Types of chemical reaction in inorganic chemistry. general chemistry

UDC 546(075) LBC 24.1 i 7 0-75

Compiled by: Klimenko B.I Ph.D. tech. Sciences, Assoc. Volodchsenko A. N., Ph.D. tech. Sciences, Assoc. Pavlenko V.I., Doctor of Engineering sciences, prof.

Reviewer Gikunova I.V., Ph.D. tech. Sciences, Assoc.

Fundamentals of inorganic chemistry: Guidelines for students 0-75 full-time education. - Belgorod: BelGTASM Publishing House, 2001. - 54 p.

In the guidelines, taking into account the main sections of general chemistry, the properties of the most important classes of inorganic substances are considered in detail. This work contains generalizations, diagrams, tables, examples, which will contribute to a better assimilation of extensive factual material. Particular attention, both in the theoretical and in the practical part, is paid to the connection between inorganic chemistry and the basic concepts of general chemistry.

The book is intended for first-year students of all specialties.

UDC 546 (075) LBC 24.1 i 7

© Belgorod State Technological Academy of Building Materials (BelGTASM), 2001

INTRODUCTION

Knowledge of the foundations of any science and the problems facing it is the minimum that any person must know in order to freely navigate in the world around him. Natural science plays an important role in this process. Natural science - a set of sciences about nature. All sciences are divided into exact (natural) and graceful (humanities). The former study the laws of development of the material world, the latter - the laws of development and manifestations of the human mind. In the presented work, we will get acquainted with the fundamentals of one of the natural sciences, 7 inorganic chemistry. Successful study of inorganic chemistry is possible only if the composition and properties of the main classes of inorganic compounds are known. Knowing the features of the classes of compounds, it is possible to characterize the properties of their individual representatives.

When studying any science, including chemistry, the question always arises: where to start? From the study of factual material: descriptions of the properties of compounds, indication of the conditions for their existence, enumeration of the reactions in which they enter; on this basis, laws are derived that govern the behavior of substances, or, conversely, laws are first given, and then the properties of substances are discussed on their basis. In this book, we will use both methods of presenting factual material.

1. BASIC CONCEPTS OF INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

What is the subject of chemistry, what does this science study? There are several definitions of chemistry.

On the one hand, chemistry is the science of substances, their properties and transformations. On the other hand, chemistry is one of the natural sciences that studies the chemical form of the motion of matter. The chemical form of the motion of matter is the processes of association of atoms into molecules and dissociation of molecules. The chemical organization of matter can be represented by the following scheme (Fig. 1).

Rice. 1. Chemical organization of matter

Matter is an objective reality given to a person in his sensations, which is copied, photographed, displayed by our sensations, existing independently of us. Matter as an objective reality exists in two forms: in the form of substance and in the form of a field.

A field (gravitational, electromagnetic, intranuclear forces) is a form of existence of matter, which is characterized and manifested primarily by energy, and not by mass, although it has the latter. Energy is a quantitative measure of motion, expressing the ability of material objects to do work.

Mass (lat. massa - block, lump, piece) is a physical quantity, one of the main characteristics of matter, which determines its inertial and gravitational properties.

An atom is the lowest level of the chemical organization of matter. An atom is the smallest particle of an element that retains its properties. It consists of a positively charged nucleus and negatively charged electrons; the atom as a whole is electrically neutral. Chemical element - A type of atom with the same nuclear charge. There are 109 known elements, of which 90 exist in nature.

A molecule is the smallest particle of a substance that has the chemical properties of that substance.

The number of chemical elements is limited, and their combinations give all

variety of substances.

What is a substance?

In a broad sense, matter is a specific type of matter that has a rest mass and is characterized under given conditions by certain physical and chemical properties. About 600 thousand inorganic substances and about 5 million organic substances are known.

In a narrower sense, a substance is a certain set of atomic and molecular particles, their associates and aggregates that are in any of the three states of aggregation.

The substance is quite fully determined by three features: 1) occupies a part of space; 2) has a rest mass;

3) built from elementary particles.

All substances can be divided into simple and complex.

cops form not one, but several simple substances. Such a phenomenon is called allotropy, and each of these simple substances is called an allotropic modification (modification) of a given element. Allotropy is observed in carbon, oxygen, sulfur, phosphorus and a number of other elements. So, graphite, diamond, carbine and fullerenes are allotropic modifications of the chemical element carbon; red, white, black phosphorus - allotropic modifications of the chemical element phosphorus. About 400 simple substances are known.

A simple substance is a form of existence of chemical

elements in a free state

Elements are divided into metals and non-metals. The belonging of a chemical element to metals or non-metals can be determined using the periodic system of elements of D.I. Mendeleev. Before doing this, let's recall a little the structure of the periodic table.

1.1. Periodic law and periodic system of D.I. Mendeleev

Periodic system of elements - this is a graphic expression of the periodic law, discovered by D.I. Mendeleev on February 18, 1869. The periodic law sounds like this: the properties of simple substances, as well as the properties of compounds, are in a periodic dependence on the charge of the nucleus of the atoms of the element.

There are more than 400 variants of the representation of the periodic system. The most common cellular variants (short version - 8-cell and long variants - 18- and 32-cell). The short period periodic system consists of 7 periods and 8 groups.

Elements that have a similar structure of the external energy level are combined into groups. There are main (A) and side (B)

groups. The main groups are s- and p-elements, and secondary - d-elements.

A period is a successive series of elements in whose atoms the same number of electron layers of the same energy level is filled. The difference in the order in which the electron layers are filled explains the reason for the different lengths of the periods. In this regard, the periods contain a different number of elements: 1st period - 2 elements; 2nd and 3rd periods - 8 elements each; 4th and 5th

periods - 18 elements each and the 6th period - 32 elements.

Elements of small periods (2nd and 3rd) are separated into a subgroup of typical elements. Since the d- and / elements are filled with the 2nd and 3rd outside elgk-

a little bit of their atoms, and, consequently, a greater ability to add electrons (oxidizing ability), transmitted by high values ​​of their electronegativity. Elements with non-metallic properties occupy the upper right corner of the periodic table

D.I. Mendeleev. Non-metals can be gaseous (F2, O2, CI2), solid (B, C, Si, S) and liquid (Br2).

The element hydrogen occupies a special place in the periodic table.

stem and has no chemical analogues. Hydrogen exhibits metallic

and non-metallic properties, and therefore in the periodic system of its

placed simultaneously in the IA and VIIA groups.

Due to the great originality of chemical properties, they are distinguished from

accuracy. Although there are brittle metals (zinc, antimony, bismuth). Metals exhibit, as a rule, reducing properties.

Complex Substances(chemical compounds) are substances whose molecules are formed by atoms of various chemical elements (heteroatomic or heteronuclear molecules). For example, C 02, CON. More than 10 million complex substances are known.

The highest form of chemical organization of matter are associates and aggregates. Associates are combinations of simple molecules or ions into more complex ones that do not cause changes in the chemical nature of the substance. Associates exist mainly in the liquid and gaseous state, while aggregates exist in the solid state.

Mixtures are systems consisting of several evenly distributed compounds interconnected by constant ratios and not interacting with each other.

1.2. Valency and oxidation state

The compilation of empirical formulas and the formation of the names of chemical compounds is based on the knowledge and correct use of the concepts of oxidation state and valency.

Oxidation state- this is the conditional charge of the element in the compound, calculated from the assumption that the compound consists of ions. This value is conditional, formal, since there are practically no purely ionic compounds. The degree of oxidation in absolute value can be an integer or a fractional number; and in terms of charge it can be positive, negative and equal to zero.

Valence is a value determined by the number of unpaired electrons in the outer energy level or the number of free atomic orbitals that can participate in the formation of chemical bonds.

Some rules for determining the oxidation states of chemical elements

1. The oxidation state of a chemical element in a simple substance

equals 0 .

2. The sum of the oxidation states of atoms in a molecule (ion) is 0

(ion charge).

3. Elements of groups I-III A have a positive oxidation state corresponding to the number of the group in which this element is located.

4. Elements IV-V of IIA groups, except for the positive oxidation state corresponding to the group number; and a negative oxidation state corresponding to the difference between the group number and number 8 have an intermediate oxidation state equal to the difference between the group number and number 2 (Table 1).

Table 1

Oxidation states of elements IV-V IIA subgroups

5. The oxidation state of hydrogen is +1 if there is at least one non-metal in the compound; - 1 in compounds with metals (hydrides); 0 to H2.

Hydrides of some elements

6. The oxidation state of oxygen is usually -2, except for peroxides (-1), superoxides (-1/2), ozonides (-1/3), ozone (+4), oxygen fluoride (+2).

7. The oxidation state of fluorine in all compounds except F2> is -1. Higher forms of oxidation of many chemical elements (BiF5, SF6, IF?, OsFg) are realized in compounds with fluorine.

eight . In periods, the orbital radii of atoms decrease with increasing serial number, while the ionization energy increases. At the same time, acidic and oxidizing properties are enhanced; higher ste

element oxidation foams become less stable.

9. For elements of odd groups of the periodic system, odd degrees are characteristic, and for elements of even groups, even degrees

oxidation.

10. In the main subgroups, with an increase in the ordinal number of an element, the sizes of atoms generally increase, and the ionization energy decreases. Accordingly, the basic properties are enhanced and the oxidizing properties are weakened. In subgroups of ^-elements, with increasing atomic number, the participation of n^-electrons in the formation of bonds

> w h o w J 3 w »

Fig, 2. Scheme of the most important classes of inorganic substances

In inorganic chemistry, chemical reactions are classified according to different criteria.

1. By changing the oxidation state to redox, which go with a change in the oxidation state of the elements and acid-base, which proceed without changing the oxidation states.

2. By the nature of the process.

Decomposition reactions are chemical reactions in which simple molecules are formed from more complex ones.

Connection reactions chemical reactions are called, in which complex compounds are obtained from several simpler ones.

Substitution reactions are chemical reactions in which an atom or group of atoms in a molecule is replaced by another atom or group of atoms.

Exchange reactions called chemical reactions that occur without changing the oxidation state of the elements and leading to the exchange of constituent parts of the reagents.

3. If possible, proceed in the opposite direction to reversible and irreversible.

Some reactions, such as the combustion of ethanol, are practically irreversible, i.e. it is impossible to create conditions for it to flow in the opposite direction.

However, there are many reactions that, depending on the process conditions, can proceed both in the forward and reverse directions. Reactions that can proceed in both the forward and reverse directions are called reversible.

4. According to the type of bond rupture - homolytic(equal gap, each atom gets one electron) and heterolytic(unequal gap - one gets a pair of electrons).

5. According to the thermal effect, exothermic(heat release) and endothermic(heat absorption).

Combination reactions will generally be exothermic reactions, while decomposition reactions will be endothermic. A rare exception is the endothermic reaction of nitrogen with oxygen N 2 + O 2 = 2NO - Q.

6. According to the state of aggregation of the phases.

homogeneous(the reaction takes place in one phase, without interfaces; reactions in gases or in solutions).

Heterogeneous(reactions taking place at the phase boundary).

7. By using a catalyst.

A catalyst is a substance that speeds up a chemical reaction but remains chemically unchanged.

catalytic practically do not go without the use of a catalyst and non-catalytic.

Classification of organic reactions

Electrophilic refers to heterolytic reactions of organic compounds with electrophiles - particles that carry a whole or fractional positive charge. They are subdivided into electrophilic substitution and electrophilic addition reactions. For example,

H 2 C \u003d CH 2 + Br 2  BrCH 2 - CH 2 Br

Nucleophilic refers to heterolytic reactions of organic compounds with nucleophiles - particles that carry an integer or fractional negative charge. They are subdivided into nucleophilic substitution and nucleophilic addition reactions. For example,

CH 3 Br + NaOH  CH 3 OH + NaBr

Radical (chain) reactions are called chemical reactions involving radicals, for example

The course of chemistry in schools begins in the 8th grade with the study of the general foundations of science: possible types of bonds between atoms, types of crystal lattices and the most common reaction mechanisms are described. This becomes the foundation for the study of an important, but more specific section - inorganics.

What it is

This is a science that considers the principles of structure, basic properties and reactivity of all elements of the periodic table. An important role in inorganics is played by the Periodic Law, which streamlines the systematic classification of substances according to changes in their mass, number, and type.

The course also covers compounds formed during the interaction of the elements of the table (the only exception is the area of ​​hydrocarbons, which is considered in the chapters of organics). Tasks in inorganic chemistry allow you to work out the received theoretical knowledge in practice.

Science in the historical aspect

The name "inorganic" appeared in accordance with the idea that it covers a part of chemical knowledge that is not related to the activities of biological organisms.

Over time, it has been proven that most of the organic world can also produce "non-living" compounds, and hydrocarbons of any type are synthesized in the laboratory. So, from ammonium cyanate, which is a salt in the chemistry of the elements, the German scientist Wehler was able to synthesize urea.

In order to avoid confusion with the nomenclature and classification of types of research in both sciences, the program of school and university courses, following general chemistry, involves the study of inorganics as a fundamental discipline. In the scientific world, a similar sequence is maintained.

Classes of inorganic substances

Chemistry provides for such a presentation of material in which the introductory chapters of inorganics consider the Periodic Law of the Elements. of a special type, which is based on the assumption that the atomic charges of nuclei affect the properties of substances, and these parameters change cyclically. Initially, the table was built as a reflection of the increase in the atomic masses of the elements, but soon this sequence was rejected due to its inconsistency in the aspect in which inorganic substances require consideration of this issue.

Chemistry, in addition to the periodic table, suggests the presence of about a hundred figures, clusters and diagrams that reflect the periodicity of properties.

At present, a consolidated version of the consideration of such a concept as classes of inorganic chemistry is popular. The columns of the table indicate the elements depending on the physico-chemical properties, in the rows - periods similar to each other.

Simple substances in the inorganic

A sign in the periodic table and a simple substance in a free state are most often different things. In the first case, only a specific type of atoms is reflected, in the second - the type of connection of particles and their mutual influence in stable forms.

The chemical bond in simple substances determines their division into families. Thus, two broad types of groups of atoms can be distinguished - metals and non-metals. The first family includes 96 elements out of 118 studied.

Metals

The metallic type assumes the presence of a bond of the same name between the particles. The interaction is based on the socialization of the electrons of the lattice, which is characterized by non-directionality and unsaturation. That is why metals conduct heat and charges well, have a metallic luster, malleability and plasticity.

Conventionally, metals are on the left in the periodic table when a straight line is drawn from boron to astatine. Elements close in location to this line are most often of a boundary nature and exhibit a duality of properties (for example, germanium).

Most metals form basic compounds. The oxidation states of such substances usually do not exceed two. In a group, the metallicity increases, while in a period it decreases. For example, radioactive francium exhibits more basic properties than sodium, and in the halogen family, iodine even has a metallic sheen.

Otherwise, the situation is in the period - they complete the sublevels in front of which there are substances with opposite properties. In the horizontal space of the periodic table, the manifested reactivity of elements changes from basic through amphoteric to acidic. Metals are good reducing agents (accept electrons when bonds are formed).

non-metals

This type of atoms is included in the main classes of inorganic chemistry. Non-metals occupy the right side of the periodic table, showing typically acidic properties. Most often, these elements occur in the form of compounds with each other (for example, borates, sulfates, water). In the free molecular state, the existence of sulfur, oxygen and nitrogen is known. There are also several diatomic non-metal gases - in addition to the two above, these include hydrogen, fluorine, bromine, chlorine and iodine.

They are the most common substances on earth - silicon, hydrogen, oxygen and carbon are especially common. Iodine, selenium and arsenic are very rare (this also includes radioactive and unstable configurations, which are located in the last periods of the table).

In compounds, non-metals behave predominantly as acids. They are powerful oxidizing agents due to the possibility of adding an additional number of electrons to complete the level.

in inorganic

In addition to substances that are represented by one group of atoms, there are compounds that include several different configurations. Such substances can be binary (consisting of two different particles), three-, four-element, and so on.

Two element substances

Chemistry attaches particular importance to the binarity of bonds in molecules. Classes of inorganic compounds are also considered from the point of view of the bond formed between the atoms. It can be ionic, metallic, covalent (polar or non-polar), or mixed. Usually, such substances clearly show basic (in the presence of metal), amforteric (dual - especially characteristic of aluminum) or acidic (if there is an element with an oxidation state of +4 and higher) qualities.

Three element associates

Topics of inorganic chemistry include consideration of this type of association of atoms. Compounds consisting of more than two groups of atoms (most often inorganics deal with three-element species) are usually formed with the participation of components that differ significantly from each other in physicochemical parameters.

Possible bond types are covalent, ionic and mixed. Usually, three-element substances are similar in behavior to binary ones due to the fact that one of the forces of interatomic interaction is much stronger than the other: the weak one is formed in the second place and has the ability to dissociate faster in solution.

Classes of inorganic chemistry

The overwhelming majority of substances studied in the inorganic course can be considered according to a simple classification depending on their composition and properties. So, oxides and salts are distinguished. Consideration of their relationship is better to start with an acquaintance with the concept of oxidized forms, in which almost any inorganic substance can appear. The chemistry of such associates is discussed in the chapters on oxides.

oxides

An oxide is a compound of any chemical element with oxygen in an oxidation state of -2 (in peroxides -1, respectively). The formation of a bond occurs due to the return and attachment of electrons with the reduction of O 2 (when oxygen is the most electronegative element).

They can exhibit both acidic, and amphoteric, and basic properties, depending on the second group of atoms. If in the oxide it does not exceed the oxidation state +2, if the non-metal - from +4 and above. In samples with a dual nature of the parameters, a value of +3 is achieved.

Acids in the inorganic

Acidic compounds have a medium reaction of less than 7 due to the content of hydrogen cations, which can go into solution and subsequently be replaced by a metal ion. By classification, they are complex substances. Most acids can be obtained by diluting the corresponding oxides with water, for example, in the formation of sulfuric acid after hydration of SO 3 .

Basic inorganic chemistry

The properties of this type of compounds are due to the presence of the OH hydroxyl radical, which gives the reaction of the medium above 7. Soluble bases are called alkalis, they are the strongest in this class of substances due to complete dissociation (decomposition into ions in a liquid). The OH group in the formation of salts can be replaced by acidic residues.

Inorganic chemistry is a dual science that can describe substances from different perspectives. In the protolytic theory, bases are considered as hydrogen cation acceptors. This approach expands the concept of this class of substances, calling alkali any substance that can accept a proton.

salt

This type of compounds is between bases and acids, as it is the product of their interaction. Thus, a metal ion (sometimes ammonium, phosphonium or hydroxonium) usually acts as a cation, and an acid residue acts as an anionic substance. When a salt is formed, hydrogen is replaced by another substance.

Depending on the ratio of the number of reagents and their strength in relation to each other, it is rational to consider several types of interaction products:

• basic salts are obtained if the hydroxyl groups are not completely substituted (such substances have an alkaline environment);
• acid salts are formed in the opposite case - with a lack of a reacting base, hydrogen partially remains in the compound;
• the most famous and easiest to understand are the average (or normal) samples - they are the product of complete neutralization of the reagents with the formation of water and a substance with only a metal cation or its analogue and an acid residue.

Inorganic chemistry is a science that involves the division of each of the classes into fragments that are considered at different times: some earlier, others later. With a more in-depth study, 4 more types of salts are distinguished:

• Binaries contain a single anion in the presence of two cations. Typically, such substances are obtained by merging two salts with the same acid residue, but different metals.
• The mixed type is the opposite of the previous one: its basis is one cation with two different anions.
• Crystalline hydrates - salts, in the formula of which there is water in a crystallized state.
• Complexes are substances in which a cation, anion, or both of them are presented in the form of clusters with a forming element. Such salts can be obtained mainly from elements of subgroup B.

As other substances included in the practice of inorganic chemistry, which can be classified as salts or as separate chapters of knowledge, one can name hydrides, nitrides, carbides and intermetallides (compounds of several metals that are not an alloy).

Results

Inorganic chemistry is a science that is of interest to every specialist in this field, regardless of his interests. It includes the first chapters studied at school in this subject. The course of inorganic chemistry provides for the systematization of large amounts of information in accordance with an understandable and simple classification.

Lecture: Classification of chemical reactions in inorganic and organic chemistry

Types of chemical reactions in inorganic chemistry

A) Classification by the number of initial substances:

Decomposition - as a result of this reaction, from one existing complex substance, two or more simple, as well as complex substances are formed.

Compound - this is such a reaction in which two or more simple, as well as complex substances, form one, but more complex.

Example: 4Al+3O 2 → 2Al 2 O 3

Example: 2КI + Cl2 → 2КCl + I 2

Example: HCl + KNO 2 → KCl + HNO 2

B) Classification by thermal effect:

S + O 2 → SO 2 + Q

2C 2 H 6 + 7O 2 → 4CO 2 + 6H 2 O + Q

Endothermic reactions are certain chemical reactions in which heat is absorbed. As a rule, these are decomposition reactions.

Examples:

CaCO 3 → CaO + CO 2 - Q
2KClO 3 → 2KCl + 3O 2 - Q

The heat released or absorbed in a chemical reaction is called thermal effect.

Chemical equations in which the heat effect of a reaction is indicated are called thermochemical.

C) Classification by reversibility:

Example: 3H 2 + N 2 ⇌ 2NH 3

D) Classification according to the change in the degree of oxidation:

Example: Сu + 4HNO 3 → Cu(NO 3) 2 + 2NO 2 + 2H 2 O.

Example: HNO 3 + KOH → KNO 3 + H 2 O.

E) Phase classification:

Example: H 2 (gas) + Cl 2 (gas) → 2HCL

Classification by catalyst use:

A catalyst is a substance that speeds up a reaction. A catalytic reaction proceeds in the presence of a catalyst, a non-catalytic reaction without a catalyst.
Example: 2H 2 0 2 MnO2 → 2H 2 O + O 2 catalyst MnO 2

The interaction of alkali with acid proceeds without a catalyst.
Example: KOH + HCl → KCl + H 2 O

Inhibitors are substances that slow down a reaction.
Catalysts and inhibitors themselves are not consumed during the reaction.

Types of chemical reactions in organic chemistry

Accession are reactions in which several molecules of a substance combine into one. Addition reactions include:

• Hydrogenation is a reaction in which hydrogen is added to a multiple bond.

Example: CH 3 -CH \u003d CH 2 (propene) + H 2 → CH 3 -CH 2 -CH 3 (propane)

Hydrohalogenation is a reaction that adds a hydrogen halide.

Example: CH 2 \u003d CH 2 (ethene) + Hcl → CH 3 -CH 2 -Cl (chloroethane)

Alkynes react with hydrogen halides (hydrogen chloride, hydrogen bromide) in the same way as alkenes. Attachment in a chemical reaction takes place in 2 stages, and is determined by the Markovnikov rule:

When protic acids and water are added to unsymmetrical alkenes and alkynes, a hydrogen atom is attached to the most hydrogenated carbon atom.

The mechanism of this chemical reaction. Formed in the 1st, fast stage, the p-complex in the 2nd slow stage gradually turns into an s-complex - a carbocation. In the 3rd stage, the stabilization of the carbocation occurs - that is, the interaction with the bromine anion:

I1, I2 - carbocations. P1, P2 - bromides.

Halogen-containing organic derivatives are considered the most important compounds that are used both in organic synthesis and as target products. Halogen derivatives of hydrocarbons are considered to be the starting products in a large number of nucleophilic substitution reactions. With regard to the practical use of compounds containing halogen, they are used in the form of solvents, such as chlorine-containing compounds, refrigerants - chlorofluoro derivatives, freons, pesticides, pharmaceuticals, plasticizers, monomers for plastics.

Polymerization - this is a special type of reaction in which molecules of a substance having a relatively low molecular weight join each other, subsequently forming molecules of a substance with a high molecular weight.

Inorganic chemistry in reactions. Directory. Lidin R.A., Molochko V.A., Andreeva L.L.

2nd ed., revised. and additional - M.: 2007 - 637 p.

The directory contains 1100 inorganic substances, for which the equations of the most important reactions are given. The choice of substances was justified by their theoretical and laboratory-industrial importance. The directory is organized according to the alphabetical principle of chemical formulas and a well-developed structure, provided with a subject index that makes it easy to find the right substance. It has no analogues in domestic and foreign chemical literature. For students of chemical and chemical-technological universities. It can be used by university professors, graduate students, scientists and engineers in the chemical industry, as well as teachers and high school students.

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The reference book presents the chemical properties (reaction equations) of the most important compounds of 109 elements of the Periodic Table from hydrogen to meitnerium. More than 1100 inorganic substances are described in detail, the selection of which was carried out according to their industrial importance (starting substances for chemical processes, mineral raw materials), breadth of prevalence in engineering and educational and laboratory practice (model solvents and reagents, qualitative analysis reagents) and use in the latest branches of chemical technology.
The reference material is divided into sections, each of which is devoted to one element, the elements are arranged alphabetically by their symbols (from actinium Ac to zirconium Zr).
Any section consists of a number of headings, the first of which refers to a simple substance, and all subsequent ones - to complex substances, in the chemical formulas of which the section element is in the first (left) place. Substances of each section are listed alphabetically by their nomenclature formulas (with one exception: all corresponding acids are placed at the end of sections of acid-forming elements). For example, in the Actinium section there are headings Ac, AcC13, AcF3, Ac(N03)3, Ac203, Ac(OH)3. The formulas of compounds with a complex anion are given in inverted form, i.e. .
Each rubric contains a brief description of the substance, which indicates its color, thermal stability, solubility, interaction (or lack of it) with common reagents, etc., as well as methods for obtaining this substance, designed as links to the rubrics of other substances. References contain the symbol of the section element, the rubric number and the superscript number of the reaction equation.
Further in the rubric follows a numbered set of reaction equations, reflecting the main chemical properties of a given substance. In general, the order of the equations is as follows:
- thermal decomposition of the substance;
- dehydration or decomposition of crystalline hydrate;
- attitude to water;
- interaction with common acids (with the same type of reactions, the equation is given only for hydrochloric acid);
- interaction with alkalis (as a rule, with sodium hydroxide);
- interaction with ammonia hydrate;
- interaction with simple substances;
- exchange reactions with complex substances;
- redox reactions;
- reactions of complex formation;
- electrochemical reactions (electrolysis of melt and/or solution).
The reaction equations indicate the conditions for their conduct and course, when this is important for understanding the chemistry and the degree of reversibility of the process. These conditions include:
- state of aggregation of reagents and/or products;
- coloring of reagents and/or products;
- the state of the solution or its characteristics (diluted, concentrated, saturated);
- slow reaction;
- temperature range, pressure (high or vacuum), catalyst;
- formation of a precipitate or gas;
- the solvent used, if different from water;
- inert or other special gaseous medium.
At the end of the guide there is a list of references and a subject index of headings.