Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius: biography, reign, personal life. Emperor Caesar Marcus Aurelius Severus Antoninus Augustus Marcus Aurelius Caesar and his love

Arch Aurelius belonged to the ancient Italian family of the Anniev Verov, which claimed descent from King Numa Pompilius, but was included among the patricians only when. His grandfather was twice consul and prefect of Rome, and his father died as praetor. Mark was adopted and raised by his grandfather Annius Verus. From early childhood he was distinguished by his seriousness. Having passed the age that requires the care of nannies, he was entrusted to outstanding mentors. As a boy, he became interested in philosophy, and when he was twelve years old, he began to dress like a philosopher and observe the rules of abstinence: he studied in a Greek cloak, slept on the ground, and his mother could hardly persuade him to lie down on a bed covered with skins. Apollonius of Chalcedon became his mentor in Stoic philosophy. Mark’s zeal for philosophical studies was so great that, having already been accepted into the imperial palace, he still went to study at Apollonius’s house. He studied the philosophy of the Peripatetics from Junius Rusticus, whom he later respected very much: he always consulted with Rusticus on both public and private matters. He also studied law, rhetoric and grammar and put so much effort into these studies that he even ruined his health. Later, he paid more attention to sports, loved fist fighting, wrestling, running, catching birds, but had a special penchant for playing ball and hunting.

Emperor Hadrian, who was a distant relative of him, patronized Mark since childhood. In his eighth year he enrolled him in the College of Sallii. Being a sally priest, Mark learned all the sacred songs, and at the holidays he was the first singer, speaker and leader. In his fifteenth year, Hadrian betrothed him to the daughter of Lucius Ceionius Commodus. When Lucius Caesar died, Hadrian began to look for an heir to the imperial power; he really wanted to make Mark his successor, but abandoned this idea because of his youth. The emperor adopted Antoninus Pius, but with the condition that Pius himself adopted Mark and Lucius Verus. Thus, he seemed to be preparing Mark ahead of time to succeed Antonin himself. They say that Mark accepted the adoption with great reluctance, and complained to his family that he was forced to exchange the happy life of a philosopher for the painful existence of the heir to a princeps. Then for the first time he began to be called Aurelius instead of Annius. Adrian immediately designated his adopted grandson as quaestor, although Mark had not yet reached the required age.

When he became emperor in 138, he upset the engagement of Marcus Aurelius to Ceionia and married him to his daughter Faustina. Then he bestowed on him the title of Caesar and appointed him consul for 140. Despite his resistance, the emperor surrounded Mark with befitting luxury, ordered him to settle in the palace of Tiberius and accepted him into the college of priests in 145. When Marcus Aurelius had a daughter, Antoninus gave him tribunician powers and proconsular power outside Rome. Mark achieved such influence that Antoninus never promoted anyone without the consent of his adopted son. During the twenty-three years that Marcus Aurelius spent in the emperor's house, he showed him such respect and obedience that there was not a single quarrel between them. Dying in 161, Antoninus Pius without hesitation declared Mark his successor.

Having assumed power, Marcus Aurelius immediately appointed Lucius Verus as his co-ruler with the titles of Augustus and Caesar, and from that time on they jointly ruled the state. Then for the first time the Roman Empire began to have two Augusti. Their reign was marked by difficult wars with external enemies, epidemics and natural disasters. The Parthians attacked from the east, the British began an uprising in the west, and Germany and Raetia were threatened with catastrophes. Mark sent Verus against the Parthians in 162, and his legates against the Cats and the British; he himself remained in Rome, since city affairs required the presence of the emperor: the flood caused severe destruction and caused famine in the capital. Marcus Aurelius was able to alleviate these disasters through his personal presence.

He dealt with affairs a lot and very thoughtfully, making many useful improvements in the state mechanism. Meanwhile, the Parthians were defeated, but, returning from Mesopotamia, the Romans brought the plague to Italy. The infection spread quickly and raged with such force that corpses were taken out of the city on carts. Then Marcus Aurelius established very strict rules regarding burials, prohibiting burial within the city. He buried many poor people at public expense. Meanwhile, a new, even more dangerous war began.

In 166, all the tribes from Illyricum to Gaul united against the Roman power; these were the Marcomanni, Quadi, Vandals, Sarmatians, Suevi and many others. In 168, Marcus Aurelius himself had to lead a campaign against them. With great difficulty and hardship, after spending three years in the Karunta Mountains, he ended the war valiantly and successfully, and moreover, at a time when a severe pestilence killed many thousands both among the people and among the soldiers. Thus, he freed Pannonia from slavery and, upon returning to Rome, celebrated a triumph in 172. Having exhausted his entire treasury for this war, he did not even think of demanding any extraordinary levies from the provinces. Instead, he organized an auction of luxury items belonging to the emperor at the Trajan Forum: he sold gold and crystal glasses, imperial vessels, his wife’s gilded silk clothes, even precious stones, which he found in large quantities in Hadrian’s secret treasury. This sale lasted two months and brought so much gold that he could successfully continue the fight against drug addicts and Sarmatians on their own land, achieve many victories and adequately reward the soldiers. He already wanted to form new provinces beyond the Danube, Marcomania and Sarmatia, but in 175 a rebellion broke out in Egypt, where Obadius Cassius proclaimed himself emperor. Marcus Aurelius hurried south.

Although even before his arrival the rebellion died out on its own and Cassius was killed, he reached Alexandria, figured everything out, and treated Cassius’s soldiers and the Egyptians themselves very mercifully. He also forbade the persecution of Cassius' relatives. Having traveled around the eastern provinces along the way and stopping in Athens, he returned to Rome, and in 178 he went to Vindobona, from where he again set out on a campaign against the Marcomanni and Sarmatians. In this war, he met his death two years later, contracting the plague. Shortly before his death, he called his friends and talked with them, laughing at the frailty of human affairs and expressing contempt for death. In general, throughout his entire life he was distinguished by such calmness of spirit that the expression of his face never changed either from grief or from joy. He accepted his death just as calmly and courageously, for not only by occupation, but also by spirit, he was a true philosopher.

Success accompanied him in everything, only in marriage and children he was unhappy, but he also perceived these adversities with stoic calm. All his friends knew about his wife’s unworthy behavior. They said that while living in Campania, she sat down on a picturesque shore to choose for herself, from among the sailors who usually went naked, those most suitable for debauchery.

The emperor was repeatedly accused of knowing the names of his wife's lovers, but not only did not punish them, but, on the contrary, promoted them to high positions. Many said that she, too, conceived not from her husband, but from some gladiator, for it was impossible to believe that such a worthy father could give birth to such a vicious and obscene son. His other son died as a child after a tumor was removed from his ear. Marcus Aurelius grieved for him only for five days, and then again turned to state affairs.

Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (lat. Marcus Aurelius Antoninus). Born April 26, 121 in Rome - died March 17, 180 in Vindobona. Roman emperor (161-180) from the Antonine dynasty, philosopher, representative of late Stoicism, follower of Epictetus.

Marcus Annius Verus (later after the first adoption - Marcus Annius Catilius Severus, and after the second - Marcus Aelius Aurelius Verus Caesar), the son of Marcus Annius Verus and Domitia Lucilla, who went down in history under the name Marcus Aurelius, was born in Rome on April 26, 121 in the senatorial family of Spanish origin.

Marcus Aurelius's paternal grandfather (also Marcus Annius Verus) was a three-time consul (elected for the third time in 126).

Marcus Annius Verus was initially adopted by the third husband of Emperor Hadrian's mother, Domitia Lucilla Paulina, by Publius Catilius Severus (consul of 120) and became known as Marcus Annius Catilius Severus.

In 139, after the death of his adoptive father, he was adopted by Emperor Antoninus Pius and became known as Marcus Aelius Aurelius Verus Caesar.

The wife of Antoninus Pius - Annia Galeria Faustina (Faustina the Elder) - was the sister of Marcus Aurelius' father (and, accordingly, the aunt of Marcus Aurelius himself).

Marcus Aurelius received an excellent education. During the life of Emperor Hadrian, Marcus Aurelius, despite his young age, was appointed quaestor, and six months after the death of Hadrian, he assumed the position of quaestor (December 5, 138) and began to engage in administrative activities.

That same year he was engaged to Annia Galeria Faustina, daughter of Emperor Antoninus Pius, Hadrian's successor to the throne. From his marriage with her, Marcus Aurelius had children: Annius Aurelius Galerius Lucilla, Annius Aurelius Galerius Faustina, Aelia Antonina, Aelia Hadriana, Domitia Faustina, Fadilla, Cornificia, Commodus (future emperor), Titus Aurelius Fulvius Antonina, Aelia Aurelius, Marcus Annius Vera Caesar , Vibius Aurelius Sabinus. Most of Marcus Aurelius's children died in childhood; only Commodus, Lucilla, Faustina and Sabina survived to adulthood.

He was appointed consul by Antoninus Pius in 140 and declared Caesar. In 145 he was declared consul for the second time, together with Pius.

At the age of 25, Marcus Aurelius began to study philosophy; Marcus Aurelius's main mentor was Quintus Junius Rusticus. There is information about other philosophers summoned to Rome for him. The leader of Marcus Aurelius in the study of civil law was the famous lawyer Lucius Volusius Metianus.

On January 1, 161, Mark entered into his third consulate together with his adopted brother. In March of the same year, Emperor Antoninus Pius died and the joint reign of Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus began, lasting until the death of Lucius in January 169, after which Marcus Aurelius ruled alone.

Marcus Aurelius learned a lot from his adoptive father Antoninus Pius. Like him, Marcus Aurelius strongly emphasized his respect for the Senate as an institution and for the senators as members of this institution.

Marcus Aurelius paid great attention to legal proceedings. The general direction of his activity in the field of law: “he did not so much introduce innovations as restore ancient law.” In Athens, he established four departments of philosophy - for each of the philosophical movements dominant in his time - academic, peripatetic, stoic, epicurean. Professors were assigned state support. Just like under his predecessors, the institution of supporting children of low-income parents and orphans through the financing of so-called alimentary institutions was preserved.

Not having a warlike character, Aurelius had to participate in hostilities many times.

The Parthians invaded Roman territory immediately after the death of Antoninus Pius and defeated the Romans in two battles. The Roman Empire made peace with Parthia in 166, according to which Northern Mesopotamia went to the Empire, and Armenia was recognized as part of the sphere of Roman interests. That same year, Germanic tribes invaded Roman possessions on the Danube. The Marcomanni invaded the provinces of Pannonia, Noricum, Raetia and penetrated through the Alpine passes into Northern Italy as far as Aquileia. Additional military contingents were transferred to Northern Italy and Pannonia, including from the eastern front. Additional troops were recruited, including from gladiators and slaves. The co-emperors set out on a campaign against the barbarians. The war with the Germans and Sarmatians had not yet ended when unrest began in Northern Egypt (172).

In 178, Marcus Aurelius led a campaign against the Germans, and he achieved great success, but the Roman troops were overtaken by a plague epidemic. On March 17, 180, Marcus Aurelius died of the plague at Vindobona on the Danube (modern Vienna). After his death, Marcus Aurelius was officially deified. The time of his reign is considered a golden age in the ancient historical tradition. Marcus Aurelius is called "the philosopher on the throne." He professed the principles of stoicism, and the main thing in his notes was ethical teaching, an assessment of life from the philosophical and moral side and advice on how to approach it.

Archpriest Pyotr Smirnov in his work “History of the Christian Church” writes: “A qualitative change in the nature of the persecution of Christian society took place under the emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus the Philosopher (161-180), the last outstanding representative of the Stoic school. If previously the government did not search for Christians, trying them only when they were brought to court and accused; now it itself begins to search for and persecute them. Marcus Aurelius, noticing the constant increase in Christian societies and fearing for the state religion and the integrity of the empire, tried by all means to support the people's domestic service to the gods. In addition, as a philosopher-sovereign and, moreover, a Stoic, he looked at Christians as misguided, stubborn fanatics, and hated them for their, in his opinion, superstitious doctrine, especially for their ardent belief in the future life and holy animation when meeting death. Such a sovereign could not look indifferently at Christians; if they, he thought , superstitious and fanatics who do not understand the falsity of their beliefs and are still harmful to the state, then we must dissuade them, impart to them the correct beliefs so that they can be worthy members of the state, even if violence has to be used to achieve this goal. And so, Marcus Aurelius not only does not stop, like previous emperors, the usual popular indignations against Christians, but even himself issues a “new edict” regarding them, different from the edicts of previous times. Now it was ordered to look for Christians, convince them to renounce their errors, and if they remain adamant, subject them to torture, which should be stopped only when they renounce their errors and bring worship to the gods. Thus, the persecution of Christians under Marcus Aurelius was very cruel. During this persecution, Christians declared themselves especially zealous for the faith; Never in previous persecutions were there so many martyrs as now. Saint Justin the Philosopher, who founded a Christian school in Rome, died there as a martyr in 166 along with his students.".

Marcus Aurelius left philosophical records - 12 "books" written in Greek, which are usually given the general title "Discourses on Self." The philosophy teacher of Marcus Aurelius was Maximus Claudius.

As a representative of late Stoicism, Marcus Aurelius pays the greatest attention to ethics in his philosophy, and the remaining sections of philosophy serve propaedeutic purposes.

The previous tradition of Stoicism distinguished in man a body and a soul, which is pneuma. Marcus Aurelius sees three principles in man, adding to the soul (or pneuma) and body (or flesh) the intellect (or reason, or nous). If the former Stoics considered the soul-pneuma the dominant principle, then Marcus Aurelius calls reason the leading principle. Reason nous represents an inexhaustible source of impulses necessary for a worthy human life. You need to bring your mind into harmony with the nature of the whole and thereby achieve dispassion. Happiness lies in harmony with universal reason.

The only work of Marcus Aurelius is a philosophical diary consisting of separate discussions in 12 books “To Himself” (ancient Greek: Εἰς ἑαυτόν). It is a monument of moralistic literature.

Marcus Annius Catilius Severus, who went down in history under the name Marcus Aurelius, was the son of Annius Verus and Domitia Lucilla.

In 139, after the death of his father, he was adopted by Emperor Antoninus Pius and became known as Marcus Elius Aurelius Verus Caesar. Marcus Aurelius received an excellent education. Diognet introduced him to philosophy and taught him painting. On the advice of the same teacher, the future emperor, under the influence of the philosophical views he had acquired, began to sleep on bare boards, covering himself with animal skin.

During Adrian’s lifetime, Mark, despite his young age, was nominated to be a quaestor, and six months after Adrian’s death he assumed the position of quaestor (December 5, 138) and began to engage in administrative activities.

That same year he was engaged to Faustina, daughter of Emperor Antoninus Pius, Hadrian's successor to the throne.

He was appointed by Pius as consul for the next year 140 and declared Caesar. In 140, Mark became consul for the first time. In 145 - a second time, together with Pius.

At the age of 25, Mark switched to philosophy. Marcus's main mentor in philosophy was Quintus Junius Rusticus. There is information about other philosophers summoned to Rome for Mark. Mark's leader in the study of civil law was the famous legal adviser L. Volusius Metianus.

Antoninus Pius introduced Marcus Aurelius to government in 146, giving him the power of a people's tribune. On January 1, 161, Mark entered into his third consulate together with his adopted brother. In March of the same year, Emperor Antoninus Pius died and the joint reign of Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus began, lasting until January 169.

Marcus Aurelius learned a lot from his adoptive father Antoninus Pius. Like him, Marcus strongly emphasized his respect for the Senate as an institution and for the senators as members of this institution.

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Mark paid great attention to legal proceedings. The general direction of his activity in the field of law: “he did not so much introduce innovations as restore ancient law.” In Athens, he established four departments of philosophy - for each of the philosophical movements dominant in his time - academic, peripatetic, stoic, epicurean. Professors were assigned state support.

Not having a militant character, Mark had to participate in hostilities many times.

The Parthians invaded Roman territory immediately after the death of Antoninus Pius and defeated the Romans in two battles. The Roman Empire made peace with Parthia in 166. That same year, Germanic tribes invaded Roman possessions on the Danube. The co-emperors set out on a campaign against the barbarians. The war with the Germans and Sarmatians had not yet ended when unrest began in Northern Egypt (172).

In 178, Marcus Aurelius led a campaign against the Germans, and he achieved great success, but the Roman troops were overtaken by a plague epidemic. On March 17, 180, Marcus Aurelius died of the plague at Vindobona on the Danube (modern Vienna). After his death, Mark was officially deified. The time of his reign is considered a golden age in the ancient historical tradition. Mark is called the philosopher on the throne. He professed the principles of stoicism, and the main thing in his notes was ethical teaching, an assessment of life from the philosophical and moral side and advice on how to approach it.

He left philosophical notes - 12 “books” written in Greek, which are usually given the general title “Discourses about Oneself.” At the center of his anti-materialistic teaching is a person’s partial possession of his body, soul and spirit, the bearer of which is a pious, courageous and reason-guided personality - a mistress (though only over the spirit), a teacher of the sense of duty and the abode of a searching conscience. Through the spirit, all people participate in the divine and thereby create an ideological community that overcomes all limitations. Marcus Aurelius tragically combined courage and disappointment.

Marcus Aurelius
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, philosopher, representative of late Stoicism, follower of Epictetus. The Last of the Five Good Emperors.

Preparation for power

Mark Annius Verus(later after the first adoption - Marcus Annius Catilius Severus, and after the second - Marcus Aelius Aurelius Verus Caesar), the son of Marcus Annius Verus and Domitia Lucilla, who went down in history under the name Marcus Aurelius, was born in Rome on April 26, 121 into a senatorial family of Spanish origin .

Marcus Aurelius's paternal grandfather (also Marcus Annius Verus) was a three-time consul (elected for the third time in 126).

Marcus Annius Verus was initially adopted by the third husband of Emperor Hadrian's mother, Domitia Lucilla Paulina, by Publius Catilius Severus (consul of 120) and became known as Marcus Annius Catilius Severus.

Essays

The only work of Marcus Aurelius is a philosophical diary consisting of separate discussions in 12 “books” “To Himself” (ancient Greek. Εἰς ἑαυτόν ) . It is a monument of moralistic literature, written in Greek (Koine) in the 170s, mainly on the northeastern borders of the empire and in Sirmium.

Image in cinema

The image of Marcus Aurelius was embodied by Richard Harris in Ridley Scott's film Gladiator and by Alec Guinness in the film The Fall of the Roman Empire.

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Notes

Literature

Texts and translations

• The work was published in the Loeb classical library under number 58.
• In the “Collection Budé” series, the publication of his work has begun: Marc Auréle. Écrits pour lui-même. Tome I: Introduction general. Livre I. Texte établi et traduit par P. Hadot, avec la collaboration de C. Luna. 2e circulation 2002. CCXXV, 94 p.

Russian translations

• Life and deeds Mark Aurelius Antoninus the Caesar of Rome, and at the same time his own and wise thoughts about himself. Translated from German by S. Volchkov. St. Petersburg, . 112, 256 pp.
  • 5th ed. St. Petersburg, 1798.
• Emperor's Reflections Marcus Aurelius About what is important to yourself. / Per. L. D. Urusova. Tula, 1882. X, 180 pp.
  • reprint: M., 1888, 1891, 1895, 108 pp.; M., 1902, 95 p. M., 1911, 64 p. M., 1991.
• To yourself. Reflections. / Per. P. N. Krasnova. St. Petersburg, 1895. 173 pp.
• Alone with myself. Reflections. / Per. S. M. Rogovina, intro. essay by S. Kotlyarevsky. (Series “Monuments of World Literature”). M.: Sabashnikov Publishing House, 1914. LVI, 199 pp.
  • (reprinted several times since 1991)
• Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. Reflections. / Per. and approx. A.K. Gavrilova. Articles by A. I. Dovatura, A. K. Gavrilov, J. Unta. Comm. I. Unta. (Series “Literary monuments”). L.: Science, . 245 pp. 25,000 copies.
  • 2nd ed., rev. and additional St. Petersburg: Nauka, 1993. 248 pp. 30,000 copies.
• Marcus Aurelius. To myself. / Per. V. B. Chernigovsky. M., Aletheia-New Acropolis, . 224 pp.

Research

• Francois Fontaine. Marcus Aurelius / Translation by N. Zubkov. - M.: Young Guard, 2005. - 336 p. - 5000 copies. - ISBN 5-235-02787-6.
• Renan E. Marcus Aurelius and the end of the ancient world. St. Petersburg, 1906.
• Rudnev V.V. Emperor Marcus Aurelius as a philosopher // Faith and Reason. 1887, No. 20, book. I, dept. Phil., pp. 385-400.
• Rudnev V.V. Emperor Marcus Aurelius and his attitude towards Christianity // Faith and Reason, 1889, No. 13, book. I, dept. Philosopher pp. 17-36.
• Unt Ya. “Reflections” of Marcus Aurelius as a literary and philosophical monument // Marcus Aurelius. Reflections. Per. A.K. Gavrilova. L., 1985.- P.93-114.
• Gadzhikurbanova P. A. “Philosophical Meditations” by Marcus Aurelius // MegaLing-2008. Horizons of applied linguistics and linguistic technologies: Dokl. international scientific conf. 24-28 Sep. 2008, Ukraine, Crimea, Partenit. Simferopol, 2008. pp. 42-43.

Links

• in the library of Maxim Moshkov
• Panteleev A. D.(Russian) . Research and publications on the history of the ancient world. 2005. .
• Marcus Aurelius.
• Lisovyi I.A. The ancient world in terms, names and titles. Minsk, 1997 p. 8

Excerpt characterizing Marcus Aurelius

The rest of the infantry hurried across the bridge, forming a funnel at the entrance. Finally, all the carts passed, the crush became less, and the last battalion entered the bridge. Only the hussars of Denisov's squadron remained on the other side of the bridge against the enemy. The enemy, visible in the distance from the opposite mountain, from below, from the bridge, was not yet visible, since from the hollow along which the river flowed, the horizon ended at the opposite elevation no more than half a mile away. Ahead there was a desert, along which here and there groups of our traveling Cossacks were moving. Suddenly, on the opposite hill of the road, troops in blue hoods and artillery appeared. These were the French. The Cossack patrol trotted away downhill. All the officers and men of Denisov’s squadron, although they tried to talk about outsiders and look around, did not stop thinking only about what was there on the mountain, and constantly peered at the spots on the horizon, which they recognized as enemy troops. The weather cleared again in the afternoon, the sun set brightly over the Danube and the dark mountains surrounding it. It was quiet, and from that mountain the sounds of horns and screams of the enemy could occasionally be heard. There was no one between the squadron and the enemies, except for small patrols. An empty space, three hundred fathoms, separated them from him. The enemy stopped shooting, and the more clearly one felt that strict, menacing, impregnable and elusive line that separates the two enemy troops.
“One step beyond this line, reminiscent of the line separating the living from the dead, and - the unknown of suffering and death. And what's there? who's there? there, beyond this field, and the tree, and the roof illuminated by the sun? Nobody knows, and I want to know; and it’s scary to cross this line, and you want to cross it; and you know that sooner or later you will have to cross it and find out what is there on the other side of the line, just as it is inevitable to find out what is there on the other side of death. And he himself is strong, healthy, cheerful and irritated, and surrounded by such healthy and irritably animated people.” So, even if he doesn’t think, every person who is in sight of the enemy feels it, and this feeling gives a special shine and joyful sharpness of impressions to everything that happens in these minutes.
The smoke of a shot appeared on the enemy’s hill, and the cannonball, whistling, flew over the heads of the hussar squadron. The officers standing together went to their places. The hussars carefully began to straighten out their horses. Everything in the squadron fell silent. Everyone looked ahead at the enemy and at the squadron commander, waiting for a command. Another, third cannonball flew by. It is obvious that they were shooting at the hussars; but the cannonball, whistling evenly quickly, flew over the heads of the hussars and struck somewhere behind. The hussars did not look back, but at every sound of a flying cannonball, as if on command, the entire squadron with its monotonously varied faces, holding back its breath while the cannonball flew, rose in its stirrups and fell again. The soldiers, without turning their heads, glanced sideways at each other, curiously looking for the impression of their comrade. On every face, from Denisov to the bugler, one common feature of struggle, irritation and excitement appeared near the lips and chin. The sergeant frowned, looking around at the soldiers, as if threatening punishment. Junker Mironov bent down with each pass of the cannonball. Rostov, standing on the left flank on his leg-touched but visible Grachik, had the happy look of a student summoned before a large audience for an exam in which he was confident that he would excel. He looked clearly and brightly at everyone, as if asking them to pay attention to how calmly he stood under the cannonballs. But in his face, too, the same feature of something new and stern, against his will, appeared near his mouth.
-Who is bowing there? Yunkeg "Mig"ons! Hexog, look at me! - Denisov shouted, unable to stand still and spinning on his horse in front of the squadron.
The snub-nosed and black-haired face of Vaska Denisov and his entire small, beaten figure with his sinewy (with short fingers covered with hair) hand, in which he held the hilt of a drawn saber, was exactly the same as always, especially in the evening, after drinking two bottles. He was only more red than usual and, raising his shaggy head up, like birds when they drink, mercilessly pressing spurs into the sides of the good Bedouin with his small feet, he, as if falling backwards, galloped to the other flank of the squadron and shouted in a hoarse voice to be examined pistols. He drove up to Kirsten. The headquarters captain, on a wide and sedate mare, rode at a pace towards Denisov. The staff captain, with his long mustache, was serious, as always, only his eyes sparkled more than usual.
- What? - he told Denisov, - it won’t come to a fight. You'll see, we'll go back.
“Who knows what they’re doing,” Denisov grumbled. “Ah! G” skeleton! - he shouted to the cadet, noticing his cheerful face. - Well, I waited.
And he smiled approvingly, apparently rejoicing at the cadet.
Rostov felt completely happy. At this time the chief appeared on the bridge. Denisov galloped towards him.
- Your Excellency! Let me attack! I will kill them.
“What kind of attacks are there,” said the chief in a bored voice, wincing as if from a bothersome fly. - And why are you standing here? You see, the flankers are retreating. Lead the squadron back.
The squadron crossed the bridge and escaped the gunfire without losing a single man. Following him, the second squadron, which was in the chain, crossed over, and the last Cossacks cleared that side.
Two squadrons of Pavlograd residents, having crossed the bridge, one after the other, went back to the mountain. Regimental commander Karl Bogdanovich Schubert drove up to Denisov's squadron and rode at a pace not far from Rostov, not paying any attention to him, despite the fact that after the previous clash over Telyanin, they now saw each other for the first time. Rostov, feeling himself at the front in the power of a man before whom he now considered himself guilty, did not take his eyes off the athletic back, blond nape and red neck of the regimental commander. It seemed to Rostov that Bogdanich was only pretending to be inattentive, and that his whole goal now was to test the cadet’s courage, and he straightened up and looked around cheerfully; then it seemed to him that Bogdanich was deliberately riding close to show Rostov his courage. Then he thought that his enemy would now deliberately send a squadron on a desperate attack to punish him, Rostov. It was thought that after the attack he would come up to him and generously extend the hand of reconciliation to him, the wounded man.
Familiar to the people of Pavlograd, with his shoulders raised high, the figure of Zherkov (he had recently left their regiment) approached the regimental commander. Zherkov, after his expulsion from the main headquarters, did not remain in the regiment, saying that he was not a fool to pull the strap at the front, when he was at headquarters, without doing anything, he would receive more awards, and he knew how to find a job as an orderly with Prince Bagration. He came to his former boss with orders from the commander of the rearguard.
“Colonel,” he said with his gloomy seriousness, turning to Rostov’s enemy and looking around at his comrades, “it was ordered to stop and light the bridge.”
- Who ordered? – the colonel asked gloomily.
“I don’t even know, colonel, who ordered it,” the cornet answered seriously, “but the prince ordered me: “Go and tell the colonel so that the hussars come back quickly and light the bridge.”
Following Zherkov, a retinue officer drove up to the hussar colonel with the same order. Following the retinue officer, fat Nesvitsky rode up on a Cossack horse, which was forcibly carrying him at a gallop.

Emperor-philosopher: Marcus Aurelius

Our life is what we think about it.
Marcus Aurelius Antoninus.

The figure of the Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus is attractive not only to historians. This man won his fame not with the sword, but with the pen. Two thousand years after the death of the ruler, his name is pronounced with trepidation by researchers of ancient philosophy and literature, because Marcus Aurelius left invaluable wealth to European culture - the book “Reflections on Oneself,” which to this day inspires philosophers and researchers of ancient philosophy.

The path to the throne and to philosophy

Marcus Aurelius was born in 121 into a noble Roman family and received the name Annius Severus. Already in his youth, the future emperor received the nickname Most Just.

Very soon, Emperor Hadrian himself noticed him, calm and serious beyond his years. Intuition and insight allowed Adrian to guess the future great ruler of Rome in the boy. When Annius turns six years old, Adrian bestows on him the honorary title of horseman and gives him a new name - Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Verus.

At the dawn of his career, the future emperor-philosopher held the position of quaestor - assistant consul in the legal state archive.

At the age of 25, Marcus Aurelius became interested in philosophy, his mentor in this was Quintus Junius Rusticus, the famous representative of Roman Stoicism. He introduced Marcus Aurelius to the works of the Greek Stoics, in particular Epictetus. His passion for Hellenistic philosophy was the reason that Marcus Aurelius wrote his books in Greek.

In addition to philosophical notes, Marcus Aurelius wrote poetry, the listener of which was his wife. Researchers report that Marcus Aurelius’s attitude towards his wife was also unlike Rome’s traditional attitude towards a woman as a powerless being.

VIEN Joseph Marie
Marcus Aurelius Distributing Bread to the People (1765) Picardy Museum, Amiens.

Emperor-philosopher

The state policy of Marcus Aurelius went down in history as an amazing attempt to create a “kingdom of philosophers” (here the Greek philosopher Plato and his “State” became the authority for Marcus Aurelius). Marcus Aurelius elevated prominent philosophers of his time to high government positions: Proclus, Junius Rusticus, Claudius Severus, Atticus, Fronto. One of the ideas of Stoic philosophy - the equality of people - is gradually penetrating into the sphere of public administration. During the reign of Marcus Aurelius, a number of social projects were developed aimed at helping the poor sections of society and education for low-income citizens. Shelters and hospitals are opened, operating at the expense of the state treasury. The four faculties of the Athens Academy, founded by Plato, also operated under the funding of Rome. During the years of civil unrest in the Empire, the Emperor decided to involve slaves in the defense...

However, the emperor was not understood by wide sections of society. Rome was accustomed to brutal gladiator fights in the Colosseum; Rome wanted blood, bread and circuses. The Emperor's habit of giving life to a defeated gladiator was not to the taste of the nobility of Rome. In addition, the status of emperor still required military campaigns. Marcus Aurelius had successful wars against the Marcomanni and Parthians. And in 175, Marcus Aurelius had to suppress a rebellion organized by one of his generals.

Sunset

The plague came to the philosopher in 180. According to his doctor, before his death, Marcus Aurelius said: “It seems that today I will be left alone with myself,” after which a smile touched his lips.

The most famous image of Marcus Aurelius is a bronze statue of him on horseback. It was originally installed on the slope of the Capitol opposite the Roman Forum. In the 12th century it was moved to Piazza Laterana. In 1538, Michelangelo placed it on. The statue is very simple in design and composition. The monumental nature of the work and the gesture with which the emperor addresses the army suggests that this is a triumphal monument, erected on the occasion of victory, probably in the wars with the Marcomanni. At the same time, Marcus Aurelius is also depicted as a philosopher-thinker. He is wearing a tunic, a short cloak, and sandals on his bare feet. This is a hint at his passion for Hellenic philosophy.

Historians consider the death of Marcus Aurelius to be the beginning of the end of ancient civilization and its spiritual values.

Bronze. 160-170s
Rome, Capitoline Museums.Illustration ancientrome.ru

Marcus Aurelius and Late Stoicism

Stoicism is a philosophical school created by Greek thinkers: Zeno of Citium, Chrysippus, Cleanthes in the 4th century BC. The name "Stoa" (stoá) comes from the "Painted Portico" in Athens, where Zeno taught. The ideal of the Stoics was the imperturbable sage, fearlessly facing the vicissitudes of fate. For the Stoics, all people, regardless of family nobility, were citizens of a single cosmos. The main principle of the Stoics was to live in harmony with nature. It is the Stoics who are characterized by a critical attitude towards themselves, as well as the search for harmony and happiness within themselves, regardless of external circumstances.

Among the Greek Stoics, Epictetus, Posidonius, Arrian, and Diogenes Laertius are famous. Roman philosophy dating back to the late Stoa, besides Marcus Aurelius, names the famous Seneca.

As illustrations, we can cite a number of quotes that will allow us to feel the strength of spirit of the only philosopher emperor in the history of Rome. It should be remembered that the author in his writings addresses himself primarily to himself. Stoicism as a whole cannot be called a moralizing teaching, although it appears so at first glance. However, the Stoic considered it his duty to begin changes with himself, so the notes of Marcus Aurelius are closer to a personal diary than to a teaching.

• Nothing happens to anyone that he cannot bear.
• The most despicable form of cowardice is self-pity.
• Perform every task as if it were the last in your life.
• Soon you will forget about everything, and everything, in turn, will forget about you.
• Change your attitude towards the things that bother you, and you will be safe from them.
• Do not do what your conscience condemns, and do not say what is not in accordance with the truth. Observe this most important thing and you will complete the whole task of your life.
• If someone insulted me, that’s his business, that’s his inclination, that’s his character; I have my own character, the one that was given to me by nature, and I will remain true to my nature in my actions.
• Does it matter if your life lasts three hundred or even three thousand years? After all, you live only in the present moment, no matter who you are, you only lose the present moment. We cannot take away either our past, because it no longer exists, or our future, because we do not have it yet.