The daily amount of feces increases with. Normal stool and its changes

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Chair or feces- this is the contents of the lower sections of the colon, which is the end product of digestion and is excreted from the body during defecation.

Individual characteristics of the stool can tell a lot about a person's health and help in making a diagnosis.
Below are interpretations of the quality of the stool in normal and pathological conditions.

1. Number of bowel movements.
Norm: regularly, 1-2 times a day, but at least 1 time in 24-48 hours, without prolonged strong straining, painless. After defecation, the urge disappears, there is a feeling of comfort and complete emptying of the intestine. External circumstances can increase or slow down the frequency of the urge to defecate. This is a change in the usual environment, a forced position in bed, the need to use a ship, being in the company of other people, etc.
Changes: No stool for several days (constipation) or too frequent stools - up to 5 times or more (diarrhea).

2. Daily amount of feces
Norm: With a mixed diet, the daily amount of feces varies within a fairly wide range and averages 150-400 g. So, when eating predominantly plant foods, the amount of feces increases, while an animal that is poor in “ballast” substances decreases.
Changes: Significant increase (more than 600 g) or decrease in the amount of feces.
Causes of an increase in the amount of feces (polyfecal matter):

• The use of large amounts of vegetable fiber.
• Increased intestinal peristalsis, in which food is poorly absorbed due to its too rapid movement through the intestinal tract.
• Violation of the processes of digestion (digestion or absorption of food and water) in the small intestine (malabsorption, enteritis).
• Decreased exocrine function of the pancreas in chronic pancreatitis (insufficient digestion of fats and proteins).
• Insufficient amount of bile entering the intestines (cholecystitis, cholelithiasis).

Reasons for a decrease in the amount of feces:

• Constipation, in which, due to prolonged retention of feces in the large intestine and maximum absorption of water, the volume of feces decreases.
• Reducing the amount of food eaten or the predominance of easily digestible foods in the diet.

3. Excretion of feces and swimming in water.
Norm: feces should stand out easily, and in water it should gently sink to the bottom.
Changes:

• With an insufficient amount of dietary fiber in food (less than 30 grams per day), feces are excreted quickly and splash into the water of the toilet.
• If the stool floats, this indicates that it has an increased amount of gases or contains too much undigested fat ( malabsorption). Also, feces can float when eating a lot of fiber.
• If the stool is poorly washed off with cold water from the walls of the toilet, then it contains a large amount of undigested fat, which happens with pancreatitis.

4. Stool color
Normal: With a mixed diet, feces are brown. Breastfed babies have golden yellow or yellow stools.
Change in stool color:

• Dark brown - with a meat diet, constipation, indigestion in the stomach, colitis, putrefactive dyspepsia.
• Light brown - with a dairy-vegetarian diet, increased intestinal motility.
• Light yellow - indicates too rapid passage of feces through the intestines, which do not have time to change color (with diarrhea) or a violation of bile secretion (cholecystitis).
• Reddish - when eating beets, bleeding from the lower intestines, for example. with hemorrhoids, anal fissures, ulcerative colitis.
• Orange - when using the vitamin beta-carotene, as well as foods high in beta-carotenes (carrots, pumpkin, etc.).
• Green - with a large amount of spinach, lettuce, sorrel in food, with dysbacteriosis, increased intestinal motility.
• Tar-like or black - when eating currants, blueberries, as well as bismuth preparations (Vikalin, Vikair, De-Nol); with bleeding from the upper gastrointestinal tract (peptic ulcer, cirrhosis, colon cancer), when swallowing blood during nasal or pulmonary bleeding.
• Greenish-black - when taking iron supplements.
• Grayish-white stool means that bile does not enter the intestine (blockage of the bile duct, acute pancreatitis, hepatitis, cirrhosis of the liver).

5. Consistency (density) of feces.
Norm: decorated softish. Normally, feces are 70% water, 30% - from the remnants of processed food, dead bacteria and desquamated intestinal cells.
Pathology : mushy, dense, liquid, semi-liquid, putty.
Change in stool consistency.

• Very dense feces (sheep) - with constipation, spasms and stenosis of the colon.
• Mushy feces - with increased intestinal motility, increased secretion in the intestine during its inflammation.
• Ointment - with diseases of the pancreas (chronic pancreatitis), a sharp decrease in the flow of bile into the intestine (cholelithiasis, cholecystitis).
• Clayey or putty-like gray feces - with a significant amount of undigested fat, which is observed when there is difficulty in the outflow of bile from the liver and gallbladder (hepatitis, blockage of the bile duct).
• Liquid - in violation of the digestion of food in the small intestine, malabsorption and accelerated passage of feces.
• Foamy - with fermentative dyspepsia, when fermentation processes in the intestine prevail over all others.
• Liquid stools like pea puree - in typhoid fever.
• Rice-water, loose, colorless stools in cholera.
• With a liquid consistency of the stool and frequent bowel movements, they speak of diarrhea.
• Liquid-mushy or watery stools can be with a large intake of water.
• Yeasty stool - indicates the presence of yeast and may have the following characteristics: cheesy, frothy stools like rising sourdough, may be stranded like melted cheese or have a yeasty smell.

6. The shape of the feces.
Norm: cylindrical, sausage-shaped. The feces should flow continuously like toothpaste, and should be about the length of a banana.
Changes: ribbon-like or in the form of dense balls (sheep feces) is observed with insufficient daily water intake, as well as spasms or narrowing of the large intestine.

7. The smell of feces.
Norm: fecal, unpleasant, but not sharp. It is due to the presence in it of substances that are formed as a result of the bacterial breakdown of proteins and volatile fatty acids. Depends on the composition of the food and the severity of the processes of fermentation and decay. Meat food gives a sharp smell, milk - sour.
With poor digestion, undigested food simply rots in the intestines or becomes food for pathogenic bacteria. Some bacteria produce hydrogen sulfide, which has a characteristic rotten odor.
Changes in stool odor.

• Sour - with fermentation dyspepsia, which occurs with excessive consumption of carbohydrates (sugar, flour products, fruits, peas, etc.) and fermentation drinks, such as kvass.
• Offensive - in violation of the function of the pancreas (pancreatitis), a decrease in the flow of bile into the intestines (cholecystitis), hypersecretion of the large intestine. Very smelly stools may be due to bacterial overgrowth
• Putrid - in violation of digestion in the stomach, putrefactive dyspepsia associated with excessive consumption of protein foods that are slowly digested in the intestines, colitis, constipation.
• The smell of rancid oil - with bacterial decomposition of fats in the intestines.
• Weak smell - with constipation or accelerated evacuation from the small intestine.

8. Intestinal gases.
Normal: Gas is a natural by-product of the digestion and fermentation of food as it moves through the digestive tract. During defecation and outside of it in an adult, 0.2-0.5 liters of gas is excreted from the intestines per day.
The formation of gas in the intestine occurs as a result of the vital activity of microorganisms that inhabit the intestine. They decompose various nutrients, releasing methane, hydrogen sulfide, hydrogen, carbon dioxide. The more undigested food enters the colon, the more active the bacteria work and the more gases are produced.
An increase in the amount of gases is normal.

• when eating a large amount of carbohydrates (sugar, muffin);
• when eating foods that contain a lot of fiber (cabbage, apples, legumes, etc.);
• when using products that stimulate fermentation processes (black bread, kvass, beer);
• when using dairy products with lactose intolerance;
• when swallowing a large amount of air while eating and drinking;
• when drinking large amounts of carbonated drinks

An increase in the amount of gases in pathology.

• Enzyme deficiency of the pancreas, in which the digestion of food is disturbed (chronic pancreatitis).
• Intestinal dysbacteriosis.
• Irritable Bowel Syndrome.
• Gastritis, peptic ulcer of the stomach and duodenum.
• Chronic liver diseases: cholecystitis, hepatitis, cirrhosis.
• Chronic bowel disease - enteritis, colitis
• Malabsorption.
• celiac disease.

Difficulty passing gases.

• intestinal obstruction;
• intestinal atony with peritonitis;
• some acute inflammatory processes in the intestines.

9. Acidity of feces.
Norm: with a mixed diet, acidity is 6.8–7.6 pH and is due to the vital activity of the microflora of the colon.
Changes in stool acidity:

• sharply acidic (pH less than 5.5) - with fermentative dyspepsia.
• acidic (pH 5.5 - 6.7) - in violation of the absorption of fatty acids in the small intestine.
• alkaline (pH 8.0 - 8.5) - with the decay of undigested food proteins and the activation of putrefactive microflora with the formation of ammonia and other alkaline substances in the colon, with impaired pancreatic secretion, colitis.
• sharply alkaline (pH more than 8.5) - with putrefactive dyspepsia.

Normally, feces should not contain blood, mucus, pus, or undigested food residues.

This is usually preferred to remain silent, regardless of the importance of the issue. In the article you will find a complete description of all the characteristics of the chair and learn about your weak points in the gastrointestinal tract, which you did not even suspect!

“Blessed is he who early in the morning has a chair without compulsion:

He likes food and all other pleasures.”

A.S. Pushkin

It was said in Pushkin's genius: gracefully, ironically, and life-truthfully. I propose to discuss this topic, smoothly moving from poetry to the prose of life. Moreover, this prose is a vital criterion for our well-being and ability to enjoy being.

stool or feces- this is the contents of the lower sections of the colon, which is the end product of digestion and is excreted from the body during defecation. Individual characteristics of the stool can tell a lot about a person's health and help in making a diagnosis. For this, a scatological study is carried out (“scatology” in Greek means “the science of feces”). Feces are looked at under a microscope and leukocytes, erythrocytes are counted in it, the amount of fat, mucus, and undigested fibers is determined.

Any of us in everyday life also sometimes needs to look at what we usually try to flush down the drain faster.

So, stool monitoring is a way of monitoring your own health. Everything is important here: the frequency of bowel movements, the daily amount of feces, its density, color, shape and smell. Let us analyze all the interpretations of the quality of the stool in the norm and in pathology in more detail.

1. Number of bowel movements.

NORM: regular one or two bowel movements per day with a strong urge to defecate and without pain. After defecation, the urge disappears, there is a feeling of comfort and complete emptying of the intestine. Ideally, the chair should be in the morning, a few minutes after waking up.

PATHOLOGY: no stool for more than 48 hours (constipation) or too frequent stools - up to 5 times or more per day (diarrhea). Violation of the frequency of defecation is a symptom of a disease and requires the consultation of a doctor (gastroenterologist, infectious disease specialist or proctologist).

Diarrhea, or diarrhoea, is the result of stool passing too quickly through the large intestine, where most of the water is reabsorbed. Loose stools can be caused by many factors, including stomach viruses and food poisoning. It can also result from food allergies and intolerances, such as lactose intolerance.

2. Daily amount of feces.

NORM: With a mixed diet, the daily amount of feces varies within a fairly wide range and averages 150-400 g. So, when eating predominantly plant foods, the amount of feces increases, and the amount of feces, which is poor in "ballast" substances, decreases.

CHANGES: a significant increase (more than 400 g) or a decrease in the amount of feces.

An abnormally large excretion of feces from the body for at least three days, polyfecal matter, can be caused by diseases of the stomach, intestines, liver, gallbladder and biliary tract, pancreas, as well as malabsorption syndrome (impaired absorption of digested food in the intestine).

The reasons for a decrease in the amount of feces can be constipation, when, due to a long retention of feces in the large intestine and maximum absorption of water, the volume of feces decreases, or the predominance of easily digestible foods in the diet.

3. Excretion of feces and swimming in water.

NORM: soft immersion of feces to the bottom of the toilet bowl.

CHANGES: With an insufficient amount of dietary fiber in the diet (less than 30 grams per day), feces are excreted quickly and fall into the toilet water with a splash.

If the stool floats or is poorly washed off with cold water from the walls of the toilet, this indicates that it has an increased amount of gases or contains too much undigested or undigested fat. The reason for this may be chronic pancreatitis, malabsorption, celiac disease (a dysfunction of the small intestine associated with a deficiency of enzymes that break down the gluten peptide). But! Feces can also float when eating large amounts of fiber.

4. Color of feces.

NORM: With a mixed diet, the feces are brown.

CHANGES: Dark brown - with a meat diet, constipation, indigestion in the stomach, colitis, putrefactive dyspepsia.

Light brown - with a milk-vegetarian diet, increased intestinal motility.

Light yellow - with a milk diet, diarrhea or impaired bile secretion (cholecystitis).

Reddish - when eating beets, with bleeding from the lower intestines (hemorrhoids, anal fissures, intestinal polyposis, ulcerative colitis).

Green - with a large amount of spinach, lettuce, sorrel in food; with dysbacteriosis, increased intestinal motility.

Tar-like or black - when eating blueberries or black currants; with bleeding from the upper gastrointestinal tract (peptic ulcer, cirrhosis, colon cancer), when swallowing blood during nasal or pulmonary bleeding.

Greenish-black - when taking iron supplements.

Grayish-white stool means that bile does not enter the intestine (blockage of the bile duct, acute pancreatitis, hepatitis, cirrhosis of the liver).

5. Density and shape of feces.

NORM: Normally, feces are 70% water, 30% - from the remnants of processed food, dead bacteria and desquamated intestinal cells and has a cylindrical shape in the form of a soft round sausage. But! A large amount of plant foods in the diet makes the feces thick and mushy.

Normally, feces should not contain blood, mucus, pus, and the remains of undigested food!

CHANGES:

mushy stool- with increased intestinal motility, increased secretion in the intestine during its inflammation.

Very dense feces (sheep)- with constipation, colitis, spasms and stenosis of the colon.

ointment- in diseases of the pancreas (chronic pancreatitis), a sharp decrease in the flow of bile into the intestine (cholelithiasis, cholecystitis).

Liquid- in violation of the digestion of food in the small intestine, malabsorption and accelerated passage of feces.

Foamy- with fermentative dyspepsia, when fermentation processes in the intestine prevail over all others.

Ribbon-like feces- in diseases accompanied by stenosis or severe and prolonged spasm of the sigmoid or rectum; with rectal cancer.

With a liquid consistency of the stool and frequent bowel movements, they speak of diarrhea.

Liquid-mushy or watery stools can be with a large intake of water.

Cheesy, frothy, like rising sourdough, the stool indicates the presence of yeast.

Small stools (pencil-shaped) may be a sign of polyposis or an enlarged colon tumor.

6. The smell of feces.

NORM: unpleasant but not annoying.

CHANGES: The smell depends on the composition of the food (meat food gives a pungent smell, dairy food gives a sour smell) and the severity of fermentation and decay processes.

Sour smell it also happens with fermentation dyspepsia, which is caused by excessive consumption of carbohydrates (sugar, flour products) and fermentation drinks, such as kvass.

Fetid- in violation of the function of the pancreas (pancreatitis), a decrease in the flow of bile into the intestine (cholecystitis), hypersecretion of the large intestine. Very foul-smelling stools may be due to bacterial overgrowth. Some bacteria produce hydrogen sulfide, which has a characteristic rotten odor.

Putrefactive- in violation of digestion in the stomach, putrefactive dyspepsia associated with excessive consumption of protein foods that are slowly digested in the intestines, ulcerative colitis, Crohn's disease.

faint smell- with constipation or accelerated evacuation from the small intestine.

7. Intestinal gases.

NORM: Gases are formed due to the work of microorganisms that make up the natural flora of the intestine. During defecation and outside of it in an adult, 0.2-0.5 liters of gas is excreted from the intestines per day. It is considered normal to release gas up to 10-12 times (but in general, the less, the better).

Normally, an increase in the amount of gases can be caused by eating the following foods: a large amount of carbohydrates (sugar, muffin); products containing a lot of fiber (cabbage, apples, legumes, etc.), products that stimulate fermentation processes (black bread, kvass, beer); dairy products with lactose intolerance; carbonated drinks.

PATHOLOGY: Flatulence, excessive accumulation of gases in the intestines (up to 3 liters), may indicate the development of certain diseases, namely: intestinal dysbacteriosis, chronic pancreatitis, irritable bowel syndrome, chronic intestinal diseases (enteritis, colitis), gastritis, gastric ulcer and duodenal ulcers, chronic liver disease (cholecystitis, hepatitis, cirrhosis), intestinal obstruction.

First, my own aunt sat down, then other relatives began to "sit down". I had not heard about it before, and when I heard it, I was skeptical (after all, I have a certain relation to medicine). Now this is some kind of epidemic called "Nisha's health system", and Maya Gogulan "preaches" it with us, an aunt who allegedly cured herself of a terrible disease. (google if you want details).
I read half a page of her works, I didn’t go further (it really reminded me of the “works” of Gennady Petrovich Malakhov and Dr. Popov)
Here is an excerpt from the chapter "Cleansing the Colon":

"We lived for a long time, as we had to. We ate, drank, and behaved not the way we should. We were deprived of the necessary human standards often due to ignorance, and not because of the difficulty of their implementation. So we accumulated a lot of "dirt" in our body - poisons, slags and deposits.Many diseases come to us with food.
We do not think that different products require different times for their digestion, the release of different juices. Eating as we have to, what we have to and when we have to, we accumulate undigested parts of products in the large intestine, which accumulate for decades in the folds-pockets of the large intestine.
A person, reaching the age of 25, wears from 8 to 25 kg. such fecal blockages.
One can imagine what happens to these products, "stored" for many years at a temperature of 37 degrees.

How do you feel about this kind of "methods" of self-treatment?

P.S.: in the meantime, a month later, my grandmother's legs stopped hurting (diabetic polyneuropathy with experience) ...

If you like it don't forget

Feces are formed in the large intestine. It consists of water, the remains of food taken and the discharge of the gastrointestinal tract, the products of the transformation of bile pigments, bacteria, etc. For the diagnosis of diseases associated with the digestive organs, the study of feces in some cases can be of decisive importance. General analysis of feces (coprogram) includes macroscopic, chemical and microscopic examination.

Macroscopic examination

Quantity

In pathology, the amount of feces decreases with prolonged constipation caused by chronic colitis, peptic ulcer and other conditions associated with increased absorption of fluid in the intestine. With inflammatory processes in the intestines, colitis with diarrhea, accelerated evacuation from the intestines, the amount of feces increases.

Consistency

Dense consistency - with constant constipation due to excessive absorption of water. Liquid or mushy consistency of feces - with increased peristalsis (due to insufficient absorption of water) or with abundant secretion of inflammatory exudate and mucus by the intestinal wall. Ointment-like consistency - in chronic pancreatitis with exocrine insufficiency. Foamy consistency - with enhanced fermentation processes in the colon and the formation of a large amount of carbon dioxide.

The form

The form of feces in the form of "large lumps" - with a long stay of feces in the colon (hypomotor dysfunction of the colon in people with a sedentary lifestyle or who do not eat coarse food, as well as with colon cancer, diverticular disease). The form in the form of small lumps - "sheep feces" indicates a spastic state of the intestine, during starvation, gastric and duodenal ulcers, a reflex character after appendectomy, with hemorrhoids, anal fissure. Ribbon-like or "pencil" shape - in diseases accompanied by stenosis or severe and prolonged spasm of the rectum, with tumors of the rectum. Unformed feces are a sign of maldigestion and malabsorption syndrome.

Color

If staining of feces with food or drugs is excluded, then color changes are most likely due to pathological changes. Grayish-white, clayey (acholic feces) occurs with obstruction of the biliary tract (stone, tumor, spasm or stenosis of the sphincter of Oddi) or with liver failure (acute hepatitis, cirrhosis of the liver). Black feces (tarry) - bleeding from the stomach, esophagus and small intestine. Pronounced red color - with bleeding from the distal colon and rectum (tumor, ulcers, hemorrhoids). Inflammatory gray exudate with fibrin flakes and pieces of the colonic mucosa ("rice water") - with cholera. Jelly-like character of deep pink or red color in amoebiasis. With typhoid fever, the feces look like "pea soup". With putrefactive processes in the intestines, the feces are dark in color, with fermentative dyspepsia - light yellow.

Slime

When the distal colon (especially the rectum) is affected, the mucus is in the form of lumps, strands, ribbons, or a vitreous mass. With enteritis, the mucus is soft, viscous, mixing with feces, giving it a jelly-like appearance. Mucus covering the formed feces from the outside in the form of thin lumps occurs with constipation and inflammation of the large intestine (colitis).

Blood

When bleeding from the distal colon, the blood is located in the form of veins, shreds and clots on the formed feces. Scarlet blood occurs when bleeding from the lower parts of the sigmoid and rectum (hemorrhoids, fissures, ulcers, tumors). Black feces (melena) occur when bleeding from the upper digestive system (esophagus, stomach, duodenum). Blood in the stool can be found in infectious diseases (dysentery), ulcerative colitis, Crohn's disease, decaying tumors of the colon.

Pus

Pus on the surface of the feces occurs with severe inflammation and ulceration of the mucous membrane of the colon (ulcerative colitis, dysentery, decay of the intestinal tumor, intestinal tuberculosis), often along with blood and mucus. Pus in large quantities without the admixture of mucus is observed at the opening of paraintestinal abscesses.

Leftover undigested food (lientorrhoea)

Isolation of the remnants of undigested food occurs with severe insufficiency of gastric and pancreatic digestion.

Chemical research

fecal reaction

An acidic reaction (pH 5.0-6.5) is noted with the activation of the iodophilic flora, which forms carbon dioxide and organic acids (fermentative dyspepsia). An alkaline reaction (pH 8.0-10.0) occurs with insufficient digestion of food, with colitis with constipation, sharply alkaline with putrefactive and fermentative dyspepsia.

Reaction to blood (Gregersen's reaction)

A positive reaction to blood indicates bleeding in any part of the gastrointestinal tract (bleeding from the gums, rupture of varicose veins of the esophagus, erosive and ulcerative lesions of the gastrointestinal tract, tumors of any part of the gastrointestinal tract in the stage of decay).

Reaction to stercobilin

The absence or a sharp decrease in the amount of stercobilin in the feces (the reaction to stercobilin is negative) indicates obstruction of the common bile duct by a stone, compression of it by a tumor, strictures, choledochal stenosis, or a sharp decrease in liver function (for example, in acute viral hepatitis). An increase in the amount of stercobilin in the feces occurs with massive hemolysis of red blood cells (hemolytic jaundice) or increased bile secretion.

Reaction to bilirubin

The detection of unchanged bilirubin in the feces of an adult indicates a violation of the process of restoring bilirubin in the intestine under the influence of microbial flora. Bilirubin can appear with rapid evacuation of food (a sharp increase in intestinal motility), severe dysbacteriosis (a syndrome of excessive bacterial growth in the colon) after taking antibacterial drugs.

Vishnyakov-Tribulet reaction (for soluble protein)

The Vishnyakov-Tribulet reaction is used to detect a latent inflammatory process. The detection of soluble protein in feces indicates inflammation of the intestinal mucosa (ulcerative colitis, Crohn's disease).

microscopic examination

Muscle fibers - with striation (unchanged, undigested) and without striation (altered, digested). A large number of altered and unchanged muscle fibers in the feces (creatorrhoea) indicates a violation of proteolysis (protein digestion):

• in conditions accompanied by achlorhydria (lack of free HCl in gastric juice) and achilia (complete absence of secretion of HCl, pepsin and other components of gastric juice): atrophic pangastritis, condition after gastric resection;
• with accelerated evacuation of food chyme from the intestine;
• in violation of the exocrine function of the pancreas;
• with putrefactive dyspepsia.

Connective tissue (remains of undigested vessels, ligaments, fascia, cartilage). The presence of connective tissue in the feces indicates a deficiency of proteolytic enzymes of the stomach and is observed with hypo- and achlorhydria, achilia.

Fat is neutral. Fatty acid. Salts of fatty acids (soaps)

The appearance in the feces of a large amount of neutral fat, fatty acids and soaps is called steatorrhea. This happens:

• with exocrine pancreatic insufficiency, a mechanical obstruction to the outflow of pancreatic juice, when steatorrhea is represented by neutral fat;
• in violation of the flow of bile into the duodenum and in violation of the absorption of fatty acids in the small intestine, fatty acids or salts of fatty acids (soaps) are found in the feces.

vegetable fiber

Digestible - found in the pulp of vegetables, fruits, legumes and grains. Indigestible fiber (skin of fruits and vegetables, plant hairs, epidermis of cereals) has no diagnostic value, since there are no enzymes in the human digestive system that break it down. It occurs in large numbers with rapid evacuation of food from the stomach, achlorhydria, achilia, with a syndrome of excessive bacterial growth in the colon.

Starch

The presence of a large amount of starch in the feces is called amylorrhea and is observed more often with increased intestinal motility, fermentative dyspepsia, less often with exocrine insufficiency of pancreatic digestion.

Iodophilic microflora (clostridia)

With a large amount of carbohydrates, clostridia multiply intensively. A large number of clostridia is regarded as fermentative dysbiosis.

Epithelium

A large amount of columnar epithelium in the feces is observed in acute and chronic colitis of various etiologies.

Leukocytes

A large number of leukocytes (usually neutrophils) is observed in acute and chronic enteritis and colitis of various etiologies, ulcerative-necrotic lesions of the intestinal mucosa, intestinal tuberculosis, dysentery.

red blood cells

The appearance of slightly altered erythrocytes in the feces indicates the presence of bleeding from the colon, mainly from its distal sections (ulceration of the mucous membrane, a decaying tumor of the rectum and sigmoid colon, anal fissures, hemorrhoids). A large number of erythrocytes in combination with leukocytes and columnar epithelium is characteristic of ulcerative colitis, Crohn's disease with damage to the colon, polyposis and malignant neoplasms of the colon.

worm eggs

Eggs of roundworm, broad tapeworm, etc. indicate the corresponding helminthic invasion.

Pathogenic protozoa

Cysts of dysenteric amoeba, Giardia, etc. indicate the corresponding invasion by protozoa.

yeast cells

They are found in feces during treatment with antibiotics and corticosteroids. Identification of the fungus Candida albicans is carried out by inoculation on special media (Saburo's medium, Microstix Candida) and indicates a fungal infection of the intestine.

Calcium oxalate (lime oxalate crystals)

Detection of crystals is a sign of achlorhydria.

Tripelphosphate crystals (ammonia-magnesium phosphate)

Tripelphosphate crystals found in faeces (pH 8.5-10.0) immediately after defecation indicate increased protein putrefaction in the colon.

Norms

Macroscopic examination

Chemical research

microscopic examination

Diseases for which the doctor may prescribe a general fecal analysis (coprogram)

1. Crohn's disease

   In Crohn's disease, blood can be found in the stool. The Vishnyakov-Triboulet reaction reveals a soluble protein in it. Crohn's disease with lesions of the colon is characterized by the presence in the feces of a large number of red blood cells in combination with white blood cells and columnar epithelium.

2. Colon diverticulosis

   In diverticular disease, due to the long stay of feces in the colon, it takes the form of "large lumps".

3. Duodenal ulcer

   With a duodenal ulcer, the feces are in the form of small lumps (“sheep feces” indicates a spastic state of the intestine).

4. stomach ulcer

   With a stomach ulcer, the feces are in the form of small lumps (“sheep feces” indicates a spastic state of the intestine).

5. Chronic pancreatitis

   In chronic pancreatitis with exocrine insufficiency, feces may have a greasy consistency.

6. Hemolytic anemia

   With hemolytic jaundice (anemia), due to massive hemolysis of red blood cells, the amount of stercobilin in the feces increases.

7. Benign neoplasms of the colon

   With a tumor accompanied by bleeding from the distal colon, feces may have a pronounced red color. In decaying tumors of the colon, blood can be found in the stool. Pus on the surface of the feces occurs with severe inflammation and ulceration of the mucous membrane of the colon (disintegration of the intestinal tumor), often along with blood and mucus. With a tumor of the colon in the stage of disintegration due to bleeding, the reaction to blood (Gregersen's reaction) is positive.

8. Intestinal helminthiases

   With helminthic invasion in the feces there are eggs of ascaris, a wide tapeworm, etc.

9. Cirrhosis of the liver

   With liver failure, including cirrhosis of the liver, the feces are grayish-white, clayey (acholic).

10. Ulcerative colitis

    With colitis, mucus is noted that covers the formed feces from the outside in the form of thin lumps. In ulcerative colitis, blood may be found in the stool; pus on the surface of the stool, often with blood and mucus; soluble protein in the Vishnyakov-Tribulet reaction; a large number of leukocytes (usually neutrophils); a large number of erythrocytes in combination with leukocytes and columnar epithelium.

11. Constipation

    With prolonged constipation caused by chronic colitis, peptic ulcer and other conditions associated with increased absorption of fluid in the intestine, the amount of feces decreases. With constant constipation due to excessive absorption of water, the consistency of feces is dense. With constipation, mucus can be noted that covers the formed feces from the outside in the form of thin lumps.

12. Malignant neoplasm of the colon

    The form of feces in the form of "large lumps" - with a long stay of feces in the colon - is noted in colon cancer. Pronounced red feces - with a tumor, accompanied by bleeding from the distal colon and rectum. Blood in the stool can be found in decaying tumors of the colon. Pus on the surface of the feces occurs with severe inflammation and ulceration of the mucous membrane of the colon (disintegration of the intestinal tumor), often along with blood and mucus. A positive reaction to blood (Gregersen's reaction) indicates bleeding in a colon tumor in the stage of disintegration. A large number of erythrocytes in combination with leukocytes and columnar epithelium is characteristic of malignant neoplasms of the colon.

13. irritable bowel syndrome, chronic colitis

    With colitis with diarrhea, the amount of feces increases. The amount of feces decreases with prolonged constipation caused by chronic colitis. Mucus covering the formed feces from the outside in the form of thin lumps is found in colitis. Alkaline reaction (pH 8.0-10.0) occurs in colitis with constipation. A large number of leukocytes (usually neutrophils) is observed in colitis of various etiologies.

14. Cholera

    With cholera, the stool looks like an inflammatory gray exudate with fibrin flakes and pieces of the colon mucosa (“rice water”).

15. Amoebiasis

    With amoebiasis, the feces are jelly-like, rich pink or red.

16. Typhoid fever

    With typhoid fever, the feces look like "pea soup".

17. Peptic ulcer of the stomach and duodenum

    With prolonged constipation caused by peptic ulcer, the amount of feces decreases. With an ulcer of the duodenum and stomach, the feces are in the form of small lumps (“sheep feces” indicates a spastic state of the intestine).

excretory processes, these are the processes of excretion of products formed in the process of metabolism. In a living organism, chemical processes are constantly taking place, during which substances necessary for the body and substances harmful to the body are formed. The excretion of metabolic products from the blood by the excretory organs from the body into the external environment is a necessary condition for the existence of the organism.

Normally, the excretion of metabolic products is proportional to the intensity of their formation. Together with the products formed as a result of metabolism, foreign substances (for example, medicinal) and their processed products are removed from the body. Sometimes nutrients are also removed from the blood if the rate of entry of these substances (for example, sugar) into the blood significantly exceeds the rate of their absorption by tissues. Excretory processes include the removal from the digestive tract of products not absorbed into the blood, taken with food, components of digestive juices, microorganisms inhabiting the food tract, and desquamated cells of its epithelium. Through the intestines, some cations (calcium), heavy metals (iron) and some foreign substances are released into the external environment.

Carbon dioxide is released into the environment in gaseous form. Its excretion always occurs along with the consumption of oxygen and is carried out through the outer integument and through the respiratory organs. Through the lungs, 98-99% of all carbon dioxide formed is excreted. The excretion of nitrogen-containing (and other intermediate) metabolic products, as well as foreign substances and the regulation of the osmotic pressure of the blood, is carried out by the activity of the kidneys. A certain amount of products of nitrogen metabolism, water and salts are excreted through the sweat glands and digestive juices through the intestinal wall, but this amount is small and does not protect the body from self-poisoning by these products in case of impaired renal function.

Excretory processes ensure the maintenance of the constancy of the internal environment of the body. Pathological disorders of excretory processes appear with violations of the regulation of respiration, kidney function, and intestines. At the same time, it should be noted that a violation of the excretory processes can also appear in various other diseases and injuries of the body, since they disrupt the organized interaction of the entire body system. Any violations, including local ones, the body is forced to compensate by increasing the functional activity of other areas and organs, that is, by overloading, which is not always able to compensate for the disadvantage created by the violation.

Kal(feces, faeces, excrement) – the contents of the distal large intestine, released during defecation. In a healthy person, stool is a mixture consisting of about 1/3 of the remains of food taken, 1/3 of the remains of the digestive organs and 1/3 of microbes, 95% of which are dead.

The amount of feces depends on the quantity and quality of food taken. With mixed nutrition quantitatively corresponding to the needs of the body, the weight of feces excreted per day is 100-200 g. The weight of feces largely depends on the content of water in it, therefore, with constipation, when water absorption is increased, the weight of daily feces decreases, and with diarrhea it increases. A significant increase in feces is observed in diseases accompanied by the assimilation of food (gastric achylia, lesions of the pancreas, etc.). A special abundance of feces occurs with lesions of the pancreas, in which its weight can reach 1 kg. The shape of the feces depends on the consistency, the content of water, mucus and fat in them. Normal feces contain about 70-75% water, have a sausage-like shape and a homogeneous dense composition. Dense, even hard feces, observed with constipation, lose their normal shape and usually consist of separate lumps from a long stay in the large intestine. With spastic colitis, "sheep feces" are often observed, which are small round lumps of a dense consistency. This dense stool contains about 60% water. A change in the shape of feces (ribbon-like, pencil-shaped) may depend both on organic stenoses and on spastic narrowing of the sphincters. Unformed mushy and especially liquid feces is a pathological phenomenon, it contains 90-92% water. The stools can also be heterogeneous, dense lumps can float in liquid or mucus, which happens with inflammatory processes in the large intestine. The consistency of feces depends on a number of reasons, the main of which is the time they spend in the large intestine. Acceleration of peristalsis leads to insufficient absorption of water, slowdown - to excessive absorption. More liquid than normal, the consistency of feces acquires with abundant secretion of inflammatory exudate and mucus by the intestinal wall, while taking saline laxatives. Feces, containing a lot of fat, have a greasy consistency. The color of feces in a healthy person may vary somewhat depending on the food taken. Most often there are various shades of brown - dairy food gives a light brown, even yellow color, meat - dark brown. Vegetable products give the stool its color, beets - red, blueberries, black currants, coffee, cocoa - dark brown to black. Some medicinal substances taken orally also have a significant effect on the color of feces (for example, bismuth is black, iron preparations are greenish-black, etc.). d.). The color of feces also changes during pathological processes in the digestive organs, there are many of these options, for example, we will give a few. If bile does not enter the intestine, the stool becomes grayish-white, clay or sandy in color. Fatty stools may be gray in color. The presence of blood in the stool gives the stool a different color depending on the site of bleeding, if in the stomach, it is dark brown, almost black. The lower the bleeding site is located along the intestine, the less dark color and more red. The smell of feces depends on the presence in it of decay products of food residues, mainly protein ones, therefore, with an abundance of proteins in food, the smell intensifies. With the predominance of putrefactive processes in the intestines (putrefactive dyspepsia, decay of tumors), the stool acquires a fetid odor, and during fermentation processes it becomes sour. With poor chewing of food, and more with poor digestion, feces may contain undigested food residues in the form of whitish or grayish lumps. With a significant content of fat in the feces, the surface of the feces acquires a peculiar slightly matte sheen, and the consistency is greasy. Mucus in normal feces is present in a minimal amount in the form of a thin, shiny coating covering the surface of the feces. In inflammatory processes, it can appear in the feces in the form of whitish or yellow lumps on the surface of the feces or between its fragments.

defecation- the natural act of removing stool from the intestine to the outside. The liquid content of the small intestine passes into the large intestine, where it lingers for 10-12 hours, and sometimes more. Passing through the large intestine, this content gradually thickens, due to the vigorous absorption of water and turns into feces. The composition of feces is not constant, it depends on the nature of the diet. In the intervals between bowel movements, the feces move in the direction of the exit and accumulate in the lower part of the sigmoid colon, the sphincter prevents their further progress. The accumulation of stool in the sigmoid colon can only give a feeling of heaviness or pressure in the left side. A conscious feeling of "the urge to go down" in a person occurs when feces enter and fill the rectal cavity with it. By relaxing the sphincters during defecation, the work of the muscles of the intestinal wall and the protrusion of the anus pushes the feces out. The movement of feces from the sigmoid colon into the rectum, and from the latter outward, is facilitated by the contraction of the diaphragm and abdominal muscles during delayed breathing, which explains the attempts and groaning during defecation.

The act of defecation occurs with the participation of the central nervous system, the center of defecation is desalted in humans at the level of III–IV lumbar segments, and the highest center of defecation is in the brain. With the participation of the central nervous system, a person can influence the act of defecation, arbitrarily carrying it out or delaying it. From an early age, a conditioned reflex to time is developed in a child, and defecation occurs daily at certain hours. An adult can also develop a reflex for the time of defecation, subject to a constant daily routine and nutrition, if the conditions of activity allow it. Under the influence of strong stimuli, such as pain, fear, trauma, and others, involuntary defecation can sometimes occur. In diseases, constipation may occur, and in dysentery, due to persistent irritation, spasms may occur, which underlie some forms of false diarrhea.

Urine (urine), is a excretory product of animals and humans, produced by the kidneys and excreted from the body to the outside through the urinary tract system. It consists of water (96%) and the salts contained in it, end products of metabolism (urea, uric acid, etc.) and foreign substances.

With urine, the end products of nitrogen metabolism are almost completely removed from the body (with the exception of small amounts that are excreted with sweat and feces), more than half of the excreted water, the predominant part of inorganic salts and part of the metabolic products of carbohydrates and lipids. In addition, soluble substances that accidentally enter the body are also removed with urine. The state of urine gives an idea of ​​the work of the kidneys, metabolic processes and contributes to the nature of the state of the body in its analysis. Deviations in its composition often give an idea of ​​violations in the state of health and with self-control.

The daily amount of urine normally ranges from 800 to 1800 ml. An increased amount of urine (polyuria) is observed with diabetes insipidus, diabetes mellitus, with certain diseases of the nervous system, resorption of edema, etc. The amount of urine is reduced (oliguria) with severe sweating, acute nephritis, uremia, stones or tumors of the kidneys, with an increase in edema, in many cardiovascular diseases, as well as in some states of CNS excitation. The excretion of urine stops (anuria) in case of certain poisonings, with blockage of the ureters or urethra, for example, with urolithiasis, prostate adenoma, etc.

The color of normal human urine can be various shades of yellow - from pale yellowish to deep reddish yellow. The most common color of urine is amber yellow. The color of normal urine depends on the content of various pigments in it.

The intensity of urine color depends on the concentration of these pigments, but can also be caused by pathology. Prolonged excretion of pale, even almost colorless urine is observed in diabetes and diabetes insipidus, with a wrinkled kidney, amyloid kidney, etc .; intensely colored urine is excreted in febrile and other diseases. In the case of passing into the urine, in some diseases, blood pigments, the urine turns into various shades of red, and sometimes becomes almost black. Urine containing bile pigments is colored saffron-yellow, brown, greenish-brown, almost green. Milky white urine comes from the admixture of a large amount of pus. The color of urine may change after taking certain medications, plant pigments can pass into it, changing color. With some pathological changes, it can also acquire other colors, sometimes it is already cloudy from the bladder, and sometimes it darkens when standing in the air.

The smell of urine can change with some diseases, but the smell can also be affected by various substances introduced into the body. The smell of urine characteristic of substances appears from valerian, garlic, onions; from turpentine - violet, asparagus - putrefactive and other aromatic odors of substances. The presence of acetone in the urine gives it a fruity smell.

The composition of human urine is very complex, it contains a large amount of acids, minerals and other substances. Under various pathological conditions, the content of some constituents increases in the urine, and many other constituents appear. Among the decay products excreted from the body with urine, there are also substances that act on the body more or less toxic. With pathological processes in the body, the content of such substances in the urine can increase, and sometimes new substances appear that are not normally found. The accumulation of toxic substances in the body causes various phenomena of autointoxication.

Urine contains uric acid and urea. In humans, uric acid is the end product of purine metabolism and usually does not exceed 2 g per day. A very significant amount of uric acid salts is released in diseases associated with increased decay of cells and tissues, such as leukemia. Violations of the excretion of uric acid is observed with gout, with inflammatory processes in the kidneys. Urea is excreted in the urine as the end product of nitrogen metabolism and amounts to 20-35 g per day; during starvation and various pathological processes, its percentage in the urine decreases. An increase in urea excretion is observed in febrile conditions, as well as with increased breakdown of protein substances in the body. Urea can be used as a diuretic in the absence of nephritis.

Urination (urination), this is a periodically advancing reflex act of emptying the bladder. In a healthy person, the first urge to urinate may occur when 100-150 ml of urine accumulates in the bladder and becomes sharp when 350-400 ml of urine accumulates. These numbers may be different for each person. By an effort of will, a person can suppress the sensation of an urge or cause it if necessary, but it is better to give a natural course to reflex acts if possible, or develop a regimen. Urination disorders can occur as a result of functional diseases of the central nervous system (urinary incontinence), with diseases of the bladder, urethra and prostate gland. Since reflexes are not limited to the bladder, urethra and its sphincters, they can cause some secondary pathological symptoms in diseases associated with urination.

Sweat and perspiration .

Sweat, it is a colorless, poor in solid constituents, salty-tasting liquid secreted by the sweat glands. Contains 98-99% water, mineral salts, urea, uric acid and other metabolic products. The excretion of water and mineral salts from the body together with sweat affects water and salt metabolism. Sweat can have a very unpleasant odor (foot sweat), due mainly to the presence of volatile fatty acids, which are easily formed during the bacterial breakdown of sweat. During muscular work and, in particular, during sports, sweat contains a significant amount of lactic acid and an increased amount of nitrogenous substances.

sweating is one of the means of thermoregulation, evaporating from the surface of the body, sweat increases heat transfer and helps maintain a constant body temperature. The sweat reflex is an integral part of the body's holistic response to thermal or any other effect. Sweat secretion for its successful flow requires the normal functioning of the nervous system, the normal condition of the skin, blood vessels and a number of endocrine glands. In everyday life, one speaks of sweating when sweat is noticed on the skin, the amount of sweat in such cases depends not only on the strength of its secretion, but also on the rate of evaporation. When the evaporation of sweat on any part of the body is limited, for example, due to shoes or a headdress, then this area may be wet even with moderate and undisturbed sweating. If environmental conditions favor the rapid evaporation of perspiration, such as in dry and hot conditions with wind blowing, then the skin may remain dry with normal perspiration.

Sweating disorders can appear in various diseases, sometimes congenital. They are diverse, the composition of the secreted sweat may change, in rare cases even the color, sweat is sometimes oily from the admixture of the secretion of the sebaceous glands. Sometimes the secreted sweat is bloody (the appearance of red blood cells in the sweat), sometimes it is blackish or even black, blue. In uremia and anuria cholera, the amount of urea in sweat can increase so much that it is deposited on the skin in the form of crystals. Mercury, arsenic, iron, iodine, bromine, some acids, methylene blue and other substances, when introduced into the body, can also appear in sweat. Much more often, sweating changes quantitatively, along with its loss, it may decrease or increase, as well as local disorders. A general increase in sweating appears with thyrotoxicosis, various infections, intoxications, local - more often with various lesions of the nervous system. Sweating disorders are often found in skin lesions, in places of burns, wound scars, and many skin diseases (eczema, etc.).

Treatment of sweating is directed at the underlying disease. When it is disturbed, neurotics show sufficient sleep, good nutrition, warm baths, walks, and sea bathing. Normal mode and activity will not harm healthy people.

Since ancient times, the method of diaphoretic treatment has been used for a variety of diseases. Increased sweating entails an increase in the general basal metabolism and additionally removes a liquid containing salt and urea from the body. Its effectiveness is enhanced by limiting water consumption during its use. It can be achieved in a variety of ways - through the influence of pharmacological substances, physical agents, etc. Most often, diaphoretic treatment is used in the form of water and thermal procedures. These are hot general and local baths, dry air and general light baths, electric light baths, sand baths, dry wraps, sunbathing, etc. These products, when used independently, must be chosen taking into account your well-being and remembering that excesses and improper use are always harmful.

The most valuable is increased sweating when various toxic substances are retained in the body, with obesity, in kidney patients, bronchiectasis, to remove fluid from the body. It can be used for chronic intoxication, neuralgia, gout. In infectious diseases, it is almost never used, since it has little effect on the course of the disease, causing a purely symptomatic antipyretic effect, and in a number of infections (flu, pneumonia, diphtheria) it requires special care, because it can give additional complications. Diaphoretic treatment (especially intensive) requires caution due to the strong effect on the cardiovascular system.

Contraindications for diaphoretic treatment are cardiac and vascular weakness, severe and persistent hypertension, acute nephritis and obvious uremic conditions.

Slime, translucent, sticky, viscous mass. Being formed and located on the surfaces of the mucous membranes, mucus prevents their damage, gives them a smooth, slippery and shiny appearance. It acts as a lubricant in the body and helps to reduce friction and promotes the movement of solids through the mucous membranes. In the presence of excess consumption of fatty and oily products that form mucus, abnormal secretions containing mucus may appear. In chronic debilitating diseases, mucous degeneration is observed in the connective tissue.

Tears, this is the secret of the lacrimal glands, which is a transparent liquid that washes and moisturizes the surface of the eyeball. It has a slightly alkaline reaction and, due to the sodium chloride contained in tears, has a bitterly salty taste. A person produces 0.5-1 ml of tears during the day under normal conditions.

The fluid in the conjunctival sac forms a transparent film on the surface of the cornea, which saves the eye from pollution and improves the optical properties of the eye. It protects the eye from damage by small foreign bodies and bacteria, delaying them.

The bactericidal substance of the tear, lysozyme, quickly and completely dissolves many airborne bacteria. Tears have the property of delaying the growth of pyogenic cocci.

Tearing increases when foreign bodies get into the eyes, during difficult experiences, etc. Increased tearing occurs reflexively due to irritation of the eye, its surrounding parts or nose, as well as under the influence of mental moments (sadness, joy). Lacrimation can occur with diseases of the eye, increased lacrimal function of the lacrimal glands, or various obstacles in the ways that drain tears.

Saliva is a secret of the salivary glands, released into the oral cavity and involved in digestion. Saliva wets food, contributing to the formation of a food lump, dissolves some of the food substances, helping to recognize the taste of food. Once soaked in saliva, food becomes slippery, easier to swallow, and moves down the esophagus. Saliva contains digestive enzymes, mainly amylase (the old name is ptyalin), which breaks down glycogen and starch.

Saliva keeps the oral mucosa moist. Saliva plays a protective role in relation to the teeth and oral mucosa, washing them, it contributes to their mechanical and chemical cleaning from bacterial and chemical influences. The composition of saliva in the oral cavity includes the secret of not only salivary glands, but also other glands - parotid, tongue, etc., therefore it is called mixed saliva.

Mixed saliva contains vitamins, enzymes of various origins. A change in the composition of saliva can create causes that contribute to the development of caries, periodontal disease, and cause the deposition of tartar.

Smell, sensation arising from exposure to odorous substances. Odors can affect the respiratory, circulatory, digestive, sexual activities and affect mood and feelings. Smells are important in nutrition, good-smelling food causes appetite and is easier to digest, unpleasant-smelling food or eating it in a room whose smell is unpleasant, on the contrary, has a negative effect, sometimes causing nausea or vomiting. In sexual life, the smell can have an exciting or inhibitory effect, and sometimes repulsive. Perfume can have the same effect, pleasant for some, repulsive for others, and excessive and with a strong smell can cause allergic nausea. Smell perception is a positive or negative reaction of the nervous system to ethereal (smelling) stimuli released into the air. Every living organism has its own smell, as various chemical and metabolic processes take place inside it.

Secretion(from lat. - separation), this is the formation and secretion of special products by glandular cells - the secrets necessary for the life of the body. secretion is also characteristic of some neurons (neurosecretory), which produce neurohormones, and ordinary nerve cells, which secrete specific substances - mediators. Since the methods of implementation and regulation of secretion, incretion and excretion are essentially the same, the concept of secretion can be used in an expanded sense to isolate any products from glandular cells, regardless of the purpose of the latter. After all, every living cell in the process of life produces and releases some products of its metabolism. The transition of specific compounds produced by the glands and entering the blood is called internal secretion (incretion), and their transition to various body cavities or to its surface is external secretion, and these compounds are called secrets.

Excretion(separate, isolate), this is the allocation and removal from the body of unused metabolic products, as well as foreign and harmful compounds to the body. The excretory organs are the lungs, skin, kidneys, stomach, intestines, sweat mammary and other glands. In the process of splitting proteins, fats and carbohydrates, along with CO2 and nitrogenous compounds, water is formed (in humans, about 300 ml per day). In this water and water of food, many of the metabolic products, foreign substances and salts that are to be removed from the body are dissolved. Excretion and excretion of water is carried out by the same organs. Excretion is also carried out in the form of desquamation of the epidermis, loss of hair and milk teeth, erasure of bones, death of epithelial cells on the mucous membranes and glands, etc. Thus, excretion is the removal by the body of unnecessary and unused substances.

Excretions from the body are preceded by complex processes of digestion and metabolism, violations in the organization of which entail violations of excretory processes. Sometimes deviations in the processes of digestion and metabolism are indicated by violations of the excretory processes, often these deviations are noticeable during digestion. To maintain a normal state of health, it is necessary to constantly monitor all excretion processes and look for the cause, especially if the deviations are often repeated. This contributes to the prevention of the development of diseases, if the causes are identified in a timely manner and measures are taken to eliminate adverse disorders. The body's defenses are directly related to nutrition, we get sick, undernourished and overeating, short-term fasting enhances metabolic processes and mobilizes the body's defense reactions - phagocytosis. The energy necessary for the capture and absorption of phagocytosed particles is released due to the intensification of glycolysis processes.

Phagocytosis- active capture and absorption of living cells and non-living particles by unicellular organisms or special cells - phagocytes. Phagocytosis is one of the protective reactions of the body, mainly during inflammation, since the internal environment of phagocytes is unfavorable for the life and development of many non-pathogenic and pathogenic microbes. Phagocytes are some types of white blood cells and other cells. The phenomenon of phagocytosis was discovered by I. I. Mechnikov, who also revealed its general biological and immunological significance.

The activity of phagocytes fluctuates depending on the time of year, reaching the highest value in May-June and sharply decreasing in the winter months (November-February), which may affect susceptibility to bacterial infections. The activity of phagocytes changes under various physiological or pathological conditions of the body. When fasting for up to 36 hours, the activity of phagocytes can triple. The intake of corticosteroids significantly reduces the activity of cells, the system is strongly suppressed in avitaminosis A, and its restoration to normal occurs after 15 days of a normal diet. Vitamin A is also used to strengthen the immune system.

Bacteria do not lag behind in the organization of the suppression of the body's defenses, producing special substances to increase their virulence - aggressions. Aggressions(from Latin I attack) - the waste products of pathogenic microbes that have the ability to increase their virulence. Aggressins, suppressing phagocytosis and weakening the protective reactions of the body, ensure the penetration of pathogenic microbes into the body, their spread and reproduction, contributing to the development of the infectious process. By their chemical nature, aggressins are proteins, polysaccharides.

Some digestive and metabolic problems affecting excretory processes.

Thirst. Thirst regulates the flow of water into the body. In physiology, the state of the body, accompanied by a feeling of dryness in the mouth and throat and prompting the consumption of water, is called thirst. It occurs when there is a discrepancy in the time of occurrence of the body's need for water and its replenishment. Under ordinary, normal conditions, we call the need to replenish the body with water, a simple desire to drink water. Therefore, having met the word thirst in specialized literature, one can understand it as simply a desire to drink, or as a strongly expressed desire - thirst, depending on one's understanding or the conditions that are mentioned in the text.

Water is contained in the human body (about 65%) and is constantly needed for various metabolic processes, thermoregulation, maintaining the normal state of the mucous membranes, liquid consistency and living cells containing liquid, so the body needs its constant replenishment. We do not call the ordinary desire to drink thirst, but we speak of thirst, with a strong desire to drink, or a constant and insatiable desire for water. In many cases, the use of the word "thirst" and "desire to drink" are interchangeable.

For the normal functioning of the body, a dynamic balance of water balance is necessary, that is, a correspondence between the amount of water released from the body and the amount of water entering the body. Thirst (the desire to drink) is an indicator of a lack of water in the body, and its quenching by replenishing the body's need for water.

Along with the usual manifestations of thirst (desire to drink) with a lack of water in the body, the need for water can turn into thirst, have a pathological form and occur in some pathological conditions. A pronounced or constant desire to drink (thirst) occurs when being in the heat, prolonged non-use of water, when eating excess salt, sweets, food in general and caused by other reasons.

Heartburn - a peculiar sensation of heat and burning along the esophagus, mainly in its lower section. Most often, heartburn occurs with increased acidity of the stomach (75%), but it can also occur with low acidity, and in healthy people it can occur when certain foods are consumed. It is one of the most common symptoms of peptic ulcer and occurs with cholecystitis, hernia, and pregnancy. Persistent and prolonged heartburn, not caused by inflammation of the mucosa, not amenable to treatment, can occur with increased irritability of the stomach with neurovegetative dystonia.

Heartburn, as a rule, is relieved by taking alkalis - bicarbonate of soda, burnt magnesia and others, as well as alkaline-containing products that neutralize acid. Favorable results can be achieved by eating smaller portions and avoiding foods that cause heartburn from the diet.

Belching- involuntary release of gases from the stomach or esophagus through the mouth, sometimes with food impurities. During normal activity of the stomach, there is a certain accumulation of gases in it, but with normal emptying of the stomach, the fermentation that occurs in it does not cause belching. In healthy people, infrequent, occasional belching can occur when the stomach is full, drinking soda or beer, swallowing too much air during a hasty meal, eating dry food, and other causes caused by improper food intake.

Belching without smell and taste occurs when air is swallowed and increased formation of gases in the stomach, with stagnation and decomposition of gastric contents with an unpleasant odor. Sour belching occurs with increased acidity and due to the presence of fermentation acids in the stomach, bitter when bile enters, putrid - with prolonged stagnation and putrefactive irritation in the stomach. Belching can be a symptom of various diseases of the stomach, cardiovascular system, etc. and depends on the treatment of these diseases.

In all cases, it is necessary to abandon drinks containing carbonic acid and products that linger in the stomach for a long time. A positive effect is given by eating small portions and an alkalizing diet.

Flatulence(bloating, bloating) - excessive accumulation of gases in the digestive tract; common symptom of various diseases.

Under physiological conditions, the digestive tract always contains a small amount of air and gases. A healthy person in the intestines with a mixed diet has an average of about 900 cm3 of gases. With the abundant use of puffy foods (black bread, legumes, vegetables and potatoes), this amount can increase by 5-10 times, especially when eating soybeans. There are many reasons for flatulence, pathological flatulence causes subjective symptoms and functional disorders.

Symptoms of flatulence depend on the disease, the main symptoms are belching, hiccups, heaviness, tightness and expansion in the abdomen, sometimes noisy flatus, especially painful for patients. Bad breath acquires the character of an obsessive neurosis in young neuropathic subjects. The chair may remain normal or there is an alternation of fermentative diarrhea with spastic constipation. In more serious forms, there are attacks of cramping pains that disappear after passing gases, shortness of breath, palpitations, spasmodic urination, symptoms of general intoxication (headaches, anemia, etc.). Flatulence may be an early symptom of a circulatory disorder or liver cirrhosis. The most severe forms of flatulence are associated with peritonitis, intestinal obstruction and acute paralysis of the stomach.

Nutrition is built taking into account the underlying disease. The main requirements are restriction of calories, carbohydrates, fiber, sour and carbonated drinks. Fresh bread, legumes, cabbage, kvass are prohibited. Potatoes, sweets, flour dishes are significantly limited. Bouillons, soups from pureed vegetables, meat, fish, cottage cheese, sour cream, yogurt are allowed. It is better to use greens and fruits than flour and potato dishes, “crispy” and stale rye bread is added for better peristalsis. What matters is eating regularly, chewing thoroughly and caring for your teeth. Useful carminative infusions of chamomile, dill, mint, yarrow - 5-10 g per glass of water, taken in several doses a day.

Nausea manifested in a painful sensation of pressure in the epigastric region. The feeling of nausea may be accompanied by external pallor, dizziness, general weakness, sweating, cold extremities, lowering blood pressure, and sometimes a state of semi-fainting. Nausea often precedes vomiting.

Causes of nausea can be disturbances in the activity of the brain and central nervous system, poisoning with toxic substances, reflex - with irritation, metabolic disorders and movement.

Quite common causes are neurosis and psychosis, accompanied by inhibition of the functional ability of the gastrointestinal tract. Among the causes of nausea can be: feelings of anxiety, a feeling of fear, doom, at the sight of unpleasant objects causing a feeling of disgust, with general increased excitability (mainly in women), with fatigue, excitement, excessive eye strain. Nausea can be caused by increased intracranial pressure associated with brain disease and migraine.

Nausea from toxic substances comes from poisons circulating in the blood and affecting the brain or the lining of the stomach and intestines, or both. Toxic substances can enter the body by inhalation (carbon monoxide), by ingestion, by injection (morphine, etc.), and also be formed in the body during diabetes, uremia, extensive burns, and pregnancy.

Reflex nausea can appear with any irritation of the root of the tongue, pharynx, pharynx, trachea, bronchi, pleura, diseases of the abdominal organs. Nausea may occur in the presence of constipation, disappearing after emptying. It occurs when the stomach is irritated caused by the use of alcohol, individually intolerable or poor-quality food, poisons. It can occur in acute inflammatory diseases of the abdominal and pelvic organs, hepatic and renal colic.

Metabolic nausea appears in severe forms of vitamin deficiency, especially B vitamins, with reduced thyroid function, Addison's disease.

Nausea can appear when driving in a train, car, plane, river and sea vessels, while it may be accompanied by apathy, lack of appetite, increased sweating, headache and vomiting. It can be enhanced by visual and olfactory perceptions.

Nausea that occurs on an empty stomach may stop after drinking hot tea or coffee without milk. After overeating, lemon juice, black coffee, carbonated water, artificially induced vomiting, and in case of food poisoning, a warm solution of laxative salt (1 teaspoon per glass of water) can help. To reduce irritation of the gastric mucosa, pieces of ice are taken.

Vomit- involuntary ejection of the contents of the stomach through the esophagus, pharynx, mouth, and sometimes through the nasal passages. Most often, vomiting occurs with various diseases of the gastrointestinal tract, as well as other causes of nausea, in most cases it is preceded by nausea of ​​varying duration. It can also be a manifestation of a protective reflex, for example, when taking poor-quality food. Vomiting can also be a symptom of various diseases, so it is necessary to treat the disease that causes it. At the end of vomiting, clean your mouth and rinse it with water.

diarrhea(diarrhea) - rapid release of liquid feces. The cause of diarrhea can be infectious diseases of the digestive organs or as a reaction of the digestive organs to diseases of other organs and systems. Their cause may be contamination and spoilage of food during the hot season, overload of the digestive organs with excess nutrition, coarse vegetable fiber, refractory fats, and organic acids. They are promoted by fast food, poor chewing of food, liver disease. Abuse of spicy spices, snacks and alcoholic beverages is a common cause of diarrhea in chronic gastroenterocolitis. Many foods, even in small quantities, can cause allergic diarrhea (fresh milk, strawberries, etc.).

Individual prevention of diarrhea is possible with the help of oral hygiene, proper healthy diet, timely treatment of all types of dyspepsia (digestive disorders - fermentation and putrefactive processes) and acute intestinal infections.

constipation- prolonged retention of feces in the intestines or insufficient systematic action. Constipation is a relative concept, it should be evaluated in comparison with a past life, if the frequency of bowel movements has decreased and this is not caused by a change in food or lifestyle, then these may be symptoms of constipation. There are many reasons for constipation, one of them is the composition of food. They can be with poor food, monotonous and predominantly meat and floury nutrition, violation of the diet. The more nitrogenous and easily digestible substances in the food, the less frequent bowel movements. Constipation can easily appear with a mechanically sparing diet (broths, crackers, semolina or rice porridge, etc.). Constipation is promoted by food containing little plant residues - meat, cottage cheese, eggs, as well as insufficient water intake, increased loss through other channels, and the use of "hard" water containing a lot of lime. In humans, the very act of defecation is subject to the psyche, so psycho-nervous constipation occupies an important place.

Constipation may appear in the first days of traveling by rail, as a result of the suppression of the normal reflex of the urge to go down. These are persistent constipation in mental workers, with mental depression, nervous overwork (it has a greater effect than a sedentary lifestyle). Even fixing your attention on the dangers of constipation (for example, from autointoxication), you can increase constipation by increasing the tone of the nervous system.

Obesity- excessive deposition of adipose tissue in the subcutaneous tissue and other tissues of the body, associated with metabolic disorders. It is one of the most common metabolic diseases, it can be an independent disease and a symptom of diseases of the central nervous system and the endocrine system. Violation of the mechanisms of fat metabolism can occur with excessive and erratic nutrition, injuries, infections, intoxication, endocrine disorders. A certain role in obesity can be played by heredity and the constitution, it occurs in women twice as often as in men. In obesity, the intake of energy material predominates over consumption, while the lack of movement has only an auxiliary value, accelerating the process of obesity.

In adults, obesity in most cases develops in the process of overeating, it is important to follow a diet that excludes habitual overeating, frequent consumption of favorite foods, night meals and snacks and other bad habits associated with nutrition. Obesity must be combated by limiting the intake of carbohydrates and fats, increasing physical activity, and for endocrine disorders, treatment is necessary.

The seriousness of obesity should not be underestimated. The progression of obesity reduces performance, contributes to premature aging and can lead to disability.

poisoning ( intoxication) - a violation of the state of health when harmful (toxic) substances enter the body. Poisoning can be exogenous (external origin) and endogenous (caused by internal causes). From the type of poisons affecting the body, poisonings differ in terms: toxicosis, toxemia and toxic conditions.

The most common symptoms of bacterial food poisoning.

Acute gastroenteritis develops 4-12 hours after ingestion of food infected (usually with salmonella) (goulash, pate, jelly) and is accompanied by nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, diarrhea, leading to severe dehydration. Acute gastroenteritis, or enterocolitis, develops 2-3 hours later (sometimes the next day) after ingestion of infected (usually staphylococcal) food (usually dairy products or products containing them: cakes, custards, etc.). It is accompanied by nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, diarrhea (it may be absent).

Used gastric lavage, taking activated charcoal and laxative salt, drinking plenty of water, heating pad on the stomach, the introduction of glucose.

Out of ignorance, you can get poisoned by poisonous mushrooms. Mushroom poisoning that occurs 1-3 hours after eating mushrooms is less dangerous than poisoning, the symptoms of which are detected after a latent period of 6 to 24 hours. The most frequent pain in the abdomen, vomiting, diarrhea, more or less severe dehydration. Such poisoning can appear after eating unboiled lines or when using them with a decoction. In case of fly agaric poisoning - vomiting, diarrhea with sharp pains in the abdomen, salivation, sharp constriction of the pupils, a significant slowdown in the pulse. Difficulty breathing, general weakness, danger of pulmonary edema. Symptoms of a particularly dangerous poisoning with pale toadstool occur later than others and are expressed in addition to vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain and collapse, in the development of hepatic coma.

Poisoning with snake venom. A snake bite has the appearance of two points, places into which poisonous teeth have stuck; between these points there are two parallel rows of smaller points going backwards - bite marks of non-venomous teeth. The bite of non-venomous snakes has four longitudinal rows of small points (without larger ones). Bite marks may be subtle, especially if applied through clothing, and must be viewed through a magnifying glass to distinguish the pattern. The venoms of different snakes cause different symptoms of action.

Viper bites (bites of a horned viper, gyurza and sand efa are especially dangerous) cause severe and prolonged pain, pronounced and spreading edema, pronounced hemorrhages in and outside the bite area, hemolysis and hematuria. In addition to these symptoms, vomiting, drowsiness, fainting (rarely agitation and even convulsions), hypothermia and hypotension appear. Deaths can occur after the first half of the day.

A cobra sting causes less prolonged but burning pain, less swelling, and subcutaneous hemorrhages are usually absent. There is a disorder of speech and swallowing, motor paralysis, respiratory paralysis is possible. Death can occur within the first six hours.

The most effective treatment is the introduction of special antitoxic sera. In the absence of serum, the absorption of poison should be limited or delayed, removed or neutralized. A tourniquet is applied to the bitten limb, the poison is sucked out of the wound by mouth (if the oral mucosa is not damaged), it is advisable to make an incision at the site of the bite before suction. It is recommended to cauterize the bite site with hot metal or chemical agents. Drinking large amounts of alcohol is not recommended, as death can occur from alcohol abuse. Alcohol has an anesthetic property and relieves the symptoms by intoxicating the mind, it has no other effect and does not contribute to the treatment.

Bee venom. Following the sting, burning, pain, redness, swelling quickly occur. A local reaction may increase during the first two days and last up to 10 days. Stinging of the face and lips is especially severe, and stinging of the mouth and throat can lead to a rapidly developing and life-threatening edema of the glottis. Depending on the number of stings, dizziness, headache, nausea and vomiting, widespread erythema or urticaria, loss of consciousness, convulsions may occur.

For treatment, it is recommended to remove the sting to prevent emptying or crushing under the skin of the poisonous gland attached to the sting. Alcohol or vodka lotions, ice on the bite site. With significantly pronounced symptoms from the action of the poison, a recumbent position and rest are recommended. In case of allergic phenomena, or in order to prevent them - diphenhydramine or other desensitizing agents. Alcoholic drinks, by suppressing sensitivity, can reduce pain and other painful sensations, but they are dangerous if they are abused. When stung by wasps and bumblebees, the treatment is the same.

Intoxication- damage to the body by poisons introduced from the outside (exogenous intoxication), or formed in the body itself (endogenous intoxication).

Poisoning and intoxication can be, like diseases, acute, chronic and moderate. The division of poisoning and intoxication is very arbitrary, although poisoning is sometimes understood as damage to the body by mineral, pharmacological and poisons synthesized in the chemical industry.

Exogenous, these are all types of household (for example, carbon monoxide, poisonous plants, etc.), industrial, bacterial, medical and combat intoxications.

Endogenous intoxications can be caused by metabolic disorders, the activity of the endocrine glands and excretory functions, and infectious diseases. Often in internal intoxication lies damage from an external factor, from repeated intake of small doses of poisons (alcohol, etc.). An excited central nervous system (CNS) worsens the condition during intoxication, as it requires an increased expenditure of energy used by the body to neutralize the effects of poisoning.

Symptoms of intoxication are varied, common to all is a violation of the functions of the central nervous system, this is fatigue, decreased performance, headaches, sleep disturbance, nausea, in severe cases, vomiting, convulsions, blackout of consciousness.

Autointoxication - self-poisoning with toxic substances that are produced by the body, mainly substances that are products of metabolism or tissue decay. Under normal conditions, they are excreted from the body with feces, urine, sweat, through the lungs with air or with various secrets, or are neutralized in metabolic processes.

toxins- toxic substances, metabolic products of a number of microbes of animals and plants, causing a toxic effect in the body. These are compounds (often of a protein nature) capable of causing disease or death of a person when they enter the body. They are contained in the poisons of snakes, spiders, scorpions. Toxicity is the ability (severity of possible harmful effects) of chemicals to have a harmful effect on the human body, animals and plants, determined by the amount and strength of exposure.

The most correct action in case of poisoning is to remove the poison from the body, taking antidotes and antidotes. This can be sucking snake venom from the bite site with your mouth to reduce its entry into the blood, inducing vomiting, taking laxatives, diuretics, if the condition allows. When seeking medical help, it is good to know or at least assume what caused the poisoning, this contributes to a faster neutralization of the poison.

Poisons, substances of plant, animal and mineral origin or products of chemical synthesis, capable of causing acute or chronic poisoning and death when exposed to a living organism. Any poisons, depending on the concentration, cause various functional disorders in the body.

One type of toxic substance that we often encounter is carbon monoxide. One of the possibilities for deterioration of well-being is in cities with heavy traffic, polluting the air with car exhaust gases. The exhaust gases of internal combustion vehicles include carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen and other substances. In the exhaust gases of cars with diesel engines, aldehydes and nitrogen oxides are also found. The degree of toxicity of exhaust gases depends on the type of fuel, the mode of operation of the engine, the season of the year and other conditions. The toxicity of exhaust gases depends mainly on carbon monoxide.

Carbon monoxide (carbon monoxide; CO), the simplest compound of carbon and oxygen, is a colorless, odorless, poisonous gas. May cause acute, chronic and fatal poisoning. Carbon monoxide poisoning can occur in a variety of settings - in a residential area, in a car, in a garage, at work, in the open air, etc. Chronic poisoning can develop in people who are long-term in an atmosphere saturated with carbon monoxide in relatively small concentrations. Deterioration of well-being is manifested by headaches, dizziness, increased drowsiness during work and poor sleep at night, general lethargy. Difficulty in intellectual activity, depressed mood, anxiety, hallucinations, sweating, and other disturbances may also be noted.

To defeat enemy manpower during combat operations, highly toxic (poisonous) compounds are used, called poisonous substances (S). Other toxic substances that have a slower effect on the body can be used for self-poisoning; read about such poisons that are popular and loved by many people in the addiction section.

Carbon dioxide- a synonym for carbon dioxide, an incorrect, often occurring name - carbon dioxide. Normal air contains 0.03-0.04% carbon dioxide, it can accumulate in high concentrations in mines, caves, basements, especially if fermentation products are stored in them: wine, beer, kvass, etc.

A person exhales 900-1300 g of carbon dioxide per day. In high concentrations (25-30%) and above, mixed with oxygen, it causes anesthesia with complete extinction of consciousness, sensitivity and reflexes, however, there is a danger of complete and irreversible paralysis of the respiratory center. The maximum tolerated concentration of carbon dioxide is 9 mg/l.

Symptoms of the toxic effects of carbon dioxide are; headache, dizziness, restlessness, tinnitus, agitation, trembling (usually observed at a concentration of carbon dioxide in the air - 10 percent by volume). Further intoxication is accompanied by the appearance of drowsiness, cyanosis (blue), slow breathing, weakened cardiac activity, and cold extremities. Death occurs as a result of paralysis of the respiratory center and immediate cardiac arrest. The rapid onset of death is observed at 40 volume percent of carbon dioxide in the air.

Locally, carbon dioxide initially causes irritation, accompanied by hyperemia, a feeling of warmth and tingling, then local anesthesia occurs. At high concentrations of carbon dioxide, anesthesia develops rapidly. When it acts on the mucous membranes of the gastrointestinal tract, hyperemia develops, absorption increases, motility increases, reflexes occur, but its resorptive effect is not observed. Carbon dioxide, as a lipoid-tropic substance, penetrates through intact integuments and irritates sensitive nerve endings. These properties are used when prescribing CO2-containing mineral waters and carbonic acid baths. Carbon dioxide is used in medicine for medicinal purposes, it is also used in the food industry.