corresponding movements and gestures. Thus, giving the child to his environment leads to activity. This imitative activity strongly influences the formation of organs characteristic of early childhood. This is precisely the significance of the first stage of life for the further development of a person's biography.

This meaning has long been recognized by Waldorf pedagogy. Nearly all Waldorf schools have kindergartens in which the development of children between the ages of 4 and 7 is stimulated by the forces of imitation. The individuality of children is taken into account: they are not required to have a certain behavior, all the design of the kindergarten, as well as the activities of the teacher, are aimed at encouraging children to imitate. This is how it works in kindergarten. The game material is emphatically simple. This contributes to the awakening of the imagination. There is no pressure on the child's play. Daily storytelling and figurative games are conducted by the teacher in such a way that they, through empathy and complicity of the child, simultaneously stimulate the development of speech. Children are introduced to various activities (often in connection with the seasons). Through the way children are presented with these activities and how they participate in them (for example, from sowing seeds, harvesting, threshing to baking bread), there is a clear insight into life's relationships. Thus, in various ways, corresponding to age, the development of intelligence and thinking is stimulated. This includes numerous arts classes - from drawing to round dances, games and eurythmy, appropriate for the age of the child. All this can only be carried out in a small group (about 25 children) and in such a way that the undertakings coming from the educator benefit all children, without even hidden coercion. Waldorf kindergarten teachers are trained in special educational institutions in many countries.

Pedagogy of age from 7 to 14 years. (1-8 years of study)

In the development of a child, the seventh year of life means a profound change in his body-spiritual form. Outwardly, this is manifested in the first change in the physique of the child and the change of teeth. By many signs of physical development, it can be seen that the forces which in early childhood were at work in shaping the body are no longer at work in it from that moment on. Now they become accessible to the child mentally as two closely interconnected abilities: as the ability for figurative fantasy, for arbitrary memories in images, and as the ability for creative figurative creation and experience. Thus, the child becomes able to get acquainted with the world and understand the world in images. Compared with the former connection of consciousness with sensory perception, this means the beginning of the formation of an independent inner life. To comprehend, study and understand - these abilities are realized in the mental-internal process separated from the external world. The image means more than the internal representation of the perceived. In the images of fantasy, the child can grasp not only the individual, but also events and relationships, not only the phenomenon, but also internal patterns, meaning and essence. The significance of the image also lies in the fact that the image, by its visibility, in contrast to the abstract nature of concepts, actively evokes empathy through feeling. It enlivens and expands the life of the senses.

The child cannot yet independently comprehend connections and patterns. Therefore, he wants to recognize and learn to understand them with the help of a teacher. A teacher who is able to teach figuratively, i.e. non-intellectual, but, arousing the imagination and feeling of the child, becomes an authority for him. Image teaching is one of the most universal means of education. Images of fairy tales and legends, mythology, sagas and biographies have a strong influence on the development of the soul, attitudes of character and conscience. Images are not coercive as teachings or authoritatively taught values. They excite in the child a deepening of spiritual life and their own moral will.

Image teaching helps children learn to read and write in a way that is not just learning some cultural technique. Art classes develop a sense of form; the culture of speech forms a sense of language and sound. On this basis, the letter becomes for the child the image of the corresponding sound, the assimilation of writing and reading is the result of a broader educational process. In a similar way, children are led to understand numbers and operations with numbers.

By the end of the 9th - the beginning of the 10th year of life, a conscious understanding of the external world is added to the fantasy. The child comes to the discovery of the duality of himself and the world around him. Now teaching should open the world to the child in various manifestations (from history to nature) in all its richness, the meaning of its phenomena and events. Analytical consideration can only cultivate alienation from the world in the growing person, and the subject of teaching can only become external knowledge. In Waldorf schools, the teacher in the process of teaching the natural sciences describes plants and animals in such a way that students, with their imagination and feeling, can penetrate into their forms, behavior and attitude to the world around them, the laws of education and life, and comprehend the spiritual essence of plants and animals. Preceding cultures and personalities operating in history cannot be understood at all without drawing on the forces of fantasy.

Figurative teaching develops thinking in children, which penetrates through the surface into the depths of things and phenomena. It leads students to empathy and, therefore, to the expansion of the world of feelings. As you know, what is learned through the image and what touched our feelings is best absorbed. Therefore, figurative teaching is of particular importance for the development of memory. From the teacher, it requires a lively spiritual study and creative figurative presentation of the boarding school and in all those areas that are not mentioned here. In the first eight years of study, the lessons of art and labor are also of particular importance in education (see Chapter "Teaching Arts and Crafts").

The processes of soul formation require the same teacher to follow the student for many years, accompanying his development. Therefore, during the first eight years of study, the main subjects for each class are taught by the same class teacher. During these eight years, he has given at least one double lesson every day in his class for two hours. Therefore, he closely gets to know each student and his characteristics. Thus, teaching and education can merge.

Teaching after 14 years (9-12 years of study)

During puberty and the second change in physique, the young person undergoes the same significant changes as during the change of teeth. Due to the strong growth impulse during puberty, in his limbs and in his will, the teenager enters into a deeper connection with gravity; when the voice breaks, an individual timbre appears; in the so-called secondary sexual characteristics, the body receives a strong mental imprint. These processes, together with puberty, are the expression of a single phenomenon: the young man becomes aware of his own personal being. During the transition from childhood to adolescence, a person begins to more freely and independently come into contact with the outside world with the personal powers of his soul, i.e. feeling and will. His striving for internal and external independence is especially clearly expressed in a new attitude - to develop views, orientation and goals based on his own assessments.

Personal appeal to the world around allows a young man to become a man of his time. Inside him, ideals and life goals come to life. On their basis, and on the basis of a feeling that has acquired a personal tinge, the young man seeks - at first hesitantly and clumsily - a personal connection with the world and a conscious attitude towards himself. Hence, there are new requirements for teaching, concerning both content and method. Instead of figurative teaching, methods are now being used that develop in the young person the ability to judge, focused on the diversity of the world. Now in various subjects (native language, history, natural sciences, etc.), he learns to carefully study the material, accurately observe phenomena and experiments. One of the teacher's tasks during this period is to present the facts in a visible way and in such a way that the student can develop the ability of clear judgment on them. When developing a judgment, a young person learns from phenomena to reveal in his thinking concepts and ideas that express spiritual connections.

Thus, the teaching of basic subjects acquires a more scientific character. But we cannot talk about imposing hypotheses and models on a young person; the thoughts and arguments of others. Teaching needs a predominantly phenomenological orientation. Models are discussed second. When they are based on the student's own assessment, they lose the hidden dogmatism that paralyzes people of this age, which passes blind faith for scientific knowledge.

The formation of the ability of judgment is associated with the development of a personal view of the world. In order to come to an assessment of a work of art (plastic, painting or architecture) when teaching art history, a young person must first get used to it, and only then he will be able to evaluate its quality and compare it with other works. This leads to the cultivation of aesthetic experience. In order to comprehend the principles of living development in biology and make a judgment, a young person must develop the ability to co-creatively delve into the essence of a living being at different stages of development. Great works of literature will be revealed to him only if his understanding of human destiny, human characters, etc. is mature enough. The same applies to mathematics, physics, etc. Thus, the ability of judgment is closely related to the human personality and its development. It is important that the spirit operating in adolescents and young people does not acquire an inferior form of non-binding and everywhere the same intellectuality. In Waldorf schools, the inner orientation of a young person to the life of his time is taken into account. Technology, processes of economic life, living and working conditions, social problems are studied in the same way as astronomy or mathematics. According to the principle formed by Rudolf Steiner, any teaching should teach life.

Conclusion

What is the basis of the differences between teaching methods in regular and Waldorf schools? The past decades have shown the insufficiency of traditional scientific explanations and approaches in many areas of life. An analytical, quantitatively limited view of nature and man blocks access to deeper layers of reality. Overcoming this judgment has become a life challenge. Therefore, to adhere to the prevailing views of the past would be a fatal anachronism, even if the authorities of the school administration give it legal force. Waldorf schools seek, through imaginative and phenomenological teaching, the development of fantasy and artistic understanding of the world, to awaken in students abilities that will lead them beyond simplified and limited interpretation. It is about knowing and seeking the truth. On the contrary, it is uniquely connected with the worldview, for example, teaching on the basis of positivist scientific views; it is harmful, because hinders mental and spiritual development.

Here you can find the answer to another critical question addressed to the Waldorf schools. It concerns the Christian character of Waldorf pedagogy and anthroposophy. This question arises if we narrow the concept of "Christian" to the confessional forms of Christianity. In this regard, they point to certain anthroposophical views (reincarnation, cosmology). However, attempts to check whether these views can help to understand the relationship of man with the Divine more deeply than church dogmas are usually not undertaken. The assertion that anthroposophy supposedly does not know the concept of grace and is a dubious enterprise of self-salvation is based on a lack of information. The desire to transform one's own being in all the great personalities of Christianity was the basis of a deeper service to Christ. This must not be forgotten when analyzing Waldorf pedagogy and anthroposophy. Waldorf schools are convinced that education without religion is incomplete. Therefore, students have confessional religion lessons at the request of parents of various confessional groups. If they do not participate in them, then they are given an idea of the Christian worldview in the so-called free lessons of the Christian religion. The latter are supplemented by the usual lessons that lead to such an understanding of the world, in which the spiritual and divine are not obscured. This is how Waldorf schools try to overcome the dilemma that arises when the content of the materialistic interpretation of the world in the experiences of students constantly questions the religious life.

LITERATURE

EM. Kranih. Free Waldorf schools. M: "Parsifal" 1993.
Frans Karlgren. Anthroposophical way of knowledge. M: "Alphabet" 1991.

Introduction

Waldorf schools - free comprehensive schools

The system of education in the Waldorf school

BBK 74.00 A94

Edited by Abdullina O. A.

Reviewers:

dr. ped. sciences, prof. Nepomniachtchi A. V.,

cand. ped. Sciences, Assoc. Deberdeeva E. E.

Afonina G. M.

A94 Pedagogy. A course of lectures and seminars / Ed. Abdullina O. A. Second edition (Series "Textbooks, teaching aids"). - Rostov n / a: "Phoenix", 2002. -512 p.

The work is one of the textbooks that meet the state standard of basic pedagogical education for students of pedagogical and non-pedagogical educational institutions in the specialty "Pedagogy".

The textbook reflects the content of the course "Pedagogical theories, systems, technologies", contains the theoretical and practical parts of this course, including creative tasks for students placed at the end of the topic.

ISBN 5-222-01982-9 BBC 74.00

Introduction

This book is addressed primarily to students of pedagogical educational institutions, since, due to the extremely complex science, the author briefly outlined the main theoretical issues, ideas, facts, and modern approaches to teaching and education.

All of the above questions in the manual are necessarily present in the course "Pedagogical theories, systems and technologies", which is introduced to universities in accordance with the State Standard of Higher Pedagogical Education. This normative base represents a new structure of the block of psychological and pedagogical training of the future teacher.

The philosophy of education with various theses confirms the idea that the established system of education is closely interconnected with social conditions and has a huge impact on the entire course of transformations in society.

Undoubtedly, pedagogical creativity, the creative individuality of the teacher make his work attractive, interesting and determine the quality of the educational process.

The Russian education system at the present stage of its development has taken the path of high-quality training of a specialist, where one of the priority tasks is the training of a future teacher who is able to act creatively and effectively in the conditions of modern pedagogical reality.

The current situation in education requires new approaches to the organization of educational activities of teachers. One of the positive trends in this direction is the transition to a variety of copyright programs operating within the standard. They create the prerequisites for creating an individual educational strategy, which provides for the adaptation of the content of training, the volume of training

programs, teaching aids to the real needs and capabilities of students, the transition to the flexible nature of the pedagogical process.

Life in the teaching profession is characterized by a non-standard approach to any phenomenon of the educational process. That is why mastery is so important in the work of a teacher, which is based on a high level of assimilation of psychological and pedagogical knowledge. The course "Pedagogical theories, systems and technologies" represents the minimum of professional knowledge that a future teacher should possess when creating his own teaching and education technologies.

The publication of this textbook is due to a shortage in such literature, experienced by both students and teachers.

CHAPTER I

LECTURES ON THE COURSE "PEDAGOGICAL THEORIES AND SYSTEMS"

Lecture 1

Topic: Pedagogy as a social science. Its subject, object, main categories and methodological foundations

Plan

The science of pedagogy and its main categories.
Pedagogy as a social science. Science pedagogy in conditions of social change.
Functions of the science of pedagogy.
The role of education in the life of society.
The system of pedagogical sciences.
Communication of pedagogy with other sciences.
Methodological foundations of the science of pedagogy.
Introduction of the achievements of pedagogical science into practice.

Each science, as one of the forms of human consciousness, has its own history and a fairly specific aspect of the natural and social phenomena that it studies. The pedagogical branch of knowledge is recognized as the most ancient and inseparable from the development of society. The development of society, its culture, social experience became possible only because at any time the older generation found ways to transfer the accumulated life experience to the new generation of people. The transfer of experience from the older generation and its active assimilation by the younger generation is the essence of education itself as the basis for improving society. Each new generation entering into life must master the production, social and spiritual experience of their ancestors. Already primitive people passed on their life experience to the younger generation. There were special institutions - "houses of youth", where a person, free from other functions in the community, was engaged in raising children. During the period of the slave system, education stands out as a special function of society.

From the time of ancient Greece originates the term "pedagogy"- "paydagogas" ("payd" - a child, "gogos" - 6

lead), which means children's education, schoolmaster. In ancient Greece, a teacher was a slave who took his master's child by the hand and accompanied him to school. Subsequently, the word "pedagogy" began to be used in a general sense - they called people who were involved in the education and upbringing of children. The gradual accumulation of knowledge about the process of education led to the emergence of a special science - pedagogy. It was first isolated from the system of philosophical knowledge at the beginning of the 17th century and owes its design to the outstanding Czech teacher Jan Amos Comenius.

Pedagogy is the science of human education. Initially developing as a science of raising children, today it has become a science of the laws and principles of educating a person at various age stages of his development. Such an interpretation of pedagogy is especially relevant now, when a system of continuous education is being created in our country, including all links, from preschool institutions to a variety of forms of general, vocational education and advanced training for workers. Sometimes pedagogy is regarded as an art and is presented by a number of authors as the art of raising children. As for the practical aspect of educational activity, which requires the teacher to have his own style in the application of educational means, methods, techniques, forms, etc. and finds expression in professional skills and craftsmanship, this is the field of art in education. But the theoretical aspect of education is the subject of scientific and pedagogical research. To define pedagogy as a science, it is important to establish a number of factors that characterize it like any other science.

The science of pedagogy has its own subject of research- upbringing.
The object of knowledge in pedagogy is the child.
Science arose from the practical need of society to study, generalize and transfer previously accumulated historical values.
Pedagogical science studies the laws of education and upbringing. It summarizes various facts, establishing

reveals the causes and connections between phenomena, predicts events, answers the questions why and what changes occur in human development under the influence of training and education.

To study its subject of study, science pedagogy uses the methods of scientific research (questionnaires, observation, test method, interviewing, the method of studying school documentation, conversation, experiment, etc.)
Like any science, pedagogy has its main categories (education, training, education). Categories, unlike concepts, characterize the most essential properties of pedagogical objects.

In pedagogy the concept of "education" used in the broad and narrow sense of the word. When we talk about education in the narrow sense of the word, we identify it with educational work at school, that is, we present it as a purposeful and organized process on the part of the teacher. In this sense, education is a purposeful process of organizing the life of schoolchildren. And in the broad sense of the word, education involves a social process, where the formation and development of the individual occurs under the influence of the entire set of objective and subjective factors. So, education occurs under the influence of purposeful and spontaneous factors. A.S. wrote very figuratively about this. Makarenko: "... brings up every square centimeter of the area." N.K. Krupskaya noted that a person is brought up by life and everything that surrounds him. Therefore, when we talk about education in the broad sense of the word, we mean family education, the environment surrounding the student, the social environment; the street where he spends time, the events he experiences, etc.

Education is a two-way process. This is a joint activity of a teacher and a student, when the first one transfers his knowledge and manages the learning process, and the second (student) learns, that is, assimilates knowledge and develops skills and abilities based on them. The teacher carries out the activity of teaching, and the student - the activity of teaching. Thus, learning is

activities of teaching and learning. In the process of learning, the student acquires knowledge, forms a worldview and develops his abilities.

Education- the result of training. In the literal sense of the word, it means a certain completeness of education in accordance with a certain age level, the formation of an image, one’s “I”. This is the assimilation of the experience of human activity in the form of a system of scientific knowledge, skills and abilities.

7. Like any science, pedagogy has a methodological basis. This is the most important factor in the development of pedagogical theory since ancient times. All knowledge and laws of the development of nature, man, society, knowledge have been accumulated in philosophy since ancient times. This gives it the right to serve as the methodological basis of all sciences, including pedagogy. Being a part of the science of philosophy for a long time, pedagogy has developed and continues to develop under the influence of basic philosophical concepts. No wonder the anthropology of pedagogical thought is associated with the names of major ancient Greek philosophers Socrates (496-399 BC), Plato (427-347 BC), Aristotle (348-322 BC). ), Democritus (460-370 BC), etc. In their works, the most important ideas related to the upbringing and development of a person are deeply developed. For a long time, the work of Mark Quintilian (35-96 BC) "Education of the Orator" served as the main book on pedagogy.

The methodology of science is understood as a set of initial philosophical ideas that underlie the study of natural or social phenomena and which decisively influence the theoretical interpretation of these phenomena. In addition, the methodological function of philosophy in relation to any science, including pedagogy, is manifested in the fact that it develops a system of general principles and methods of scientific knowledge.

The appearance of education as a deliberate, purposeful activity of people refers to the emergence of human society. Research by historians

Nographers, economists and representatives of other sciences have discovered amazing dexterity and skill in obtaining food by hunting and fishing, in building dwellings. Obviously, there is a great desire to pass on this experience of the elders to the younger generation, and this could only be done by introducing children to the practical activities of adults.

Education in the animal world is based on instinctive actions and imitation in the name of preserving the biological species. In human society, education is a conscious transfer to the younger generation of the acquired social experience, accumulated knowledge and labor skills. In the animal world, due to biological inability to live, there is a gathering of what is in nature, and people are already producing material goods. Only this makes it possible for the new generation to get involved in industrial and social life. Even a primitive tool of labor expressed the materialization of the experience of human activity. The design of the tool suggested how to handle it and what to use it for, that is, the very method of action was fixed. The first steps were taken in the creation of specific social means of transferring experience, which is the basis for creating a culture of society. Through imitation and additional experiment, that is, through trial and error, the older generation sought not so much to pass on production experience as to stimulate the corresponding activity. With the emergence of human society, education also appears, which becomes an integral part of its life function at all stages of development. In any society, regardless of the level of its social culture, there is education. But the goals, content, character, methods, means and forms of education are determined by the system of productive forces, production relations and the level of cultural development of a given society.

Retrospective analysis and archaeological data show that education is related to the level of development of society. In the tribal community, education was not separated

from labor and carried out directly in the process of labor activity. With the development of labor and the complexity of its functions, education became more diverse. The main goal of education was the survival of the family, and the content of education was determined by the types of human activity. In the absence of a language, sign system, speech, and means of transmitting experience, the very act of adult behavior served as a means of transmitting experience. Ceremonies, rituals, games served as a form of education, information was transmitted by imitation of the activity itself. This activity was demonstrated by the elders. Rites and rituals as a form of education served as a rehearsal, training for participants in the upcoming activities. The formation of education eventually led to the fact that it took shape in human society into an independent activity with all its inherent elements - the purpose, content, forms, means, methods, and nature of education.

Since upbringing served as a way of transferring social experience, the culture of society, then with the development of society, the accumulation of knowledge in it, the transformation of people's livelihoods, upbringing as a social category changes, and all the characteristics of this process itself change. This can be traced if we consider in detail the development of education in different historical eras (slave-owning society, feudal and bourgeois society), and at the same time trace how pedagogical thought develops (Kovalev N.E., Raisky B.F., Sorokin N. A. Introduction to Pedagogy. - M., 1975; Boldyrev N.I., Goncharov N.K. and others Pedagogy. - M., 1968; Dzhurinskaya A.N. History of Pedagogics. - M., 1999; Slastenin V .A., Isaev I.F. and others Pedagogy. - M., 1997. - Section II).

The essence of the process of education is reduced to the transfer of social experience. Education prepares a person for life, work, transfers to him production and labor experience, spiritual wealth accumulated in the past. In the process of education, there is a purposeful creation of conditions (material, spiritual, organizational) for the new generation to assimilate the socio-historical

experience. There is a process of socialization of the individual, his adaptation to a specific socio-cultural environment, but at the same time there is a further improvement of the historical society, the culture of the society, since the child not only learns one of the many areas of culture, but also improves it. The key problem of pedagogical science is the development of personality. In the course of his life, the child is socialized due to the influence on him of the social groups with which he communicates and develops. A person becomes a product of social life, social relations. The main function of the individual in the process of education is the creative development of social experience and the inclusion of a person in the system of social relations. In this case, qualitative processes of human transformation take place. By virtue of his natural activity, a person retains and develops a tendency towards autonomy, independence, freedom, the formation of his own position, unique individuality. As a consequence of this trend, a person adapts to the existing social system, develops and transforms it and society itself.

So today, when the process of restructuring society is underway, we are talking about education, pedagogy in the conditions of social changes. The future of any society depends on the level of education of the younger generation. In ancient Rome, the emperor himself appointed teachers in the state. Even Helvetius, the French educator, wrote that education is omnipotent. It so happened historically that the science of pedagogy is associated with the school, and today its state is assessed by the state of affairs in the school. Acute turmoil in our society painfully affects the situation in the school: interest in learning continues to fall, work with teenagers and high school students is especially complicated, the quality of academic performance drops sharply, there are no ideals in education. At the same time, the growth of child crime, immoral acts, drug addiction, the indiscriminate denigration of the entire past in the history of our country, stratification among children and other negative phenomena that complicate the process of education, characterize its obvious crisis.

These shortcomings of the school, failures in the upbringing and work of schools are considered by many to be the result of the backwardness of the science of pedagogy, its conservatism, and its isolation from teaching and educational practice. At the same time, many problems have been solved in pedagogical research, but they are still not in demand by school teachers. Statistics today state that “every second teacher does not study methodological literature on the subject, 70% are not interested in questions of psychology and pedagogy, and only 1% of teachers are engaged in research work, the development of author's programs, courses and methods” (“Teacher's newspaper”, 1995) . The creative findings of teachers and their experience are not widely used in school practice. The science of pedagogy cannot neutralize negative social phenomena.

Society today decides the issue of political and economic structure. What is the place of the school in today's society? The school should be aimed at the future of society. The future of society largely depends on what the school is like, how it works, what main goal it achieves. That is why the science of pedagogy must resolve the main questions:

help the school to form the personality of a zealous owner, a thrifty, prudent, enterprising owner;
the school should be engaged in the education of the subject of a market economy, restore the psychology of the market environment, free enterprise, the owner. Our youth must learn to pay for everything, to overcome idleness, to understand that the availability of things is proportional to labor, intelligence, and enterprise;
to carry out economic education of schoolchildren, which should be combined with productive work;
recreate the national character of culture; education should be multinational;
the science of pedagogy must develop the content of general secondary education on the basis of the basic values

research as a foundation for further lifelong education;

to make the school demand scientific developments in pedagogy and psychology;
to create a databank on the problems of school and science in the Russian Academy of Education;
search for methods of teaching with the help of computers and organize student-centered learning;
start integrating research in the field of education and training of all countries;
improve the training of a professional teacher;
to carry out the practical orientation of pedagogical research.

As a science of human education, pedagogy has a number of functions: scientific and theoretical, practical and prognostic. In its content, pedagogy includes the most important scientific and pedagogical ideas (the idea of humanization of education, the idea of cooperation pedagogy, the idea of the connection between learning and life, etc.); scientific theories - the theory of developing education, the theory of personality development, the theory of selection of the content of education, the theory of the system of education, etc. Pedagogy studies the patterns of development and education, the patterns of the learning process. The theoretical function of the science of pedagogy is realized in the case when an assessment is given of one or another experience of the activities of teachers, teaching teams, and advanced innovative experience is described.

However, developing in theoretical terms, pedagogy, like any other science, serves practice- improvement of the educational process at school. It is envisaged to develop scientific information at the methodological level with the aim of its widespread introduction into the pedagogical process. Guidelines are being introduced on the practical application of specific theories. Research scientists developed specific recommendations for the introduction of the theory of developmental education, created teaching aids for teachers and students on the theory of collective creative education,

development of gifted children, etc. Scientists developed general didactic requirements and recommendations for conducting a modern lesson, presented various types of independent work for students, carefully worked out to the level of practical implementation of problem-based and computer learning methods, compiled training programs for a computer, etc. One of the effective forms of implementation The practical function of pedagogical science is the creation of advanced technologies for teaching and upbringing, which especially attract the attention of teachers today. The technology is presented in the form of a clear instruction, graphs, drawings, diagrams, which ensure the high quality of the organization of the educational process.

Like any science, pedagogy is characterized by forecasting. The forecasting function includes a special scientific study, which, based on an analysis of the development trend of society, its culture, economy, politics, predicts the school of the future, that is, the school itself is the object of pedagogical forecasting. On the basis of forecasting, models for the transformation of pedagogical processes are created. The objects of forecasting can also be theories that can be applied in practice in the future. So, each function of pedagogical science has its own special and specific purpose.

Mankind has survived, strengthened and reached the modern level thanks to education, thanks to the fact that the experience created by previous generations was used and improved by the next generation. The history of the development of society convincingly shows cases when experience was lost, education slowed down, and as a result people turned out to be thrown far back in their development. A lot of time was lost to restore the lost links of culture anew. But, on the other hand, the historical process of the development of society irrefutably proves that peoples who had a well-regulated mechanism of education achieved significant success in their development. Education originated in human society and has become an integral part of

his life and development. Numerous scientists-philosophers establish objective links between education and the level of development of the productive forces of society. In the 1970s and early 1980s, the Western world entered a period of worsening economic crisis, which was accompanied by large cuts in spending on social needs, including education. During this period, numerous theories emphasized that periods of economic recovery and improvement in the well-being of people in society are directly related to their education. Education affects the development of society, its progress, in turn, a developed society provides great opportunities for education. It would be a mistake not to recognize the fact that education has an impact on social transformations in society. Theoretical and practical works devoted to the problem of the relationship between education and society note that education has a great future, as it is able to transform society.

The level of development of any science is judged by the degree of its differentiation and by the variety of connections with other sciences.

The system of pedagogical sciences includes the following sciences:

general pedagogy, which studies the main patterns of the process of education, training and development;
age pedagogy, which is represented by pre-school pedagogy, pre-school pedagogy and school pedagogy. In addition, a distinction is made between the pedagogy of secondary education and the pedagogy of higher education. These directions in pedagogy study the features of education at various age stages;
special pedagogy (defectology) is divided into a number of branches: deaf pedagogy (education of deaf and hard of hearing children), typhlopedagogy (education of the blind and visually impaired), oligophrenopedagogy (education of the mentally retarded), speech therapy (teaching children with speech disorders);
the history of pedagogy studies the development of pedagogical ideas, thoughts and practices of education in various historical epochs;

private didactics (methods) that study teaching methods of various disciplines based on general laws and patterns of learning (methods of mathematics, physics, Russian language, history, etc.);
professional pedagogy carries out the development of the personality of a working person. It studies the laws, principles, technologies of upbringing and education of a person focused on a specific professional activity;
comparative pedagogy, which studies the patterns of functioning and development of education and upbringing systems in different countries by comparing and finding similarities and differences in them;
social pedagogy is engaged in the study and development of the field of out-of-school education and upbringing of children and adults. Various social institutions of education (clubs, music and art schools, sports sections, theater and music studios, art studios) serve as a means of developing culture, transferring special knowledge, developing children's creative abilities, and applying the acquired knowledge in practice;

» correctional labor pedagogy contains theoretical substantiations and development of the practice of re-education of persons imprisoned for committing crimes.

In recent years, new directions in pedagogy have been intensively developing:

military pedagogy;
musical pedagogy;
engineering pedagogy;

pedagogy of family education (parental pedagogy);

pedagogy of children's and youth organizations;
pedagogy of mentoring;
valeology.

Pedagogy, like any science, develops in close relationship with other sciences, since an object Sciences

Pedagogy - the child - is the object of a number of other sciences - physiology, psychology, sociology. A person, his sphere of life, environment and conditions of development are of interest to teachers professionally, from all sides, in order to effectively and deeply study their subject of study, that is, in all its connections. Other social sciences, which have a completely different subject of study, have many points of contact with pedagogy - each of them studies a person in a certain way. Noting the specificity of the subject of pedagogy, it should be emphasized that pedagogy is inherently integrative Science, designed to combine data not only from the social and humanitarian, but also from the natural sciences related to human cognition.

Pedagogy is closely connected with physiology, which studies the nature of the physical development of a person, the laws of the life of the organism as a whole, the functioning of its individual parts. Knowledge of the patterns of functioning of the system of higher nervous activity allows pedagogy to model developmental education, control the technologies of the educational process, and ensure the optimality of the integral pedagogical process.

Pedagogy develops in organic unity with psychology. Both of these sciences have a common object of study - a developing person, but each has its own subject of study. Psychology studies the patterns and mechanisms of development of mental processes and personal properties of a person, develops laws for managing personality development. The upbringing and education of a person is based on the development of the human psyche (thinking, representation, memory, imagination, activity, etc.). Many methods of scientific research of psychology are successfully applied in pedagogy and solve their own pedagogical problems. Pedagogy uses psychological knowledge to describe and explain the facts and phenomena of the educational process. Pedagogy explores the process of purposeful transformation of the properties, states of a person, the process of educating a person.

Pedagogy is closely connected with the sciences that study the child as an individual (biology, anatomy, anthropology and medicine). The problem of the correlation of natural and social factors of human development, as one of the central ones for pedagogy, inevitably leads to the connection of pedagogy with ecology and anthropology, which consider the physical, natural conditions and capabilities of a person in all its multidimensionality.

The connection of pedagogy with medicine has led to the emergence of correctional pedagogy, the subject of which is the education of children with acquired or congenital developmental disabilities. Correctional pedagogy, together with medicine, develops a multi-level, differentiated program for correcting deviations in education, carefully analyzes the causes of these deviations and finds a system of means by which a significant effect of the process of socialization of the individual is achieved.

The development of pedagogy is closely connected with the sciences that study a person in society, in the system of his social relations. Therefore, stable relationships are established with sociology, economics, cultural studies, political science and other social sciences.

The relationship between pedagogy and economic sciences is the most significant, since the economic policy of the state has always been a necessary condition for the formation of society.

The connection with sociology and cultural studies is considered traditional, since society gives a kind of order to the education system, makes its own demands on the level of education of people, and solves the problems of adapting a person to specific social conditions. Pedagogy is looking for ways to solve eternal problems - the success of the process of socialization of the individual. The socialization of the individual, taking into account its individual capabilities and natural characteristics, is associated with the process of improving society, developing its culture and values.

Educational policy has always been a reflection of the ideology of the ruling classes and parties in society. Because of this, it is inextricably linked with political science. However, the science of pedagogy seeks to identify the conditions

and on the basis of them to create a mechanism for the formation of the subject of political consciousness, the possibility of assimilation of the political attitudes of society.

Pedagogy is associated with cybernetics as a science of management, since the management of the process of education and upbringing certainly requires knowledge of the general laws and mechanisms for managing any process. Knowledge of cybernetics by teachers includes additional opportunities for studying the processes of education and training.

Interaction with various social sciences allows pedagogy to more clearly formulate the goal, objectives, content, forms and methods of education.

Communication with the science of mathematics is as inevitable as with other sciences. Determining the criteria for the effectiveness, optimality of training, the science of pedagogy cannot do without mathematics. Many phenomena of the educational process are of a probabilistic nature, which requires the application of the theory of mathematical statistics to them. The connection between pedagogy and mathematics is especially clearly manifested in the processing of questionnaires, essays, observations, etc., in the application of ranking methods, diagnostic tests, graphs of various pedagogical phenomena, facts of connections; finding the necessary and sufficient conditions for the development of something, compiling a matrix of relationships that reflect the depth of research, etc. The use of mathematical methods in pedagogy leads to the persuasiveness and perfection of the scientific and pedagogical research itself.

Concluding the review of the interscientific relations of pedagogy, we note its longest and most productive connection with philosophy. The links between pedagogy and philosophy were among the first to develop. Philosophical ideas produced the creation of pedagogical concepts, theories and served as its methodological basis. The process of obtaining pedagogical knowledge is subject to the general laws of scientific knowledge, which are studied by philosophy. Philosophy is the theoretical basis for understanding pedagogical experience and creating pedagogical concepts. Philosophical knowledge is necessary to understand education itself as a public, social phenomenon, its essence.

The goals and objectives of education cannot be determined without philosophical knowledge, analysis of trends in the development of society. The philosophical theory of knowledge itself, thanks to the generality of laws, determines the patterns of educational and cognitive activity. The philosophical categories of necessity and chance, the general, the individual and the whole, laws and regularities, interconnections and interdependence, development and its driving forces form the basis of any pedagogical thought. Suffice it to recall that pedagogy, as a field of scientific knowledge, was the last to leave the science of philosophy. And today the problem of the qualitative perfection of pedagogical research has again led to a new branch of human knowledge - the philosophy of education and upbringing. Philosophy remains the basis of pedagogy today.

Let us consider philosophy as a methodological basis for the development of the science of pedagogy. The successes achieved by Russian pedagogy and its real plans for the future are primarily due to the fact that from the first days of its formation it has developed and built its research on a methodological basis. Methodology is the doctrine of the ways of recognizing the world. The methodology of science is its area, which studies the methods of scientific research and the principles of approach to the study of the subject of this science. Each science has its own subject of research and, of course, research methods specific to it, the nature of which is determined by the tasks facing research. However, there is a general methodology of scientific knowledge, a general scientific methodology, which is the fundamental basis for the development of research questions within any science. Therefore, it is customary to distinguish methodology of pedagogy and general methodology. In the study of any issue in pedagogy, the general and particular laws of science manifest themselves.

Under the methodology of pedagogy we understand the general fundamental starting points that underlie the study of any pedagogical problem, that is, these are the laws of philosophy. Any science uses, first of all, a general position, a general approach to the phenomenon under study, and then uses its own specific methods.

Toda for further study of the problem. This approach to the study of phenomena characterizes the completeness of the study. In other words, the methods of pedagogical research must be put on the basis, the foundation, the role of which is played by the general methodology.

Let's give examples. Education and training accelerate the process of personal development. The term "development" is philosophical. Therefore, when we talk about development in the pedagogical process, then the strategic line of this process, its driving force is contradictions. The main content of the contradiction in education is revealed between the desire, the need of the individual and the possibilities to fulfill this desire. The resolution of this contradiction leads to qualitative changes in the personality.

The driving force of the educational process itself is the contradiction between the requirements (of society, teachers, school administration, etc.) and the ability of the student to fulfill them. The creation of all kinds of conditions that ensure the resolution of these contradictions leads to the improvement of the pedagogical process itself.

In didactics, the process of assimilation of knowledge is built on the basis of the materialistic process of cognition. Materialistic philosophy asserts that knowledge begins with sensation. We formulate the law of cognition - "from living contemplation to abstract thinking and from it to practice", which characterizes the procedural side of cognition. The general methodology makes it possible to determine the main stages (links) of the learning process - perception, comprehension, consolidation.

The successful development of pedagogical science is directly dependent on the development of its methodology. Developing in theoretical terms, pedagogy, like any science, serves practice. Accumulating and summarizing new scientific information, it provides specific ways of its application in a wide practical reality. The issue of introducing pedagogical ideas into practice poses a paramount task - to make sure that today the school demands scientific knowledge.

The literal translation of the English word "introduction" means "squeezing". What does it mean to introduce the achievements of science? It means to show an effective influence on the practical application of pedagogical ideas.

What can be implemented?

Advanced pedagogical experience (the experience of developing education in elementary school - L.V. Zankov, author's schools - the school of L. Tarasov).
Teaching methods - the method of commented writing, the method of V.F. Shatalova in teaching, the method of accelerated learning of a foreign language, etc.
Education systems (the education system of V.A. Karakovsky, A. Zakharenko, A.S. Makarenko, etc.).
Technologies of training and education (technology of collective creative education - I.P. Ivanov), technology of modular education - P. Erdniev), new technologies of education - N. Shchurkova).
Partial implementation (checking knowledge along the chain - from the experience of V.F. Shatalov), types of independent work - P.I. Pidkasisty), etc.
Types of training - programmed training, computer, problem, partially search, algorithmic, etc.
Various theories (the theory of developmental education - L.S. Vygotsky, V.V. Davydov), the theory of lifelong education, the theory of selection of the content of education, etc.

The tasks of introducing the theoretical achievements of pedagogy into the practice of teaching and upbringing involve, first of all, the development of general methodological recommendations for the application of a particular pedagogical theory.

Creative tasks on the topic

Formulate tasks and select research methods on the topic "The influence of a student's self-esteem on his behavior."
Observing the work of a teacher at school, emphasize what achievements of pedagogical science he introduces into the pedagogical process.
Emphasize the methodological basis in question.

When investigating such a question as overcoming repetition in school, it is necessary first of all to thoroughly find out the reasons for the low progress of each lagging student. In one case, a long break in teaching may have had an effect due to a long illness or a schoolchild's family moving. In another case, his lack of desire to study at school and, as a result, the backlog in classes could have affected. Or maybe it's the student's inability to learn. Perhaps the reason should be sought in the lack of control over the student by the parents or in the unfavorable conditions of family life. But most often, the deterioration in academic performance is influenced not by one, but by several interrelated reasons. At some point, the student did not understand the teacher's explanation, and he himself was unable to understand the material being studied. The resulting gap in knowledge inevitably led to another. There was a learning gap. Rained failures, deuces. The growing chagrin gave rise to a hostile attitude towards the school. Lost interest in learning, desire to learn. Obviously, the situation needs to be rectified, taking into account the connection of all those factors under the influence of which the student has developed an incorrect attitude towards learning.

Main literature

Likhachev B.T. Pedagogy. - M., 1993.
Podlasy I.P. Pedagogy. - M., 1996 (topic 1).
Pidkasty P.I. Pedagogy. - M, 1996.

Stolyarenko L.D., Samygin S.I. Psychology and pedagogy in questions and answers. - M., 1999.
Slastenin V A., Isaev I.F. and etc. Pedagogy. - M., 1997.

Kharlamov I.F. Pedagogy. - M., 1990. - Ch. II.

Bordovskaya N.V., ReanAA. Pedagogy. - St. Petersburg, 2000. - Ch. one.
Voronov V.V. School pedagogy in a nutshell. - M., 1999. - Ch. 1.

Lecture 2