Download biology preparation exam lerner. Lerner G.I

G.I. lerner

Biology

A complete guide to preparing for the exam

The Unified State Examination is a new form of attestation that has become mandatory for high school graduates. Preparation for the exam requires students to develop certain skills in answering the proposed questions and skills in filling out exam forms.

This complete guide to biology provides all the materials you need to prepare well for the exam.

1. The book includes the theoretical knowledge of basic, advanced and high levels of knowledge and skills tested in examination papers.

3. The methodological apparatus of the book (examples of tasks) is focused on testing the knowledge and certain skills of students in applying this knowledge both in familiar and new situations.

4. The most difficult questions, the answers to which cause difficulties for students, are analyzed and discussed in order to help students cope with them.

5. The sequence of presentation of educational material begins with "General Biology", because. the content of all other courses in the examination paper is based on general biological concepts.

At the beginning of each section, KIMs are cited for this section of the course.

Then the theoretical content of the topic is presented. After that, examples of test tasks of all forms (in different proportions) encountered in the examination paper are offered. Particular attention should be paid to the terms and concepts that are in italics. They are the first to be tested in the examination papers.

In a number of cases, the most difficult issues are analyzed and approaches to their solution are proposed. Answers to Part C provide only elements of the correct answers that will allow you to clarify information, supplement it, or give other arguments in favor of your answer. In all cases, these answers are sufficient to pass the exam.

The proposed textbook on biology is addressed primarily to schoolchildren who have decided to take the unified state exam in biology, as well as teachers. At the same time, the book will be useful to all schoolchildren of a comprehensive school, because will allow not only to study the subject within the school curriculum, but also to systematically check its assimilation.

Biology is the science of life

1.1. Biology as a science, its achievements, research methods, connections with other sciences. The role of biology in the life and practical activities of man

Terms and concepts tested in the examination papers for this section: hypothesis, research method, science, scientific fact, object of research, problem, theory, experiment.

Biology The science that studies the properties of living systems. However, it is rather difficult to define what a living system is. That is why scientists have established several criteria by which an organism can be classified as living. Chief among these criteria are metabolism or metabolism, self-reproduction and self-regulation. A separate chapter will be devoted to the discussion of these and other criteria (or) properties of the living.

concept the science is defined as "the sphere of human activity to obtain, systematize objective knowledge about reality." In accordance with this definition, the object of science - biology is a life in all its manifestations and forms, as well as on different levels .

Every science, including biology, uses certain methods research. Some of them are universal for all sciences, such as observation, proposing and testing hypotheses, and building theories. Other scientific methods can only be used by a particular science. For example, geneticists have a genealogical method for studying human pedigrees, breeders have a hybridization method, histologists have a tissue culture method, etc.

Biology is closely related to other sciences - chemistry, physics, ecology, geography. Biology itself is divided into many special sciences that study various biological objects: plant and animal biology, plant physiology, morphology, genetics, taxonomy, breeding, mycology, helminthology and many other sciences.

Method- this is the path of research that a scientist goes through, solving any scientific problem, problem.

The main methods of science include the following:

Modeling- a method in which a certain image of an object is created, a model with the help of which scientists obtain the necessary information about the object. So, for example, when establishing the structure of the DNA molecule, James Watson and Francis Crick created a model from plastic elements - a DNA double helix that corresponds to the data of X-ray and biochemical studies. This model fully met the requirements for DNA. ( See section Nucleic acids.)

Observation- the method by which the researcher collects information about the object. You can observe visually, for example, the behavior of animals. It is possible to observe with the help of devices the changes taking place in living objects: for example, when taking a cardiogram during the day, when measuring the weight of a calf during a month. You can observe seasonal changes in nature, the molting of animals, etc. The conclusions drawn by the observer are verified either by repeated observations or experimentally.

Experiment (Experience)- a method by which the results of observations, put forward assumptions are checked - hypotheses . Examples of experiments are crossing animals or plants in order to obtain a new variety or breed, testing a new drug, identifying the role of any cell organelle, etc. An experiment is always the acquisition of new knowledge with the help of a set experience.

Problem- a question, a problem that needs to be solved. Problem solving leads to new knowledge. A scientific problem always hides some contradiction between the known and the unknown. Solving the problem requires the scientist to collect facts, analyze them, and systematize them. An example of a problem is, for example, the following: “How does the adaptation of organisms to the environment arise?” or “How can I prepare for serious exams in the shortest possible time?”.

It can be quite difficult to formulate a problem, but whenever there is a difficulty, a contradiction, a problem appears.

Hypothesis- an assumption, a preliminary solution to the problem. Putting forward hypotheses, the researcher is looking for relationships between facts, phenomena, processes. That is why the hypothesis most often takes the form of an assumption: "if ... then." For example, “If plants emit oxygen in the light, then we can detect it with the help of a smoldering torch, because. oxygen must support combustion. The hypothesis is tested experimentally. (See Hypotheses for the Origin of Life on Earth.)

Theory is a generalization of the main ideas in any scientific field of knowledge. For example, the theory of evolution summarizes all the reliable scientific data obtained by researchers over many decades. Over time, theories are supplemented by new data, develop. Some theories may be refuted by new facts. True scientific theories are confirmed by practice. So, for example, the genetic theory of G. Mendel and the chromosome theory of T. Morgan were confirmed by many experimental studies in different countries of the world. The modern evolutionary theory, although it has found many scientifically proven confirmations, still meets opponents, because. not all of its provisions can be confirmed by facts at the present stage of development of science.

Private scientific methods in biology are:

genealogical method - used in the compilation of pedigrees of people, identifying the nature of inheritance of certain traits.

historical method - establishing relationships between facts, processes, phenomena that have occurred over a historically long time (several billion years). The evolutionary doctrine has developed largely due to this method.

paleontological method - a method that allows you to find out the relationship between ancient organisms, the remains of which are in the earth's crust, in different geological layers.

centrifugation – separation of mixtures into component parts under the action of centrifugal force. It is used in the separation of cell organelles, light and heavy fractions (components) of organic substances, etc.

Answering this question, you need to think about what processes are violated due to constriction of the finger.

Elements of the correct answer

1. When the finger is constricted, the flow of arterial blood into its vessels and the outflow of venous blood are disrupted - the finger turns purple.
2. The amount of interstitial fluid increases - the finger brightens.

Answer yourself

What fluids make up the internal environment of the body and how do they move?
What is homeostasis and how is it regulated?

Elements of the correct answer

1. The causative agents of each disease are specific, i.e. contain their own antigens.
2. Antibodies that bind an antigen are strictly specific to it and are not capable of binding other antigens.

Example: Plague bacteria antigens will not be bound by antibodies produced against cholera pathogens.

Answer yourself

In order to prevent tetanus, a healthy person was injected with tetanus toxoid. Did the doctors do the right thing? Explain the answer.
A person with diphtheria was given an anti-diphtheria vaccine. Did the doctors do the right thing? Explain the answer.

Elements of the correct answer

1. Incomplete closure of the tricuspid valve can lead to backflow of blood into the systemic circulation.
2. There may be stagnation of blood in a large circle and swelling of the extremities.

Note: The named consequences follow easily from simple reasoning, it is only necessary to remember that the tricuspid valve is located between the right ventricle and the right atrium. There may be other, more serious consequences.

Answer yourself

Why does blood move in one direction?
Why does blood flow continuously through the vessels?
Where is the speed of blood movement higher: in the aorta or capillaries and why?
What factors ensure the movement of blood through the veins?
Describe the path of the drug from the forearm of the right hand to the vessels of the brain.

Elements of the correct answer

1. Sneezing is a protective respiratory reflex, the mechanism of breathing regulation is a reflex.
2. The mechanism of resumption of breathing after a delay is humoral, it is the reaction of the respiratory center of the brain to an increase in the concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood.

Answer yourself

Why does a person involuntarily hold his breath when entering ice water?
When is it advisable to wear a gauze bandage or respirator and why?

Elements of the correct answer

1. In each section of the digestive system, there is a certain acidity and temperature of the environment in which the corresponding enzymes work most efficiently. Therefore, certain nutrients (carbohydrates, proteins, fats) are broken down in each department.
2. Enzymes function only in a certain pH range of the medium and break down strictly defined substances, i.e. enzymes
are fictitious.

Answer yourself

Why do proteins begin to break down only in the stomach?
What happens when food moves from the stomach into the duodenum?

Elements of the correct answer

1. With inflammation of the gastric mucosa, it becomes less protected from the effects of hydrochloric acid and enzymes.
2. Inflammation of the gastric mucosa leads to gastritis, and then to a stomach ulcer.

Answer yourself

What are the causes of gastritis and stomach ulcers?
What preventive measures can prevent diseases of gastritis and stomach ulcers?

Elements of the correct answer

1. A decrease in body temperature will lead to a decrease in the rate of biochemical reactions.
2. All human reflexes will slow down, the speed of his behavioral reactions will decrease. Such a transition can be disastrous for a person.

Answer yourself

What is the difference between cold-bloodedness and warm-bloodedness?
What is the opposite of metabolic reactions in the body?

Elements of the correct answer

1. Stones are formed due to excess salts in the urine.
2. Stones are formed due to a lack of substances in the urine that prevent their formation.

Answer yourself

What can cause kidney or bladder stones?
What is the prevention of kidney or bladder stones formation?

Elements of the correct answer

1. Prolonged exposure to the sun leads to skin burns and heat stroke.
2. Ultraviolet radiation in high doses can provoke the growth of malignant tumors.

Answer yourself

Why is it good for children to take short-term sunbathing?
What is the thermoregulatory function of the skin?

Elements of the correct answer

1. During takeoff and landing, there is a change in air pressure on the eardrum both from the external environment and from the middle ear.
2. During take-off, the pressure from the side of the middle ear is higher, and during landing it decreases, but the pressure on the eardrum from the external auditory canal increases.

Answer yourself

Why are they offered to open their mouths or suck on lollipops in the cabin during takeoff and landing?
What is caisson sickness and why is it dangerous?
Why do pearl divers dive into the water quickly and emerge slowly?

Answers to these questions can be found on the Internet or in additional literature.

Elements of the correct answer

1. In mountainous areas, the water usually contains little iodine.
2. It is necessary to introduce foods containing iodine into the diet.

Answer yourself

What are the consequences of a lack of thyroid hormones?
What are the signs of diabetes mellitus?
What non-drug blood glucose lowering measures would you recommend for someone with mildly elevated blood glucose?

Elements of the correct answer

1. Nervous mechanism: excitation of uterine receptors leads to its contraction.
2. Humoral mechanism: the production of hormones stimulates the contraction of the muscles of the uterus.

Answer yourself

How are male sex cells different from female sex cells?
Why does only one sperm fertilize an egg?

C2 questions

Ability to work with text and graphics

Elements of the correct answer

(Only a hint is given to help you find the exact answer.)

Sentence 2 incorrectly indicates the number of vertebrae in the spinal column.
Sentence 4 incorrectly indicates the number of vertebrae in the cervical region.
In sentence 5, an error was made in indicating the variability of the composition of the spine.

Elements of the correct answer

Mistakes were made in sentences 1, 4, 5.
In sentence 1: remember to whom the merit of discovering the phenomenon of phagocytosis belongs.
In sentences 4 and 5: remember the meaning of the terms "specific" and "non-specific".

Elements of the correct answer

Mistakes were made in sentences 2, 3, 4.
In sentence 2, the name of the scientist is incorrect.
In sentence 3, the list of organisms with a cellular structure is incorrectly compiled.
In Proposition 4, R. Virchow's assertion is reproduced with an error.

Elements of the correct answer

Mistakes were made in sentences 4, 5, 6.
Sentence 4 incorrectly describes the structure of capillaries.
Sentence 5 incorrectly indicates the substances coming from the capillaries into the tissues.
In sentence 6, the substances that enter the capillaries from the tissues are incorrectly indicated.

Elements of the correct answer

Mistakes were made in sentences 3, 5, 6.
In sentence 3, the endocrine glands are inaccurately named.
In sentence 5, the sign of the endocrine glands is incorrectly indicated.
In sentence 6, an error was made in comparing the rates of nervous and humoral regulation.

Elements of the correct answer

Mistakes were made in sentences 2, 4, 6.
Sentence 2 incorrectly indicates the division of the nervous system into parts.
In sentence 4, pay attention to the muscles named in the sentence and their relationship to the autonomic nervous system.
In sentence 6, the mechanism of transmission of a nerve impulse is incorrectly indicated.

Elements of the correct answer

Mistakes were made in sentences 3, 4, 5.
In sentence 3, pay attention to the indicated reason for the excitation of the respiratory center.
Sentence 4 erroneously indicates the number of groups of nerve cells in the respiratory center.
Proposition 5 gives an erroneous description of the operation of the breathing apparatus.

Tasks in drawings

Elements of the correct answer

1. The top layer of the skin is formed by the epidermis - the integumentary tissue.
2. Under the epidermis is the dermis, or the skin itself. It is made up of connective tissue.
3. Nerve cells are scattered in the dermis - receptors, as well as muscles that raise hair.

Elements of the correct answer

1. The figure shows the stages of developing a conditioned salivary reflex:

- salivation upon presentation of food - an unconditional reflex reaction, the centers of digestion and salivation are excited;
- excitation of the visual center by the light of a light bulb in the absence of food;
- a combination of feeding with lighting a light bulb, the formation of a temporary connection between the centers of vision, digestion and salivation;
after multiple repetitions of the step ( in) a conditioned salivary reflex is developed only to light.

2. Conclusion: after a repeated combination of the actions of the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli, a conditioned reflex to the action of the conditioned stimulus is developed.

Elements of the correct answer
1. The figure shows the process of formation of lymph from the blood and tissue fluid.
2. Number 1 indicates a capillary with blood cells and plasma.
3. The number 2 indicates the lymphatic capillary, into which tissue fluid is collected.

Elements of the correct answer

The figure shows blood vessels.

1. Arteries ( a) - elastic vessels that carry arterial blood from the heart. The muscular layer is well developed in the walls of the arteries.
2. Veins ( b) - elastic vessels, in the walls of which the muscle layer is less developed than in the walls of the arteries. Equipped with valves to prevent backflow of blood. They carry blood from the organs to the heart.
3. Capillaries ( in) - vessels, the walls of which are formed by a single layer of cells. They exchange gases between blood and tissues.

Elements of the correct answer

1. Scuba divers may develop decompression sickness, which is caused by the rapid release of nitrogen during a rapid decrease in pressure during ascent. Tissues may be partially destroyed, convulsions, paralysis, etc. may occur.
2. Climbers have difficulty breathing due to altitude sickness resulting from low oxygen pressure in the atmosphere.

Answering this question, one should generalize knowledge about the structure and main functions of organic substances and then explain why their stocks must be constantly replenished.

Elements of the correct answer

1. Organic substances have a complex structure and are constantly broken down in the process of metabolism.
2. Organic substances are sources of the body's building material, as well as food and energy, which are necessary for the life of the body.
3. Since food and energy are constantly consumed, it is necessary to replenish their reserves, i.e. synthesize organic substances. In addition, from the amino acids that enter the cells, the human body's own proteins are synthesized.

Answer yourself

Why are proteins needed in the human body?
Where does the human body get energy for its life?
What is the role of organic substances in the human body?

Elements of the correct answer

1. These tissues have a common feature - a well-developed intercellular substance.
2. These fabrics have a common origin. They develop from the mesoderm.
3. These tissues are classified as connective tissues.

Answer yourself

Why are human organs, as a rule, formed by several types of tissues?
How can one explain that the nervous system of birds and humans develops from the same germ layers, while the systems themselves differ significantly from each other in the level of development?

Elements of the correct answer

1. Two systems are involved in the regulation of the activity of the human body: nervous and endocrine.
2. The nervous system provides the reflex activity of the body.
3. Humoral regulation is based on the action of hormones, the release of which into the blood is controlled by the nervous system.

Answer yourself

How are the nervous and endocrine systems functionally related?
How is a relatively constant level of hormones in human blood maintained?
What are the differences between nervous and humoral regulation of the body?

Present your answer in the form of a table.

Elements of the correct answer

Elements of the correct answer

1. The medulla oblongata is the most ancient part of the brain.
2. Breathing, nutrition, reproduction appeared together with the emergence of the animal world, i.e. These are the most ancient functions of the body.
3. The cerebral cortex is a relatively young part of the brain. In higher animals, it controls all body functions, including those listed in the task.

Answer yourself

What is the role of the medulla oblongata in the regulation of human life processes?
Where are the centers of unconditioned reflexes located?

Elements of the correct answer

1. Unconditioned reflexes - species, conditional - individual.
2. Unconditioned reflexes - congenital, conditioned - acquired.
3. Unconditioned reflexes are permanent, conditioned reflexes are temporary.
4. Unconditioned reflexes are controlled by the spinal cord and brainstem, conditioned - by the cerebral cortex.
5. Unconditioned reflexes are caused by a certain stimulus, conditioned - by any.

Answer yourself

How are conditioned reflexes developed?
What are the main ideas of the teachings of I.P. Pavlov about conditioned reflexes?

Elements of the correct answer

1. Rays of light are reflected from an object.
2. The rays are focused by the lens and, having passed through the vitreous body, fall on the retina.
3. A real, reduced, inverted image of an object is formed on the retina.
4. Signals from the retina are transmitted along the optic nerve and reach the visual cortex.
5. The image of an object is analyzed in the visual zone of the cerebral cortex and is perceived by a person in its real, non-inverted form.

Answer yourself

What is the general principle of the analyzers?
Why does a person practically not distinguish the colors of objects with peripheral vision?
How does the vestibular apparatus work?

Elements of the correct answer

1. The second signaling system is associated with the appearance of speech in a person.
2. Speech allows you to communicate using symbols - words and other signs.
3. The word can be specific, denoting a certain object or phenomenon, and abstract, reflecting the meaning of concepts, phenomena.

Answer yourself

What does a person mean by words?
How does the higher nervous activity of man differ from the higher nervous activity of animals?
What types of memory do you know and what are their functions?

Elements of the correct answer

1. No need to slouch, you need to walk holding your head straight, straightening your shoulders.
2. You can not carry weights in only one hand.
3. When walking, do not lean back.
4. It is desirable to sit straight, without leaning on the back of a chair and without bending the spine.

Answer yourself

What anatomical and physiological consequences in the structure of the skeleton can a violation of posture lead to?
List the features of the skeleton associated with upright walking and labor activity.

Elements of the correct answer

1. Violation of blood glucose levels can lead to serious illness.
2. A persistent increase in glucose levels can lead to diabetes mellitus, a disease that causes other diseases.
3. A decrease in glucose levels can lead to disturbances in the functioning of the brain, the cells of which require glucose.

Elements of the correct answer

1. Jenner can be considered the discoverer of the phenomenon of immunity. He was the first to vaccinate against smallpox.
2. Pasteur created vaccines against several infectious diseases: rabies, anthrax. I. Mechnikov worked in his laboratory.
3. Mechnikov discovered the phenomenon of phagocytosis. This discovery became the basis for the creation of the theory of immunity.

Answer yourself

What works of L. Pasteur had a great influence on the development of science and what is it?
Why are I. Mechnikov and L. Pasteur considered the founders of immunology?

Elements of the correct answer

1. Pavlov thinks that your pockets either have food leftovers, or your hands or clothes smell like food familiar to the dog. Consequently, gastric juice is secreted conditioned reflex.
2. You can change clothes, wash your hands, brush your teeth again and see if the dog will have gastric juices in this case. If your results are confirmed, then you are right, if not, then Pavlov.

Answer yourself

Why do you think I.P. Pavlov was awarded the Nobel Prize for research on the processes of digestion in animals?
By what mechanisms and how is the activity of the human digestive system regulated?
Why is a person who has an infectious disease injected with serum, and for preventive purposes, healthy people are vaccinated?
What biological problems stand in the way of researchers involved in organ and tissue transplantation.

When answering questions 13-15, you should think about why this or that process occurs, which is mentioned in the condition of the question. It is not necessary to describe the process in detail if it is not required. It is necessary, having understood the meaning of the question, to write about the factors influencing a particular process.

Elements of the correct answer

1. The blood type of the donor must be such that this blood can be transfused to the recipient.
2. The donor's blood must have the same Rh factor as the recipient's.
3. The donor must be healthy, his blood must not contain viruses (HIV, hepatitis viruses) and other pathogens of infectious diseases.

Answer yourself

The donor has a second Rh-positive blood type. Which recipients should not be transfused this blood?
How does HIV infection occur? Why is it impossible to get infected by airborne droplets, through a handshake or food
ducts?

Elements of the correct answer

The following factors influence the movement of blood and lymph through the vessels.

1. Frequency and strength of heart contractions.
2. Elasticity of vessel walls and their lumen.
3. The condition of the valves in the veins and lymphatic vessels.
4. Contractions of skeletal muscles.

Answer yourself

What are the functions of blood and lymph in the body and what ensures their implementation?
How does the structure of the heart contribute to the performance of its functions?

Elements of the correct answer

1. When inhaling, the diaphragm lowers, the intercostal muscles contract, and the pressure in the pleural cavity decreases.
2. When exhaling, the diaphragm rises, the intercostal muscles relax, and the pressure in the pleural cavity increases.
3. When you inhale, air from the atmosphere enters the lungs, when you exhale - from the lungs into the atmosphere.

Answer yourself

What are the features of external, tissue and cellular respiration?
What features of the structure of the respiratory tract and the human circulatory system provide the processes of respiration?

Elements of the correct answer

The answer to this question does not require precise knowledge of the chemical composition of gastric juice. Knowing what processes occur in the stomach, you can draw a conclusion about the composition of gastric juice.

1. In the gastric juice there are enzymes that break down proteins.
2. The gastric juice contains protective mucus secreted by the glands of the stomach.
3. It contains hydrochloric acid.

Answer yourself

What juices and enzymes provide the process of digestion in the human body?
What is the difference between the processes of digestion in different parts of the human digestive system?
What is the link between smoking and stomach ulcers?

Elements of the correct answer

1. Proteins are sufficiently strong organic molecules, the structure of which is stabilized by several types of bonds.
2. Proteins are broken down in the body last, after fats and carbohydrates.
3. When eating only protein foods, the rate of energy supply necessary to maintain the vital activity of the human body will be insufficient.
4. For normal functioning, the human body needs a variety of substances. Not all of them can be synthesized in the human body from proteins.
5. Protein breakdown products are toxic to the body (for example, urea). With an excess of protein foods, the load on the excretory organs increases, which can lead to their disease.

Answer yourself

Why is protein starvation dangerous for a person?
What happens during dissimilation and assimilation? How are these processes related?

Remember which substances are filtered and which should not be filtered through the renal glomeruli and the capillaries of the convoluted tubules.

Elements of the correct answer

1. The presence of sugar in the urine.
2. The presence of proteins in the urine.
3. Increased content of erythrocytes and leukocytes.

Answer yourself

Is the formation of only primary urine sufficient for the normal functioning of the body? Justify your answer.
What happens in the human body if its kidneys do not cope with their functions?

Elements of the correct answer

1. The placenta connects the body of the mother and fetus.
2. Through the placenta, the fetus is supplied with all the nutrients and oxygen.
3. Waste products of the fetus are removed through the placenta.
4. The placenta prevents the immune incompatibility of mother and fetus.

Answer yourself
How is the metabolism of the fetus in the mother's womb?
Why do humans belong to the class of mammals?

Elements of the correct answer

1. Television and other media promote the idealization of bad inclinations: action films, serials in which the characters drink and smoke are widespread.
2. Teenagers imitate their elders.
3. Ignorance, lack of hobbies, illiteracy contribute to the development of alcoholism and drug addiction.

Answer yourself

How is human health related to the level of culture in society? Support your answer with examples.
Explain the possible causes of a person's dependence on addictions.

evolutionary doctrine

Level C1 questions

Elements of the correct answer

1. The evolutionary doctrine proclaimed the variability of the organic world, which seriously shook the idea of ​​the creation of the world.
2. The creation of the evolutionary doctrine entailed new scientific research in the field of cytology, genetics and selection, molecular biology, the results of which had a significant impact on changing the worldview of people.

Answer yourself

Formulate the main provisions of the evolutionary teachings of Charles Darwin.
What were the differences in the views on the evolutionary process of J.B. Lamarck and Charles Darwin?
What is the advantage of Darwin's theory over Lamarck's?
In what direction did Darwin's evolutionary theory develop?

When answering the last question, it is necessary to indicate only the main ideas of the synthetic theory of evolution, using the following terms: mutations, forms of selection, isolation, directions of evolution.

Elements of the correct answer

1. All mutations take place at the molecular level, because affect DNA molecules and, consequently, proteins.
2. Gene mutations lead to nucleotide substitutions and the appearance of new proteins, and consequently, new features.
3. Meiosis and crossing over are also related to the behavior and distribution of chromosomes.

Answer yourself

What is the relationship between mutagenesis and natural selection?
The genetic code is universal, and the differences between organisms are very significant. What explains this?
Did humans and mice have a common ancestor? Can it be proven?

Elements of the correct answer

Arguments in favor of the theory of evolution:

- the very facts of the existence of changes in nature, the diversity of species and their changes over time, the adaptability of organisms to various environmental conditions indicate that evolution as a development process exists;
- the struggle for existence, as a result of which the most adapted organisms survive, is observed at different levels: in the world of bacteria, plants, animals;
– there are also experimental confirmations of evolution at different levels of life.

Arguments against the theory of evolution:

- there is no sufficiently reliable evidence of the transformation of one species into another;
- paleontologists often do not find transitional forms of animals and plants, which is used as an argument by opponents of evolutionary doctrine.

Answer yourself

Name the most important morphological evidence for evolution and explain their significance.
What is the value of paleontological evidence for evolution and what is its lack?

Elements of the correct answer

1. Several factors influence the population size: climate and other abiotic environmental factors, availability of food, the number of predators, epidemics.
2. Factors such as migration of individuals, the number of mature individuals in the population can influence the number.

Answer yourself

What are the factors that influence the maintenance of the population?
What causes reproductive isolation of populations?

Elements of the correct answer

1. Among carriers of diseases, natural selection operates.
2. The organisms most stable due to adaptive mutations survive and adapt to various means of combating them.

Answer yourself

What are the similarities and differences between natural and artificial selection?
What are the similarities and differences between the stabilizing and driving forms of natural selection?

Elements of the correct answer

1. Religious communities most often exist in isolation and closely related marriages are common in them.
2. Related marriages lead to an increase in homozygosity in offspring.
3. Recessive mutations, usually in a heterozygous state, become homozygous, which leads to the manifestation of hereditary diseases.

Answer yourself

Why are consanguineous marriages harmful?
Why do breeders use inbreeding between plants and animals?

Elements of the correct answer

1. The first way is to conduct a cytological analysis of the karyotypes of these elephants, comparing the number and shape of chromosomes.
2. Genetic analysis can be done by comparing gene sequences.
3. Buy a pair of elephants and see if they will produce fertile offspring in captivity. But this is a long and expensive path.

Elements of the correct answer

1. Most likely, non-poisonous and slightly poisonous plants look similar to poisonous ones.
2. In this case, the animals eat all the plants evenly, and some of the animals die, the number of eaters is reduced, and the plants survive and multiply.
3. Another option is that the animals will develop a conditioned reflex, and they will not eat these plants at all (except for young ones). In this case, all plants are saved.

Elements of the correct answer

1. Examples related to the intraspecific struggle for existence: not all individuals reach the spawning grounds; not all eggs are fertilized by males; when moving to the spawning ground, the fish "clog" each other; many fry die before reaching maturity.
2. Examples of interspecific struggle for existence: chum salmon - an object of fishing; people fish for caviar; caviar is eaten by other fish as food.
3. A large number of eggs is an adaptation to the survival of the species in the absence of care for offspring.

Answer yourself

Give examples of the struggle with environmental conditions in fish that throw millions of eggs, and out of this million fewer than a dozen individuals survive.
Which of the types of struggle for existence is the most fierce? Explain your answer.
What factors limit the reproduction of organisms in nature?

Elements of the correct answer

1. The fertility of cod is higher than that of stickleback or seahorse.
2. Male sticklebacks (and seahorses) guard their offspring.
3. Approximately the same number of individuals of both one and another species usually survive to maturity.

Answer yourself

Which plants produce more pollen: wind pollinated or insect pollinated, and why?
What is the relativity of adaptations to environmental conditions?
The hoverfly fly looks like a bee. What signs should have appeared in this fly so that it would not be touched by enemies?
Who should be more in nature - animals with mimicry, or those they imitate, and why?

Elements of the correct answer

It is necessary to use the most precise criterion of the species.

1. Calculate the number of chromosomes in somatic cells, and if it is the same, then with maximum probability it can be argued that this is one species.
2. You can try to get offspring from these individuals, which in turn should be fertile. This way is longer, but also quite reliable.

Answer yourself

Why is there no sufficiently reliable species criterion?
Which of the species criteria are relatively reliable and why?

Elements of the correct answer

1. Mutations.
2. Insulation.
3. Various directions of natural selection.

Answer yourself

Why are mutational variability, isolation and natural selection called the main factors of the evolutionary process?
Can previously isolated populations be encountered?
Name the main features of the population.
What factors prevent mixing of populations?

Elements of the correct answer

Answer yourself

Does degeneration always lead to biological regression? Explain the answer.
What happens more often and why: aromorphosis, idioadaptation or degeneration?
What is the result of aromorphoses, idioadaptation, degeneration?

Elements of the correct answer

1. The slate bones of a horse are the rudiments of the 2nd and 4th fingers.
2. A human tail is an atavism, a trait inherited from ancestors, usually absent.

Answer yourself

15. Why are theories untenable that claim that genetic differences between races of people confirm their inequality?

Elements of the correct answer

1. Genetic differences between races are negligible, much less than even between very close species.
2. Interracial marriages produce fertile offspring, which is the most reliable sign of belonging to the same species.

Answer yourself

C2 questions

Elements of the correct answer

Mistakes were made in sentences 1, 3, 5, 6.
In sentence 1, one of the named scientists is not the author of the ideas that formed the basis of the modern evolutionary doctrine.
In sentence 3, the type of variability is incorrectly named.
Sentence 5 incorrectly defines the participants in the struggle for existence.
Sentence 6 misnames one of the driving forces of evolution.

Elements of the correct answer

Mistakes were made in sentences 2, 3, 5.
In sentence 2, the sign of the driving form of selection is incorrectly indicated.
In sentence 3, the sign of the stabilizing form of selection is incorrectly indicated.
Proposition 5 gives an unfortunate example of a stabilizing form of selection.

Elements of the correct answer

Mistakes were made in sentences 2, 4, 5.
In sentence 2, one of the signs of the morphological criterion is indicated incorrectly.
In sentence 4, the sign of the ecological criterion is indicated incorrectly.
In sentence 5, the sign of the ethological criterion is indicated incorrectly.

Elements of the correct answer

Mistakes were made in sentences 1, 3, 6.
In sentence 1, the definition of a population is incorrect.
Proposition 3 incorrectly defines the set of population genes.
In sentence 6, the population is erroneously called the largest evolutionary unit.

C3 level questions

Elements of the correct answer

Answer yourself

What is the evolutionary significance of such changes as the emergence of photosynthesis in plants or the notochord in animals?
Compare the evolutionary significance of such changes as the emergence of mimicry in insects and the disappearance of the digestive system in worms.
Give examples of idioadaptations showing that due to them, closely related species can live in different environmental conditions.

Elements of the correct answer

1. Intraspecific struggle (competition) is the most fierce kind of struggle for existence, because goes for the same resources.
2. Interspecific struggle intensifies in one ecological niche and can lead to the displacement of one species by another. This does not occur in different habitats of the two species.
3. The fight against adverse environmental conditions enhances both intraspecific and interspecific competition.

Answer yourself

Give examples of the intraspecific struggle for existence that would prove its fierceness.
Give examples of interspecific struggle for existence and explain its significance for the species and individual.

Elements of the correct answer

1. Both forms of selection fix certain hereditary traits.
2. Natural selection reinforces features that are primarily useful to the species, while artificial selection fixes features that are useful to humans.
3. The material for both forms of selection are mutations that manifest themselves phenotypically.
4. The result of natural selection are organisms adapted to environmental conditions, and the result of artificial selection is
breeds and varieties with traits useful to humans, often not capable of surviving in natural conditions.

Answer yourself

What are the advantages and disadvantages of plant varieties bred by breeders?
What biological factors does a breeder use when breeding a new plant variety or animal breed?

Elements of the correct answer

1. The farmer who receives heterotic forms will win.
2. The first farmer gets new combinations, however, a quick increase in yield cannot be achieved with his breeding methods. Careful selection and subsequent selection is needed. It cannot repeat the cycle, because receives heterozygous forms, not pure lines.
3. The third farmer, like the first one, will also not get a quick result. In addition, he has fewer options for combinations of features for selection.

Answer yourself

Why did heterotic forms of corn provide economic success for American farmers?
What are the advantages of polyploid hybrids?

Bukhvalov V. Biological tasks and problems. – Riga, 1994.
Kamensky A.A., Sokolova N.A., Titov S.A. Biology. Textbook for those entering the universities. - M .: University Book House, 1999.
Preparing for the exam in biology / Ed. prof. A.S. Batuev. - M .: Iris press - Rolf, 1998.
Kalinova G.S., Myagkova A.N., Reznikova V.Z. Biology. Educational and training materials for preparing for the exam. 2004–2008
Levitin M.G., Levitina T.P. General biology. - St. Petersburg: Parity, 1999.
Lerner G.I. Biology. USE 2007–2008. Training tasks. – M.: EKSMO, 2008.
Lerner G.I. Biology. Workbooks 6-8th, 10-11th grade. – M.: EKSMO, 2007.
Mash R.D. Optional classes in human anatomy and physiology. – M.: Enlightenment, 1998.
Reznikova V.Z. Biology. Man and his health. Collection of tests for thematic control. – M.: Intellect-center, 2005.

Current page: 1 (total book has 23 pages) [accessible reading excerpt: 16 pages]

G.I. lerner
Biology. A complete guide to preparing for the exam

From the author

The Unified State Examination is a new form of attestation that has become mandatory for high school graduates. Preparation for the exam requires students to develop certain skills in answering the proposed questions and skills in filling out exam forms.

This complete guide to biology provides all the materials you need to prepare well for the exam.

1. The book includes the theoretical knowledge of basic, advanced and high levels of knowledge and skills tested in examination papers.

3. The methodological apparatus of the book (examples of tasks) is focused on testing the knowledge and certain skills of students in applying this knowledge both in familiar and new situations.

4. The most difficult questions, the answers to which cause difficulties for students, are analyzed and discussed in order to help students cope with them.

5. The sequence of presentation of educational material begins with "General Biology", since the content of all other courses in the examination paper is based on general biological concepts.

At the beginning of each section, KIMs are cited for this section of the course.

Then the theoretical content of the topic is presented. After that, examples of test tasks of all forms (in different proportions) encountered in the examination paper are offered. Particular attention should be paid to the terms and concepts that are in italics. They are the first to be tested in the examination papers.

In a number of cases, the most difficult issues are analyzed and approaches to their solution are proposed. Answers to Part C provide only elements of the correct answers that will allow you to clarify information, supplement it, or give other arguments in favor of your answer. In all cases, these answers are sufficient to pass the exam.

The proposed textbook on biology is addressed primarily to schoolchildren who have decided to take the unified state exam in biology, as well as teachers. At the same time, the book will be useful to all schoolchildren of a general education school, since it will allow not only to study the subject within the framework of the school curriculum, but also to systematically check its assimilation.

Section 1
Biology is the science of life

1.1. Biology as a science, its achievements, research methods, connections with other sciences. The role of biology in the life and practical activities of man

Terms and concepts tested in the examination papers for this section: hypothesis, research method, science, scientific fact, object of research, problem, theory, experiment.

Biology The science that studies the properties of living systems. However, it is rather difficult to define what a living system is. That is why scientists have established several criteria by which an organism can be classified as living. Chief among these criteria are metabolism or metabolism, self-reproduction and self-regulation. A separate chapter will be devoted to the discussion of these and other criteria (or) properties of the living.

concept the science is defined as "the sphere of human activity to obtain, systematize objective knowledge about reality." In accordance with this definition, the object of science - biology is a life in all its manifestations and forms, as well as on different levels .

Every science, including biology, uses certain methods research. Some of them are universal for all sciences, such as observation, proposing and testing hypotheses, and building theories. Other scientific methods can only be used by a particular science. For example, geneticists have a genealogical method for studying human pedigrees, breeders have a hybridization method, histologists have a tissue culture method, etc.

Biology is closely related to other sciences - chemistry, physics, ecology, geography. Biology itself is divided into many special sciences that study various biological objects: plant and animal biology, plant physiology, morphology, genetics, taxonomy, breeding, mycology, helminthology and many other sciences.

Method- this is the path of research that a scientist goes through, solving any scientific problem, problem.

The main methods of science include the following:

Modeling- a method in which a certain image of an object is created, a model with the help of which scientists obtain the necessary information about the object. So, for example, when establishing the structure of the DNA molecule, James Watson and Francis Crick created a model from plastic elements - a DNA double helix that corresponds to the data of X-ray and biochemical studies. This model fully met the requirements for DNA. ( See section Nucleic acids.)

Observation- the method by which the researcher collects information about the object. You can observe visually, for example, the behavior of animals. It is possible to observe with the help of devices the changes taking place in living objects: for example, when taking a cardiogram during the day, when measuring the weight of a calf during a month. It is possible to observe seasonal changes in nature, the molting of animals, etc. The conclusions made by the observer are verified either by repeated observations or experimentally.

Experiment (Experience)- a method by which the results of observations, put forward assumptions are checked - hypotheses . Examples of experiments are crossing animals or plants in order to obtain a new variety or breed, testing a new drug, identifying the role of any cell organoid, etc. An experiment is always the acquisition of new knowledge with the help of an experience.

Problem- a question, a problem that needs to be solved. Problem solving leads to new knowledge. A scientific problem always hides some contradiction between the known and the unknown. Solving the problem requires the scientist to collect facts, analyze them, and systematize them. An example of a problem is, for example, the following: “How does the adaptation of organisms to the environment arise?” or “How can I prepare for serious exams in the shortest possible time?”.

It can be quite difficult to formulate a problem, but whenever there is a difficulty, a contradiction, a problem appears.

Hypothesis- an assumption, a preliminary solution to the problem. Putting forward hypotheses, the researcher is looking for relationships between facts, phenomena, processes. That is why the hypothesis most often takes the form of an assumption: "if ... then." For example, "If plants give off oxygen in the light, then we can detect it with the help of a smoldering torch, since oxygen must support combustion." The hypothesis is tested experimentally. (See Hypotheses for the Origin of Life on Earth.)

Theory is a generalization of the main ideas in any scientific field of knowledge. For example, the theory of evolution summarizes all the reliable scientific data obtained by researchers over many decades. Over time, theories are supplemented by new data, develop. Some theories may be refuted by new facts. True scientific theories are confirmed by practice. So, for example, the genetic theory of G. Mendel and the chromosome theory of T. Morgan were confirmed by many experimental studies in different countries of the world. The modern evolutionary theory, although it has found many scientifically proven confirmations, still meets opponents, since not all of its provisions can be confirmed by facts at the present stage of the development of science.

Private scientific methods in biology are:

genealogical method - used in the compilation of pedigrees of people, identifying the nature of inheritance of certain traits.

historical method - establishing relationships between facts, processes, phenomena that have occurred over a historically long time (several billion years). The evolutionary doctrine has developed largely due to this method.

paleontological method - a method that allows you to find out the relationship between ancient organisms, the remains of which are in the earth's crust, in different geological layers.

centrifugation – separation of mixtures into component parts under the action of centrifugal force. It is used in the separation of cell organelles, light and heavy fractions (components) of organic substances, etc.

Cytological or cytogenetic , - study of the structure of the cell, its structures using various microscopes.

Biochemical - the study of chemical processes occurring in the body.

Each particular biological science (botany, zoology, anatomy and physiology, cytology, embryology, genetics, breeding, ecology, and others) uses its own more particular research methods.

Every science has its own an object and your subject of study. In biology, the object of study is LIFE. The carriers of life are living bodies. Everything related to their existence is studied by biology. The subject of science is always somewhat narrower, more limited than the object. So, for example, one of the scientists is interested in metabolism organisms. Then the object of study will be life, and the subject of study will be metabolism. On the other hand, metabolism can also be an object of study, but then the subject of study will be one of its characteristics, for example, the metabolism of proteins, or fats, or carbohydrates. This is important to understand, because questions about what is the object of study of a particular science are found in exam questions. In addition, it is important for those who will be engaged in science in the future.

EXAMPLES OF TASKS

Part A

A1. Biology as a science studies

1) general signs of the structure of plants and animals

2) the relationship of animate and inanimate nature

3) processes occurring in living systems

4) the origin of life on Earth

A2. I.P. Pavlov in his works on digestion used the research method:

1) historical 3) experimental

2) descriptive 4) biochemical

A3. Ch. Darwin's assumption that each modern species or group of species had common ancestors is:

1) theory 3) fact

2) hypothesis 4) proof

A4. Embryology studies

1) the development of the organism from the zygote to birth

2) the structure and functions of the egg

3) postpartum human development

4) development of the organism from birth to death

A5. The number and shape of chromosomes in a cell is determined by research

1) biochemical 3) centrifugation

2) cytological 4) comparative

A6. Selection as a science solves problems

1) creation of new varieties of plants and animal breeds

2) conservation of the biosphere

3) creation of agrocenoses

4) creating new fertilizers

A7. Patterns of inheritance of traits in humans are established by the method

1) experimental 3) genealogical

2) hybridological 4) observations

A8. The specialty of a scientist who studies the fine structures of chromosomes is called:

1) breeder 3) morphologist

2) cytogeneticist 4) embryologist

A9. Systematics is the science that deals with

1) the study of the external structure of organisms

2) the study of body functions

3) identifying relationships between organisms

4) classification of organisms

Part B

IN 1. Indicate three functions that modern cell theory performs

1) Experimentally confirms scientific data on the structure of organisms

2) Predicts the emergence of new facts, phenomena

3) Describes the cellular structure of different organisms

4) Systematizes, analyzes and explains new facts about the cellular structure of organisms

5) Puts forward hypotheses about the cellular structure of all organisms

6) Creates new methods of cell research

Part With

C1. The French scientist Louis Pasteur became famous as the "savior of mankind", thanks to the creation of vaccines against infectious diseases, including such as rabies, anthrax, etc. Suggest hypotheses that he could put forward. Which of the research methods did he prove his case?

1.2. Signs and properties of living things: cellular structure, chemical composition, metabolism and energy conversion, homeostasis, irritability, reproduction, development

homeostasis, unity of animate and inanimate nature, variability, heredity, metabolism.

Signs and properties of living. Living systems have common features:

Cell structure All organisms on Earth are made up of cells. An exception are viruses that exhibit the properties of a living thing only in other organisms.

Metabolism - a set of biochemical transformations occurring in the body and other biosystems.

Self-regulation - maintaining the constancy of the internal environment of the body (homeostasis). Persistent violation of homeostasis leads to the death of the body.

Irritability - the ability of the body to respond to external and internal stimuli (reflexes in animals and tropisms, taxis and nastia in plants).

Variability - the ability of organisms to acquire new features and properties as a result of the influence of the external environment and changes in the hereditary apparatus - DNA molecules.

Heredity The ability of an organism to pass on its traits from generation to generation.

Reproduction or self-reproduction - the ability of living systems to reproduce their own kind. Reproduction is based on the process of duplication of DNA molecules with subsequent cell division.

Growth and development - all organisms grow during their lives; development is understood as both the individual development of the organism and the historical development of living nature.

System openness - a property of all living systems associated with a constant supply of energy from the outside and the removal of waste products. In other words, an organism is alive while it exchanges matter and energy with the environment.

Ability to adapt - in the process of historical development and under the influence of natural selection, organisms acquire adaptations to environmental conditions (adaptation). Organisms that do not have the necessary adaptations die out.

Generality of chemical composition . The main features of the chemical composition of a cell and a multicellular organism are carbon compounds - proteins, fats, carbohydrates, nucleic acids. In inanimate nature, these compounds are not formed.

The commonality of the chemical composition of living systems and inanimate nature speaks of the unity and connection of living and inanimate matter. The whole world is a system based on individual atoms. Atoms interact with each other to form molecules. Molecules in inanimate systems form rock crystals, stars, planets, and the universe. From the molecules that make up organisms, living systems are formed - cells, tissues, organisms. The relationship between living and non-living systems is clearly manifested at the level of biogeocenoses and the biosphere.

1.3. The main levels of organization of wildlife: cellular, organismal, population-species, biogeocenotic

The main terms and concepts tested in the examination papers: standard of living, biological systems studied at this level, molecular-genetic, cellular, organismal, population-species, biogeocenotic, biospheric.

Organization levels living systems reflect subordination, hierarchy of the structural organization of life. Living standards differ from each other by the complexity of the organization of the system. A cell is simpler than a multicellular organism or population.

The standard of living is the form and way of its existence. For example, a virus exists as a DNA or RNA molecule enclosed in a protein shell. This is the form of existence of the virus. However, the properties of a living system, the virus shows only when it enters the cell of another organism. There he breeds. This is his way of being.

Molecular genetic level represented by individual biopolymers (DNA, RNA, proteins, lipids, carbohydrates and other compounds); at this level of life, phenomena associated with changes (mutations) and the reproduction of genetic material, metabolism are studied.

Cellular - the level at which life exists in the form of a cell - the structural and functional unit of life. At this level, processes such as metabolism and energy, information exchange, reproduction, photosynthesis, transmission of nerve impulses, and many others are studied.

Organismic - this is the independent existence of a separate individual - a unicellular or multicellular organism.

population-species - the level, which is represented by a group of individuals of the same species - a population; It is in the population that elementary evolutionary processes take place - the accumulation, manifestation and selection of mutations.

Biogeocenotic - represented by ecosystems consisting of different populations and their habitats.

biospheric - a level representing the totality of all biogeocenoses. In the biosphere, the circulation of substances and the transformation of energy with the participation of organisms take place. The products of vital activity of organisms participate in the process of evolution of the Earth.

EXAMPLES OF TASKS

Part A

A1. The level at which the processes of biogenic migration of atoms are studied is called:

1) biogeocenotic

2) biosphere

3) population-species

4) molecular genetic

A2. At the population-species level, they study:

1) gene mutations

2) the relationship of organisms of the same species

3) organ systems

4) metabolic processes in the body

A3. Maintaining a relatively constant chemical composition of the body is called

1) metabolism 3) homeostasis

2) assimilation 4) adaptation

A4. The occurrence of mutations is associated with such a property of the organism as

1) heredity 3) irritability

2) variability 4) self-reproduction

A5. Which of the following biological systems forms the highest standard of living?

1) amoeba cell 3) herd of deer

2) smallpox virus 4) nature reserve

A6. Pulling the hand away from a hot object is an example

1) irritability

2) ability to adapt

3) inheritance of traits from parents

4) self-regulation

A7. Photosynthesis, protein biosynthesis are examples

1) plastic metabolism

2) energy metabolism

3) nutrition and breathing

4) homeostasis

A8. Which of the terms is synonymous with the concept of "metabolism"?

1) anabolism 3) assimilation

2) catabolism 4) metabolism

Part B

IN 1. Select the processes studied at the molecular genetic level of life

1) DNA replication

2) inheritance of Down's disease

3) enzymatic reactions

4) the structure of mitochondria

5) cell membrane structure

6) blood circulation

IN 2. Correlate the nature of the adaptation of organisms with the conditions to which they were developed.

Part With

C1. What adaptations of plants provide them with reproduction and resettlement?

C2. What is common and what are the differences between different levels of organization of life?

Section 2
Cell as a biological system

2.1. Cell theory, its main provisions, role in the formation of the modern natural-science picture of the world. Development of knowledge about the cell. The cellular structure of organisms, the similarity of the structure of the cells of all organisms - the basis of the unity of the organic world, evidence of the relationship of living nature

The main terms and concepts tested in the examination paper: unity of the organic world, cell, cellular theory, provisions of the cellular theory.

We have already said that a scientific theory is a generalization of scientific data about the object of study. This fully applies to the cell theory created by two German researchers M. Schleiden and T. Schwann in 1839.

The cellular theory was based on the work of many researchers who were looking for an elementary structural unit of the living. The creation and development of cell theory was facilitated by the emergence in the 16th century. and further development of microscopy.

Here are the main events that became the forerunners of the creation of the cell theory:

- 1590 - the creation of the first microscope (Jansen brothers);

- 1665 Robert Hooke - the first description of the microscopic structure of the cork of the elderberry branch (in fact, these were cell walls, but Hooke introduced the name "cell");

- 1695 Anthony Leeuwenhoek's publication on microbes and other microscopic organisms he saw through a microscope;

- 1833 R. Brown described the nucleus of a plant cell;

– 1839 M. Schleiden and T. Schwann discovered the nucleolus.

The main provisions of modern cell theory:

1. All simple and complex organisms consist of cells capable of exchanging substances, energy, and biological information with the environment.

2. A cell is an elementary structural, functional and genetic unit of the living.

3. A cell is an elementary unit of reproduction and development of living things.

4. In multicellular organisms, cells are differentiated in structure and function. They are combined into tissues, organs and organ systems.

5. A cell is an elementary, open living system capable of self-regulation, self-renewal and reproduction.

Cell theory has evolved thanks to new discoveries. In 1880, Walter Flemming described chromosomes and the processes that take place in mitosis. Since 1903, genetics began to develop. Beginning in 1930, electron microscopy began to develop rapidly, which allowed scientists to study the finest structure of cellular structures. The 20th century was the heyday of biology and such sciences as cytology, genetics, embryology, biochemistry, and biophysics. Without the creation of the cell theory, this development would have been impossible.

So, the cell theory states that all living organisms are made up of cells. A cell is that minimal structure of a living thing that has all the vital properties - the ability to metabolism, growth, development, transfer of genetic information, self-regulation and self-renewal. The cells of all organisms have similar structural features. However, cells differ from each other in their size, shape, and function. An ostrich egg and a frog egg are made up of the same cell. Muscle cells have contractility, and nerve cells conduct nerve impulses. Differences in the structure of cells largely depend on the functions they perform in organisms. The more complex the organism is, the more diverse in structure and functions of its cells. Each type of cell has a specific size and shape. The similarity in the structure of the cells of various organisms, the commonality of their basic properties confirm the commonality of their origin and allow us to conclude that the organic world is united.

This handbook contains all the theoretical material on the biology course required to pass the exam. It includes all elements of the content, checked by control and measuring materials, and helps to generalize and systematize knowledge and skills for the course of the secondary (complete) school.
The theoretical material is presented in a concise, accessible form. Each section is accompanied by examples of test tasks that allow you to test your knowledge and the degree of preparedness for the certification exam. Practical tasks correspond to the USE format. At the end of the manual, answers to tests are given that will help schoolchildren and applicants to test themselves and fill in the gaps.
The manual is addressed to schoolchildren, applicants and teachers.

Examples.
Embryology studies
1) the development of the organism from the zygote to birth
2) the structure and functions of the egg
3) postpartum human development
4) development of the organism from birth to death

Selection as a science solves problems
1) creation of new varieties of plants and animal breeds
2) conservation of the biosphere
3) creation of agrocenoses
4) creating new fertilizers

Systematics is the science that deals with
1) the study of the external structure of organisms
2) the study of body functions
3) identifying relationships between organisms
4) classification of organisms.