Active vocabulary. Vocabulary of the Russian language from the point of view of active and passive stock

The vocabulary of the Russian language, like a mirror, reflects the entire historical development of society. The processes of human production activity, the economic, social, political, cultural development of life - everything is reflected in vocabulary, which is constantly changing and improving. In fact, with the development of science, technology, industry, agriculture, culture, with the emergence and development of new social and international relations, new concepts arise, and therefore words for naming these concepts. On the contrary, with the disappearance of any phenomenon of reality or object from life, the words that name them go out of use or change their meaning. After the October Revolution they left

Section 1. Accuracy of word usage 147

from the use of the word strike, auction, mercy, charity, governor, province, zemstvo, governess, prefecture, worship, gymnasium, philanthropist, merchant, nobleman. Now, with the return of these phenomena to life, these words have again entered our speech.

Depending on how actively words are used in speech, the entire vocabulary of the Russian language is divided into two large groups: active vocabulary (or active vocabulary) and passive vocabulary (passive vocabulary). Active vocabulary consists of everyday words (commonly used words), the meaning of which is clear to all people who speak Russian. As a rule, they refer to the concepts of modern life. These may be old, but not obsolete words: man, water, work, bread, house and etc.; terms: lawyer, court, industry, science, atom etc.

The passive vocabulary includes vocabulary that is very rarely used in everyday communication. It is, as it were, stored in memory until a convenient, necessary occasion. These are either outdated words or new ones that have not yet received widespread use.

Outdated vocabulary

So, outdated words. If they name objects of old life, culture, old socio-political and economic relations that have disappeared from life, for example: boyar, chain mail, smerd, armyak, serf, then before us historicisms. Some words that arose in the Soviet era and named phenomena in the first or later years of Soviet power also became historicisms: NEPman, food detachment, food tax, surplus appropriation system, People's Commissar, Stakhanovite, Economic Council, Komsomol etc. In the post-perestroika period, the word becomes historicized kopek.

In addition, outdated words can denote currently existing phenomena and objects, for example: cheeks(cheeks), peeit(poet), airplane(airplane), this(this), hood(robe), youth(teenager), etc., i.e. these are outdated names of modern things and phenomena. And these words are called archaisms. In the process of language development, they were replaced by synonyms: cavalry - cavalry, bed - bed, provinces - periphery, province - region, orphanage - orphanage etc. The last three words seem to be returning to our speech again.

The use of obsolete words in each text must be justified. Historicisms are usually used in special,

148 Part I. Functioning of linguistic units in a lawyer’s speech

scientific and historical literature, which denotes phenomena of past years. Archaisms, as a rule, perform stylistic functions, giving speech a touch of solemnity, pathos or irony. Thus, F. N. Plevako, in his famous speech on the case of an old woman who stole a 30-kopeck teapot, deliberately uses an archaic form twelve languages, which not only gives the speech solemnity, but also colors it with an ironic shade. The same function in Ya. S. Kiselev’s defensive speech is performed by the archaic form of the name of the imaginary victim - Natalia Feodorovna and outdated - stolen . In colloquial speech, outdated words most often give an ironic tint and create humor.

In the written speech of a lawyer, which is a type of official business style, outdated words are inappropriate. However, they can be recorded in the interrogation protocol in the responses of the interrogated. The use of outdated words without taking into account their expressive connotation leads to stylistic errors: The accused Shishkin, who committed the beating of household members, is in the arrest house. Inappropriately used outdated words can give the text a purely clerical flavor: A certificate of rent is attached to this application. Their frequent repetition leads to tautology.

There are a large number of archaisms and historicisms in the Criminal Code of 1903 1: exactions, police, excise, gambling house, nobles, merchants, zemstvo service, hard labor, class meetings, demands, alms, fortress, workhouse, usury, code, administration, health, permission, blasphemy, crime, shops, this, these, which, these, natives, midwife, adultery, exchange, therefore, foreign tribes, subjects, trustworthy, prisoner, deanery, arrest, province, district, rank, unrest, extortion, imprisonment, worker, obscenity, legalization. We also find archaic forms here: wandering, drinking, allowed, hypnotism, establish, contagious illnesses, family rights. The Criminal Code of the RSFSR retains from outdated words act , as the most accurately naming a criminal act or omission, commit has a specific legal connotation. Outdated words such (Article 129) concealment (Article 185) emphasize the official language of the law.

In Art. 232 of the Criminal Code of the RSFSR, which names remnants of local customs, instead of the term relatives used it justifiably

Section 1. Accuracy of word usage 149

obsolete colloquial synonym relatives, denoting members of a clan.

In explanatory dictionaries, obsolete words are given with the mark outdated

§ 2. New words

In addition to outdated vocabulary, passive vocabulary includes neologisms(from Greek neos - new + logos - word) - words that have recently appeared in the language. Neologisms appear along with a new phenomenon, object or thing, and their novelty is felt by speakers. Great achievements in scientific, cultural and industrial development in the post-October period gave rise to a large number of new words, for example: collective farm, metro, escalator, Komsomolets... Some new words communicate new achievements and discoveries. Thus, several decades ago, the root was productive for the formation of new words space-: after the word astronaut words appeared with cosmic speed cosmophysicist, spaceship, cosmodrome, space navigation, cosmovision, geocosmos etc. Many new words appeared from the root body -: television equipment, television tower, teletype, teleconference and etc.

Nowadays, new words are constantly being born. In almost every newspaper, in every magazine you can find a word that has just appeared. Most of the new words name phenomena of political, economic, social life, and therefore they quickly become part of the active vocabulary: perestroika, agricultural industry, state acceptance, arrangement, exchange, impact, privatization, involved, informals, denationalization, electorate etc. These can be names of fashionable things and phenomena: mixed fabrics, sneakers, Varenka, disco, impregnation, video salon, negative phenomena that have appeared in life: distortions, homeless people, scourge, morbidity... Colloquial words began to be actively used in print promise, liked, help: Today there is a pronounced increase in delinquency among minors, and this again promises a surge in the total number of crimes in 2-3 years 2.

New words can be formed as a result of changes in the semantics of existing words in the language. Yes, a polysemantic word official means 1) an employee of a government agency... 2) a person formally related to his duties -

150 Part P. Functioning of linguistic units in a lawyer’s speech

there. During the Soviet period it was used in the 2nd meaning, in the 1st meaning it was historicism. Nowadays, it again denotes an employee of a government agency. Word shuttle has three meanings: 1. Cheln. 2. Part of a loom in the form of an oblong oval box or block with wound yarn for laying weft threads. 3. The part of a double-thread sewing machine that feeds the bobbin thread. Nowadays, this word has a new meaning: it refers to people traveling abroad for the purpose of buying and reselling goods. The transfer of the meaning of the word occurred on the basis of the similarity of actions: to move “back and forth.” The words have a new meaning lump, substitute; run over, thimble, get, poured, cool, screw up b and etc.

New words are acquired by the language in different ways. From passive vocabulary they move into active vocabulary and become commonly used if the concepts they denote are firmly established in life. Some of the words do not take root in the language, some remain individually authored. Discordant neologisms such as rsagozh (from react), blackmail(instead of blackmail), kindergartenism, denationalization etc. Neologisms are formed incorrectly heavily polluted, oil-contaminated, negotiable, although the “authors” used them as terms. Words like these give the speech a comical tone: As a result of prolonged rains, large potholes formed on the roads. Or: Despite the fact that the warehouse was special, material assets were at a high price 3. Individual neologisms become obsolete in the language along with the passing away of the phenomena or objects they denote. This is what happened with words nonsense, informals, state acceptance. Perhaps the word is becoming historicist perestroika. Interesting history of the word turtleneck . It entered our language in the 60s, calling a women's sweater fashionable in those years; after a few years it fell out of use as turtlenecks were no longer worn. And now again, along with the fashion for the thing, this word has returned to the active vocabulary. While this manual is being published, the word may again become outdated.

In general, new words are an inexhaustible source of replenishing the vocabulary of the Russian language.

Questions for self-examination

1. Why is the vocabulary of the Russian language divided into active and passive? 2. What vocabulary is included in the active vocabulary

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composition, which one - in passive vocabulary? 3. How do historicisms and archaisms differ? What are their functions in speech? 4. What are neologisms? When do they enter the active vocabulary?

Sample plan for a practical lesson

Theoretical part

1. Uncommon vocabulary. Definition of the concept.

2. Areas of use and functions of historicisms and archaisms.

3. Neologisms, new words.

4. Errors caused by the use of passive vocabulary.

Practical part

Exercise 1. In examples taken from the Criminal Code of 1903 (see p. 148), note historicisms and archaisms; justify the legality of their use in the text of the law. Choose modern synonyms for archaisms.

Task 2. Read 15 articles each from the Criminal Code of the RSFSR, the Criminal Procedure Code of the RSFSR, the Civil Code of the Russian Federation and the Civil Procedure Code of the RSFSR, draw a conclusion about the presence of passive words in them.

Exercise 3. Answer in which procedural acts and why outdated vocabulary and neologisms may be used. Give examples.

Task 4. Read several defensive speeches by Ya.S. Kiseleva, mark outdated words in them. Explain the reasons for using them.

Task 5. Tell us how you perceive the use in print and on the radio of such words as disassembly, soviet, party, collapse, lumps, cheating, chernukha, bucks . What are their meaning , stylistic coloring, sphere of use?

Exercise 6. Correct errors caused by inappropriate use of outdated vocabulary and neologisms.

The police department, which received a statement from the victims, filed a lawsuit against the cloakroom attendants. The indicated actions of the suspect allow us to leave the preventive measure the same. Surplus equipment that is owned by management should be transferred to the inter-factory fund. The confiscated vase, as being of no value, was destroyed by breaking. The accused departed in an unknown direction, where he remained until his arrest.

152 Part P. Functioning of linguistic units in a lawyer’s speech

Task 7. Get acquainted with the works: 1) New words and meanings: Dictionary-reference book. materials of the press and literature of the 70s / E. A. Levashov, T. N. Popovtseva et al. M., 1984. 2) New words and dictionaries of new words: [Sb. Art.] / Rep. ed. 3. N. Kotelova. L., 1983. 3) Russian language. Encyclopedia / Ch. ed. F. P. Filin. M., 1979 (see dictionary entries: neologism, passive vocabulary, obsolete words). Express your opinion on the importance of such dictionaries for a lawyer.

Active and passive vocabulary. Passive vocabulary includes historicisms and archaisms. Historicisms are words denoting objects that have disappeared from modern life, phenomena that have become irrelevant concepts, for example, chain mail, corvee, horse tram, modern subbotnik, Sunday, socialist competition, Politburo. These words fell out of use along with the objects and concepts they denoted and became passive vocabulary; we know them, but do not use them in our everyday speech. Historicisms are used in texts that deal with the past, fiction, and historical research. Archaisms are outdated names of phenomena and concepts that exist in modern times, to denote which other, modern names have arisen.

There are several types of archaisms 1 the word can become obsolete entirely and completely go out of use lanita - cheeks, neck - neck, right hand - right hand, shuytsa - left hand, so that - so that, destruction - destruction 2 one of the meanings of a word can become obsolete, while while the rest continue to be used in modern language belly - life, thief - state criminal of False Dmitry II was called Tushinsky thief the word give has lost its meaning to sell over the last 10 years, and the word throw away has the meaning to put on sale 3 in the word may change 1-2 sound and or place of stress number - number, bibliomtek - library, mirror - mirror, snurok - lace 4 an obsolete word may differ from modern ones by the prefix and or suffix druzhstvo - friendship, restaurateur - restaurant, fisherman - fisherman 5 the word may change individual grammatical forms Wed the name of the poem by A.S. Pushkin Gypsies is the modern form of gypsies or the belonging of this word to a certain grammatical class of the word piano, hall were used as feminine nouns, and in modern Russian these are masculine words. Word obsolescence is a process, and different words may be at different stages of it.

Words that have not yet fallen out of active use, but are already used less frequently than before, are called obsolete vouchers. Obsolete words are contrasted with neologisms - new words, the novelty of which is felt by speakers.

Linguistic neologisms are words that appear as names for new objects, phenomena, concepts that do not yet have names in the language, or as new names for already existing objects or concepts.

Linguistic neologisms arise in the following ways: 1 a new word, a new lexical unit appears in the language. It appears through the borrowing of shop tour, charter, shaping, image or the emergence of a new word according to word-formation models existing in the language from the old word geography lunography or neologism-borrowing marketing marketing, computer computer, computer geek, computerization 2 a new word arises from an already existing word in the language meaning, for example, teapot - a non-specialist with weak skills in something, stroke - paste for correcting text, round - negotiation phase, pirate - unlicensed, shell - garage. In the future, this meaning can break away and form a new homonym word.

If an object, concept, phenomenon, called a neologism, quickly becomes irrelevant, the neologism may not have time to become a commonly used word, master the language, and this word may immediately go into the passive vocabulary, becoming historicism.

This is the fate that befell many neologisms from the time of the NEP, the first years of perestroika: kooperator, gekachepist, voucher. Language neologisms are used by native speakers in their everyday speech, are known and understood by many. If the existence of a linguistic neologism is justified, pretty soon the neologism enters the active vocabulary and ceases to be recognized as a new word. However, the creation of new words, word creation is also possible in other situations—an artistic word, a situation of friendly communication, the speech of a child who has not yet fully mastered the vocabulary of the Russian language.

An adult, poet, writer consciously resorts to word creation in order to make his speech more expressive or to play on the rich word-building possibilities of the language, the child does this unconsciously. The results of such word creation are called individual contextual, author's neologisms. So, we find in A.S. Pushkin the words ogoncharovan, kuchelbeckerno, in V.V. Mayakovsky lyubenochek, and hasten, turn blue, lighten.

Sometimes the author's neologisms become real words and enter the literary language, such as, for example, the words pendulum, pump, attraction, constellation, mine, drawing, which entered the Russian language from the works of M.V. Lomonosov, industry, love, absent-mindedness, touching - from works of N.M. Karamzin, fade away - from F.I. Dostoevsky, mediocrity - from I. Severyanin. The functions of obsolete words are varied.

Firstly, they can be used directly to name and designate corresponding objects and phenomena. Thus, outdated words are used, for example, in scientific and historical works. In works of art on historical themes, this vocabulary is used not only to denote obsolete realities and outdated concepts, but also to create a certain flavor of the era. Obsolete words can be used in literary text to indicate the time in which the action takes place.

Obsolete words, mainly archaisms, can also perform stylistic functions - they can be used to create solemnity in the text. Phraseology Words, when combined with each other, form phrases. Some of them are free, they are formed by us in speech as needed. Each word in them retains its independent meaning and performs the function of a separate member of the sentence. For example, reading an interesting book, walking down the street.

But there are phrases that are called non-free, connected, or phraseological. In them, words, when combined together, lose their individual lexical meaning and form a new semantic whole, which in terms of semantics is equated to a separate word, for example, let the red rooster - set it on fire, beat the thumbs - mess around, from minute to minute - soon, with a pinhead - small . As a rule, such combinations are fixed in the language as a result of frequent and long-term, sometimes centuries-old, practice of use.

The same combination can appear either as free or as bound, depending on the context and meaning. For example, He closed his eyes and quickly fell asleep - the Dean's office turned a blind eye to the student's misbehavior. A set of lexically indivisible, integral in meaning, reproduced in the form of ready-made speech units combinations of words is called phraseology from the Greek phrasis expression and logos doctrine, science. Phraseologisms can be divided into groups from the point of view of the origin and tradition of using expressions from colloquial speech to speak one's teeth, to lose one's head, miracles in a sieve, fish without fish and cancer, expressions from professional spheres of use were born in a shirt, from argot to baffle, green street - from the vocabulary of railway workers, clumsy work, without a hitch - from the speech of carpenters, rub in points expressions from bookish literary speech and terms and phrases from scientific use center of gravity, chain reaction, roll down an inclined plane, bring to white heat b expressions from works of fiction and journalism And the casket simply opened I. Krylov with feeling, with sense, with arrangement A. Griboyedov the living corpse of L. Tolstoy The case smells of kerosene M. Koltsov. Like a word, a phraseological unit can have synonyms and antonyms, for example, two pairs of boots - a bird of a feather, beat swords into plowshares - sheathe a sword phraseological units-synonyms make a mess - clear up the mess, rolling up the sleeves - carelessly, heavy to lift - easy to lift rise of phraseological units-antonyms. Phraseologisms of the Russian language by origin are divided into two groups: Original Russian and Borrowed.

Original Russian phraseological units The emergence of original Russian phraseological units can date back to the time of the existence of the Proto-Slavic language, common Slavic or Proto-Slavic, Old Russian language, East Slavic, Old Russian and Russian languages, Russian proper. One of the indicators of the Proto-Slavic origin of a phraseological unit, therefore, is its parallel fixation in the East-West South Slavic languages ​​and their dialects Indian summer, from the head to the feet, East Slavic phraseological units are registered in the Belarusian, Russian and Ukrainian languages ​​and their dialects written with a pitchfork on the water, from all the legs, the actual Russian phraseological units are usually noted only in the Russian language in full Ivanovo, which is what my leg wants. Primordial Russian phraseological units can be associated with mythological ideas, folk customs, rites, rituals: sparrow night - a dark night with a strong thunderstorm, a time of rampant evil spirits headlong - in the original meaning it means a ritual delineation for protection from evil spirits to wash the bones - the emergence of phraseological units associated with the reburial rite, before which the excavated remains, i.e. bones were washed.

With material culture, specific realities, historical facts, it is as if Mamai passed - the Tatar Khan Mamai made devastating raids on Rus' - Mamai's massacre - Khan Mamai was defeated in the Battle of Kulikovo without slurping salt - salt, as an expensive product, could not have been given to an unwanted guest during a treat.

With professional, slang, argotic speech, terminological vocabulary to get out of the rut from the professional vocabulary of drivers, silently from the speech of the military, sapa - hidden undermining, put on the map from gambling jargon With various genres of folklore, a hut on chicken legs, a red maiden, a grandmother said in two , little man, grasping at straws With the names of specific people who created phraseological units or the context that contributed to its emergence leavened patriotism Vyazemsky, monkey labor, a disservice, a snout in a cannon Krylov, shut up the fountain K. Prutkov, end up with a broken trough Pushkin

End of work -

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Modern Russian language

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Active and passive vocabulary

The vocabulary of the modern Russian language covers millions of words, if we take into account all the words used and used by its speakers - the urban and rural population, the educated part of it and the insufficiently educated, people of different specialties and different occupations - over at least the last two centuries - from Pushkin to the present day. The total number of words available in the Russian language has not been calculated, and it is unlikely that it can be practically calculated due to even the technical difficulties of recording all the names used on the territory of such a huge country as Russia.

For example, which native Russian speaker knows that in one of the microdistricts of the Far North the word is used southerner to name a purely local phenomenon - hurricane wind, associated seasonally with the geographical features of the territory. Most likely, only those who live in this area or have visited there, and even those who have read O. Kuvaev’s novel “Territory”, in which the author writes:

Every journalist, every visiting writer, and in general anyone who has visited the Village and put pen to paper, has always written and will write about "Yuzhaka". It's like being in Texas and not writing the word "cowboy" or, being in the Sahara, not mentioning camel. "Yuzhak" was a purely village phenomenon, similar to the famous Novorossiysk "boroy". On warm days, air accumulated behind the slope of the ridge and then fell with hurricane force into the settlement basin. During " southerner" it was always warm and the sky was cloudless, but this warm, even gentle wind knocked a person off his feet... Yuzhak" Tricon boots and ski goggles worked best. IN "yuzhak" shops were closed, institutions were closed, "yuzhak" the roofs moved.

Not only does no one know how many words there are in the Russian language, but no one even uses all the familiar words. It is estimated, for example, that in all texts (both literary and epistolary) written by the hand of A. S. Pushkin, the creator of the modern Russian literary language, who knew the folk language well, there are only about 20 thousand words and expressions. Of course, Pushkin knew a much larger number of lexical units (both from the language of the peasants of at least the village of Mikhailovskoye and nearby villages, and from his acquaintance with the historical chronicles of the times of Boris Godunov and Emelyan Pugachev), but he used only part of the familiar vocabulary. In addition, of the words used, some occur dozens of times, or even hundreds, while others occur in isolated cases. Consequently, the entire vocabulary can be divided into an active part and a passive part.

Naturally, the active and passive vocabulary varies from person to person and depends on their age and educational level, as well as on a number of other circumstances. But we can still talk about a certain average level of vocabulary among native speakers in a given period of history and dividing it into two parts - active and passive. Active vocabulary includes words that are more or less often used by people in everyday life, in normal work activities and in some other speech situations.

The active part of the vocabulary is highlighted and studied specifically - both for theoretical and practical purposes. For example, a large study of the frequency vocabulary of the Russian language was undertaken based on machine samples of a million word usages. The result was the “Frequency Dictionary of the Russian Language” (1977), compiled under the leadership of L.N. Zasorina, which included 40 thousand words, arranged in decreasing order of frequency. It has been revealed that the most common words in the Russian language, which make up the first sixty words, are mainly function words ( unions, particles, prepositions) and pronouns: V (in), And, Not, on, I, be, What, He, With (with), A, How, This, You, You, To (co), We, this, she, They, But, By, all, behind, All, at, from (iso), mine, So, O (about, about), same, which, would, from (oto), be able, one, For, say, such, That, Here, only, more, speak, our, Yes, myself, know, year, his, No, big, before, When, already, If, case, another, to, or, myself, time, Which, go, Well.

Theoretical understanding of the specifics of the writer’s language can be based, for example, on the materials of the “Pushkin Dictionary of the Language,” which illustrates, in particular, the movement of vocabulary from active to passive and vice versa during the creation of the modern Russian literary language.

Passive vocabulary includes:

• 1) words familiar to native speakers, but used extremely rarely by them;
• 2) words that are recognizable to one degree or another when they are used by other native speakers - when reading fiction and specialized literature, when listening to radio and television programs;
• 3) words that exist in the language, even recorded in dictionaries, but are unfamiliar to the majority of speakers.

Let's take as an example words with the letter L from N. G. Komlev's Dictionary of New Foreign Words: laser phone, lamentation, latency, laudation, lebensraum, levitation, leggings, legitimation, Lezmageste, label, liberalization, Lewis, leasing, limerick, limited company, lingua franca, lipoaspiration, listing, Lithuanian studies, licensor, licensing, lobby, lobectomy, logotherapy, logo, Lolipop, lot, LSD-25, lucrative, amusement park, Lee Donna E Mobile, Lapsus lingua. Of the listed words, there are hardly a dozen that are more or less actively used by people with at least a secondary education. More words that may be familiar, recognizable, but not actively used: levitation, legitimation, liberalization, licensing, logotherapy, Luna Park The rest of the words from the list are either familiar by hearsay, without understanding their meaning ( leasing, listing, lot), or generally unfamiliar to most ( laser phone, lamentation, latency, laudation, lebensraum, Lez Majeste, Lewis, limerick, limited company, lingua franca, lipoaspiration, Lithuanian studies, licensor, lobectomy, Lolipop, LSD-25, lucrative, Lee Donna E Mobile, Lapsus lingua).

Let us compare two currently popular explanatory dictionaries of the Russian language: Ozhegov’s Dictionary, which includes approximately 70 thousand words, and the Lopatins’ “Russian Explanatory Dictionary”, which includes half as many words - 35 thousand. When selecting words in Ozhegov’s Dictionary, the goal was “to include necessary vocabulary used in a literary language" and do not include:

• 1) “special words and meanings that are narrowly professional terms of a particular branch of science and technology”;
• 2) “dialect words and meanings, if they are not used widely enough as part of the literary language as expressive means”; 3) “colloquial words and meanings with a pronounced coarse coloring”; 4) “old or outdated words and meanings that have fallen out of the language.”

In contrast to Ozhegov’s Dictionary, the “Russian Explanatory Dictionary” is “a dictionary of the active most commonly used vocabulary of the Russian language”; in it “there are no regional words and outdated words and meanings are presented in a minimal amount, and from colloquial, colloquial, book, special words and meanings of words, only the most common ones are given... It also does not contain words and meanings of words that have been relegated to the passive vocabulary” . A comparison of specific dictionaries, for example for the letter L, shows that in Ozhegov’s Dictionary there are approximately 950 heading words, and in the “Russian Explanatory Dictionary” there are 500, and these are not included: meadowsweet, labile, lava— underground mining, lavender, pita, laurel, cherry laurel, lag, camp inmate, lagoon, okay- tuning of a musical instrument, Lada, incense, amulet, rook, okay, frets, manhole, laser technician, lapis lazuli, little wolf, servile, litmus, liquorice, lactation, lacuna, lama, lamaism, Lamaist, lamp, stripe, lampion, langet, Landtag, lanita, lanolin, lancet, lapidary, lapta, palmate, stall holder, laryngitis, laryngologist, laryngology, lasso, Lafitnik etc. and so on. These, like the other 400 names starting with the letter L, did not get into the Russian Explanatory Dictionary from the Ozhegov Dictionary due to their rare use. The examples given give an idea of ​​the passive vocabulary, which includes, in essence, all stylistic groups of words: colloquial ( stall holder, Lafitnik), vernacular ( camp inmate, frets), obsolete ( meadowsweet, lanita), book ( labile- mobile, lamaism, lapidary- short), highly specialized ( lag- a device for determining the speed of the vessel, lactation), exotic ( pita, lama, Landtag), folk poetic ( Lada), neutral ( lavender, cherry laurel, lagoon, langet). Apparently, the “Russian Explanatory Dictionary” can theoretically be classified as a dictionary of active Russian vocabulary, reflecting the active vocabulary of the average Russian speaker at the end of the 20th century.

Using the selection of active vocabulary, practical problems are solved in the following cases:

■ When compiling various kinds of dictionaries for students. So, when creating the "School Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language" ed. F. P. Filina (1999) selected vocabulary: a) reflected in stable textbooks on the Russian language and literature and b) widely used in everyday life, in labor, social and cultural areas of human activity.

Even more effort is required in selecting active vocabulary for textbooks intended for foreigners. Lexical minimums are being created that are addressed to students of different levels; the “Concise Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language for Foreigners” has been published many times, ed. V. V. Rozanova.

■ When compiling lexicographic reference books for all native speakers of the Russian language. So, with the expectation of using it in productive speech, lexical units were selected for the "Dictionary of the compatibility of words of the Russian language" ed. P. N. Denisova and V. V. Morkovkina. It includes approximately 2,500 "most common Russian words" with a complete description of their combinational properties. For illustration and comparison, here is a list of such words placed with the letter L: laboratory, camp, palm, lamp, affectionate, a lion, left, easy, ice, ice, lie, climb, medicine, lecture, lazy, forest, forest, ladder, fly, fly, summer, summer, pilot, treat, get treatment, liquidate, fox, sheet, literature, literary, pour, face, personality, private, deprive, lose, extra, forehead, catch, deft, boat, go to bed, spoon, false, lie, slogan, elbow, break, break, shovel, horse, onion, moon, skis, Darling, be in love, admire, Love, curiosity, curious, curious, curiosity. As you can see, these are words of everyday communication between people, regardless of their age, education and profession.

Of course, the boundary between active and passive words is very fluid and changeable. For example, the name of the privatization check voucher unexpectedly burst into the lives of Russians in the mid-1990s, one might say, it was on everyone’s lips for several years and just as quickly disappeared from use, leaving behind only unpleasant memories.

RUSSIAN LANGUAGE VOCABULARY FROM VIEWPOINT

ACTIVE AND PASSIVE STOCK

1. The concept of active and passive vocabulary.

2. Outdated words:

2.1. Historicisms

2.2. Archaisms and their types

Obsolete words are different in terms of origin. These are, firstly, native Russian words ( bargain"bazaar" boyar, merchant); Old Slavonicisms ( gold, hail, cheeks), foreign words ( battle"battle", Victoria"victory"). Thus, the concepts of “Old Church Slavonic vocabulary” and “obsolete vocabulary” are not identical.

Obsolete words also differ in their degree of obsolescence. The first group is words with a high degree of archaization, incomprehensible to most native speakers. Firstly, these are words that have disappeared from the language and are not found in derivative words ( vyya"neck", grid"warrior", strict"uncle"), prosinets"February", ramen"shoulders"; secondly, words that are not used independently, but are found as part of derivative words: babble"beauty" ( ridiculous), memorial"memory" ( memorial), here"fat" ( fat), prati"wash" ( laundress, laundry), publican"tax collector" ( ordeal) treacherous"blacksmith" ( deceit); thirdly, words that in modern Russian are found only as part of phraseological units: goof"to find yourself in a difficult situation" ( screw up"a machine for making thick ropes"), treasured like the apple of your eye"to take care of something" ( apple of the eye"pupil"); get caught like chickens in cabbage soup"find yourself in a difficult or hopeless situation" ( chickens"rooster").

The second group includes obsolete words known to native speakers of the modern Russian language: verst, arshin, konka, voice, finger, NEP, kulak, laborer, province, Komsomol, imperialism.

Some obsolete words have fallen out of active use as common nouns, but actively function as proper names: Belitsa (squirrel"squirrel"), Volozhin (vologist"slough") Aksamitov (Aksamit"velvet").

Among the obsolete words there are also those that have disappeared from active use in the modern Russian language, but are widely used in other Slavic languages: velmi"very" (white) velma, Ukrainian velmi), stomach“life” (Bulgarian, Croatian) stomach), all"village" (bel. weight, Polish wies); enemy"enemy" (white) enemy, Ukrainian enemy).

Obsolete words differ in the text and by the reasons that led them to the category of obsolete. Words can fall out of active use and become a passive vocabulary for two reasons: 1) due to the fact that the phenomena and things called by these words pass away and become obsolete; 2) the words themselves become obsolete, being displaced by other words.

Words that name objects of a bygone way of life, old culture, phenomena associated with the economy of the past, old socio-political relations are called historicisms. There are no and cannot be parallels in the active vocabulary for historicisms.

There are several thematic groups of historicisms:

1) historicisms related to the socio-political sphere: tsar, prince, veche, sergeant, petition, landowner, cadet, kulak, state councilor;

2) names of persons by occupation: mayor, student, factory owner, barge hauler; Comp. example from A.'s novel: Sophia ordered to send privet and loudmouths to call the archers, living rooms and cloth hundreds, townspeople and all good people to the Kremlin;

3) names of military ranks and types of weapons: centurion, lieutenant, cornet, captain, hussar, orderly"soldier, officer's servant" mortar, arquebus;

4) names of old measures of length, area, weight, monetary units: arshin, fathom, verst, pound, pud, hryvnia, altyn, fifty kopecks;

5) names of household items: torch, light, prosak, stupa, armyak, caftan, camisole, laundress. Comp. example from the dictionary: pranik, laundry“Roller for washing clothes on the river”; go away“wash by squeezing, beat with a roller.” I need to cross it again, I didn’t fix it enough, it smells like soap.

A special place among historicisms is occupied by words that arose in the Soviet era and have already become historicisms: food detachment, committee of the poor, educational program, NEP, NEPman, surplus appropriation system, hut-reading room, perestroika, glasnost, state acceptance. Having emerged as neologisms, these words did not last long in the active dictionary, turning into historicisms.

Archaisms(Greek Archaios“ancient”) are outdated names for modern things and phenomena. These words went into passive stock because new names for the same concepts appeared in the language. The fundamental difference between historicisms and archaisms is that archaisms have parallels in the active vocabulary: this- this, eyes- eyes, in vain- in vain sail- sail.

Depending on whether the word as a whole or its meaning is outdated, archaisms are divided into lexical and semantic; in turn, among the lexical archaisms the following groups are distinguished:

1) proper lexical archaisms - words that are displaced from the active stock by words of a different root: Audrina- bedroom, thief- thief, robber, komon- horse, in advance- because, right hand- right hand, shuitsa- left hand, finger- finger, brow- forehead, vyya- neck, percy- breast, memorial- memory, Psyche- soul;

2) lexical-word-formative archaisms - words that have been replaced in active use by single-root words with other morphemes: friendship- friendship, assistance– assistance, wealth- wealth, nervous- nervous, carrier– carrier, desolation- desolation, humanity- humanity;

3) lexical-phonetic archaisms are words that in the active vocabulary are synonymous with words with a different sound appearance: peeit– poet, room- number, philosophy– philosophy, Spanish– Spanish, good- brave, hospital- hospital, klob- club. This type of archaism also includes Old Slavonicisms with incomplete combinations: cold, shore, gold, milk.

A variety of lexical-phonetic archaisms are accentological archaisms, in which only the accent is obsolete: symbol – symbol, philologist – philologist, epigraph – epigraph. Wed:

He knew quite a bit of Latin,

To parse epigraphs(Pushkin).

4) grammatical archaisms differ from modern words in their outdated grammatical forms: hall- hall, scared– fright, manfeta– cuff, piano(f.r.) – piano(m.r.), swan(f.r.) – swan(m.r.), oars – oars, rings – rings.

Lexico-semantic archaisms are words preserved in the active vocabulary, whose meaning has become outdated: language"people", stomach"life", railway station"entertainment establishment" lie"tell", a shame"spectacle" poster"passport for peasants" idol"pagan idol" order"administrative institution" subscriber“an artist who paints buildings and ceilings.”

The functions of historicisms and archaisms in the modern Russian language are different. Historicisms have no parallels in modern language, and therefore they are turned to when it is necessary to name objects and phenomena of the past. Currently, historicisms are actively used primarily in scientific texts on history. Another area of ​​use of historicisms is historical works of art: “Peter the Great” by A. Tolstoy, “Boris Godunov”, “Ivan the Terrible” by V. Kostylev, “I came to give you freedom”, etc. Thus, in the novel “Peter the Great” there are historicisms boyar, steward, altyn, gridnitsa, volost, priest, dragoon and etc.

Archaisms, being “synonyms” of modern words, differ from them by additional stylistic shades. Therefore, archaisms in texts are used as a vivid stylistic device for the following purposes:

1) to create the flavor of the era, to stylize ancient speech: “ Vivat! Vivat to Mr. Bombardier!»; « Victoria turned out very nice ...»; « Isn't this world better than embarrassing battles?. Comp. also a fragment of Pyotr Grinev’s love letter to Masha Mironova from Pushkin’s “The Captain’s Daughter”:

You, having learned my misfortunes,

Have pity on me, Masha,

In vain me in this fierce part,

And that I'm captivated by you.

2) as a means of giving speech a high, solemn sound: “ Arise, prophet, and see and listen,

be fulfilled by my will,

And, bypassing the seas and lands,

with the verb, burn the hearts of people!"(Pushkin).

A hundred years have passed, and the young city,

There is beauty and wonder in full countries,

From the darkness of the forests, from the swamps of blat

Ascended magnificently, proudly(Pushkin).

Yevtushenko: " O Russian cities and towns!»

Block: " And the blood rushes to the cheeks…»; « How long should the mother push?»

3) outdated words are used by writers as a means of creating satire and humor:

: « In each line, a servant's hand is visible; Many in Taganrog do not count their wives and daughters"; [congratulates his brother Alexander on the birth of his daughter in a letter]: May the newborn live for many years, exceeding her physical and moral beauty, her golden voice, and may she eventually snatch a valiant husband for herself (be baptized, you fool!), having first seduced and plunged into despondency all the Taganrog high school students!

: « The director yelled, raising his skinny finger to the dim sky". Examples from the film “Ivan Vasilyevich Changes His Profession” (script based on the play) are also indicative: Is this how you submit a petition to the king? Did the housekeeper make vodka? Whose will you be? Why did you offend the noblewoman? Whose slave? Lepota! and etc.

2.4. Historical dictionaries record the vocabulary of certain historical periods of the existence of a language, reflect the meaning and forms of words, as well as the changes that occurred in these words. The most famous and significant historical dictionary is “Materials for a dictionary of the Old Russian language”. Sreznevsky worked on this dictionary for almost 40 years, but did not have time to complete it. The dictionary was published after the author's death in 1893–1912. In 1958 it was republished in three volumes.

The dictionary contains about 120,000 words extracted from 2,700 sources from the 11th to 14th centuries. The meanings of words in Sreznevsky’s dictionary are conveyed by synonyms; many words have their Greek and Latin equivalents. Each meaning is illustrated with examples. The dictionary also has shortcomings: original Russian and Old Church Slavonic words are not distinguished, there are no grammatical and stylistic notes, and the meaning of words is not always accurate and complete. But despite this, the dictionary is the most complete collection of vocabulary of the Old Russian language of the 11th – 15th centuries. This dictionary is indispensable when reading ancient Russian monuments and studying the ancient Russian language.

Since 1975, the “Dictionary of the Russian Language of the 11th – 17th Centuries” began to be published, and the publication is currently ongoing. The dictionary will contain about 60 thousand words with the highest frequency of use. There are no grammatical and stylistic marks. In the name of the dictionary, the concept of "Russian language" is expanded. In relation to the 11th – 14th centuries, the term “Old Russian language” is generally accepted, and only since the 14th century has it been called Russian.

In addition to general historical dictionaries, there are reference dictionaries for individual written monuments. Thus, since the beginning of the 60s, the historical and philological “Dictionary-Reference Book “The Lay of Igor’s Campaign” has been published in separate editions.

The process opposite to the obsolescence of words is the emergence of new words. The development of science, technology, culture, industry, agriculture and the development of new social relations are the main reasons that give rise to new words and phrases that serve as the names of new objects, phenomena, concepts to satisfy new needs arising in society. Therefore, every neoplasm is a social phenomenon.

Words that have appeared in a language to denote new concepts and have not yet entered the active vocabulary are called neologisms(Greek neos– new and logos– word, concept). Such words remain neologisms until they finally become familiar with the language and become part of the active vocabulary, until they are perceived as words that have a connotation of freshness and unusualness. In the past, neologisms were words outlook, future, citizen, iceberg, bus, hangar.

It is characteristic that a newly appeared word usually immediately leads to the appearance of a new word created according to a certain pattern. As a result, word-formation series arise: airfield – cosmodrome – lunodrome, waterdrome, rocket launcher, tankdrome, tractor track; all-terrain rover - lunar rover, planetary rover, mars rover, grain rover; electron – polytron, heattron, climatron, microtron.

A lot of new words and phrases arose during the Soviet era. This is explained by the fact that it is precisely in revolutionary eras, when a radical breakdown of social relations occurs, that neologisms appear to satisfy the new needs that have arisen in society.

New words are created on the basis of elements existing in the language - morphemes, i.e. from old linguistic material. An important condition for the emergence of a neologism is the presence of a model (a pattern according to which the word is created). Words are created according to productive patterns that give rise to new words. For example, according to the productive model of the formation of the word television, the words intervision, cosmovision; By analogy with electrons, the following were formed: polytron"electron beam device" climatetron“a structure for creating natural climatic conditions.”

In creating new words, the method of foundation is productive: state apparatus, acupuncture, radiotelephone, European Parliament etc. – and the method of abbreviation (creating complex abbreviated words): bum(person of no fixed abode), Military industrial complex(military-industrial complex), riot police(special police unit), mass media(mass media).

Not all words that appear in a language are welcome. Along with successfully formed words, sometimes clumsy, unsuccessful, and sometimes difficult to pronounce words appear. In the 20s - 30s there was an increase in the creation of complex and compound words unnecessarily. This was satirically ridiculed in the play “Bathhouse” and the poem “The Sitting Ones.” The poet cites such ironic formations as glavnachpups(chief manager for approval management), name of institution ABVGJZKom etc. Such arbitrary words should be fought.

Neologisms that arose relatively recently include the words assets, broker, voucher, dumping, distributor, realtor, marketing, manager, digest, thriller, casting, ikebana, bodybuilding, hamburger, pizza, alternative, rating, impeachment, inauguration, summit, sponsor, scanner, monitor, printer, website, file etc. If the words are successfully formed, and the phenomena they denote are firmly established in life, then the name quickly outgrows being a neologism, becoming a word of active vocabulary.

Dictionaries, unable to keep up with life, cannot record a new word in time. The first registrar of all new developments in the language is the periodical press - newspapers and magazines. Periodicals respond with amazing speed to all the discoveries of science and technology, to all events in the social life of the country, production, and international life.

Each era has its own neologisms, which in subsequent eras are perceived as familiar or even outdated.

3.1. There are differences between linguistic and individual author's neologisms. Common linguistic neologisms are lexical new formations that have arisen in the common language and are known to all native speakers: sponsor, toaster, consensus, inflation, electorate etc. General linguistic neologisms are divided into two types - lexical and semantic. Lexical neologisms– these are new names of new or previously existing concepts: designer, rally, acceleration. Semantic neologisms– words with new meanings. These meanings are the result of figurative use of the word, which leads to the further development of polysemy and expansion of the scope of use of the word. For example: geography“distribution, placement of something in any locality, area”; palette"diversity, varied manifestation of something" steep“making a strong impression; extraordinary"; “showing particular cruelty in his actions and behavior; demonstrating one's physical strength or great influence" roof"cover; that which protects, protects from danger.”

Individual author's neologisms (occasionalisms ) are words that are formed by word artists, publicists, etc. in order to enhance the expressiveness of the statement. Unlike linguistic neologisms, individual authorial ones perform not a nominative, but an expressive function, rarely pass into the literary language and usually do not receive nationwide use (the exception is isolated examples of the type of word pro-meeting). Like general linguistic neologisms, occasionalisms are formed according to the laws of language, according to models from morphemes present in the language, therefore, even taken out of context, they are understandable: potted, Küchelbeckerism(Pushkin), children, window to breathe(Chekhov); multi-storey, disperse, chamberlain(Mayakovsky), knobby, foamy, ringing(Yesenin), leaderism, friendlessness, lovelessness, lumpiness(Yevtushenko).

Among individual author's formations there may also be semantic neologisms: poplar"a pedestrian", troubles"applause", nozzle"imagined" pheasant"electrician", land“sycophancy”, etc.

Neologisms perform mainly a nominative function. General linguistic neologisms are found in scientific, journalistic and colloquial styles: American scientists proposed calling element No. 000 “mendelevium” in honor of the great Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev. The main task of the flight is docking with the spacecraft. Individual copyrights are used primarily in fiction and journalism:

Let the cheek remember carefully,

How I consoled you after a fight

Roughness of the tongue

All-understanding dog(Eut.).

But usually individual author’s neologisms are used for stylistic purposes, primarily to create humor, satire, sarcasm: Wed. at Mayakovsky's : Husband teases wife; But London is chamberlain and is not too lazy to raise its fist.

There were no dictionaries of new words for a long time, although interest in neologisms appeared a long time ago. Back in the times of Peter the Great, the “Lexicon of New Vocabularies” was compiled, which was essentially a short dictionary of foreign words. I included a few of the new words in my dictionary. The “Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language”, edited, became significant in the composition of neologisms. An even larger number of them were included in Ozhegov’s dictionary, and then in BAS and MAS.

In 1971, a dictionary-reference book was published, prepared based on materials from the press and literature of the 60s: “New words and meanings”, ed. And. The dictionary explains about 3,500 of the most common words. The dictionary is not normative, but many words in it are provided with stylistic markings. Individual author's new formations and occasional words in dictionaries.

Since 1978, the yearbooks “New in Russian Lexicon” have been published in separate editions: Dictionary Materials-77, SM-78, SM-79, SM-80, edited. These issues are experimental publications that contain a lexicographic description of words not recorded in dictionaries, new meanings of words, and phrases from periodicals of a particular year. Historical and word-formation information is provided for new words.

In 2000, the Institute of Linguistic Research of the Russian Academy of Sciences published the “Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language of the End of the 20th Century: Language Changes.” This dictionary presents the vocabulary of one of the complex and controversial periods in the history of the Russian language (1995 – 1997). From the card index created by the authors of the dictionary, numbering about 2 million word usages, the dictionary includes about 5.5 thousand words and expressions that reflect all spheres of modern life. The dictionary provides extensive and varied information about the word: interpretation, examples in the form of quotations, encyclopedic data, stylistic characteristics, features of word usage, and, if necessary, etymology; The dictionary entry contains synonyms, antonyms, set phrases and phraseological units. The dictionary contains information about the functioning of words in the past and their semantic changes. The dictionary describes dynamic processes that usually remain outside the scope of well-known academic dictionaries.

Limited vocabulary - the use of which is limited due to some extralinguistic reasons. These include: dialectisms(restrictions are territorial), terms and professionalisms(to be used only in an appropriate professional environment), jargon(used by groups of people connected by common non-professional interests, lifestyle), colloquial words and expressions(used only in urban environments, by people with low educational qualifications), vulgarisms(restrictions on use are related to cultural attitudes in society).

Active and passive vocabulary are distinguished due to the different usage of words.

Active vocabulary constitute words that a speaker of a given language not only understands, but also uses and actively uses. Depending on the level of linguistic development of speakers, their active vocabulary averages from 300-400 words to 1500-2000 words. The active composition of the vocabulary includes the most frequent words that are used every day in communication, the meanings of which are known to all speakers: earth, white, go, many, five, on. The active dictionary also includes socio-political vocabulary (social, progress, competition, economics, etc.), as well as words that belong to special vocabulary and terminology, but denote relevant concepts and are therefore known to many non-specialists: atom, gene, genocide, prevention, cost-effective, virtual, atom, anesthesia, verb, ecology.

Into passive vocabulary includes words that are rarely used by the speaker in ordinary speech communication. The meanings are not always clear to speakers. Passive words form three groups:

1) archaisms;
2) historicisms;
3) neologisms.

1. Archaisms (from the Greek archaios 'ancient') - obsolete words or expressions, displaced from active use by synonymous units: neck - neck, right hand - right hand, in vain - in vain, in vain, from ancient times - from time immemorial, performer - actor, this - this, that is to say - that is.

The following types of archaisms are distinguished:

· actually lexical - these are words that are completely outdated, as an integral sound complex: lichba ‘account’, otrokovitsa ‘teenage girl’, influenza ‘flu’;

· semantic - these are words with an outdated meaning: belly (in the meaning of ‘life’), shame (in the meaning of ‘spectacle’), existent (in the meaning of ‘existing’), outrageous (in the meaning of ‘calling for indignation, for rebellion’);

· phonetic - a word that retained the same meaning, but had a different sound design in the past: historia (history), glad (hunger), vrata (gate), mirror (mirror), piit (poet), osmoy (eighth), fire 'fire ';

· accented - words that in the past had an emphasis different from the modern one: symbol, music, ghost, shuddered, against;

· morphological - words with an outdated morphemic structure: ferocity - ferocity, nervous - nervous, collapse - collapse, disaster - disaster, answer - answer.

In speech, archaisms are used: a) to recreate the historical flavor of the era (usually in historical novels, stories); b) to give speech a touch of solemnity, pathetic emotion (in poetry, in an oratory, in a journalistic speech); c) to create a comic effect, irony, satire, parody (usually in feuilletons, pamphlets); d) for the speech characteristics of a character (for example, a person of clergy).

2. Historicisms They call outdated words that have fallen out of use due to the disappearance of the realities that they denoted: boyar, clerk, oprichnik, baskak, constable, crossbow, shishak, caftan, okolotochny, solicitor. Words denoting the realities of the Soviet era also became historicisms: committees of the poor, NEPman, revolutionary committee, socialist competition, Komsomol, five-year plan, district committee.

For polysemantic words, one of the meanings can become historic. For example, the commonly used word people has an outdated meaning of ‘servants, workers in a manor house’. The word PIONEER, meaning ‘member of a children’s organization in the USSR’, can also be considered obsolete.

Historicisms are used as a nominative means in scientific-historical literature, where they serve as names of the realities of past eras, and as a pictorial means in works of fiction, where they contribute to the reconstruction of a particular historical era.

Sometimes words that have become historicisms return to active use. This happens due to the return (reactualization) of the phenomenon itself denoted by this word. Such, for example, are the words gymnasium, lyceum, governor, Duma, etc.

3. Neologisms (from Greek neos 'new' + logos 'word') are words that have recently appeared in the language and are still unknown to a wide range of native speakers: mortgage, world championship, glamor, inauguration, creative, extreme, etc. After the word enters the wide range usage, it ceases to be a neologism. The emergence of new words is a natural process reflecting the development of science, technology, culture, and social relations.

There are lexical and semantic neologisms. Lexical neologisms are new words, the appearance of which is associated with the formation of new concepts in the life of society. These include words such as autobahn 'a type of highway', jacuzzi 'a large heated bathtub with hydromassage', label 'product label', remake 'a remake of a previously filmed film', bluetooth 'a type of wireless communication for data transmission', as well as sponsor, hit, show, etc.

Semantic neologisms are words that belong to the active dictionary, but have acquired new, previously unknown meanings. For example, the word anchor in the 70s. received a new meaning ‘a special platform for fixing an astronaut, located on the orbital station next to the hatch’; the word CHELNOK in the 80s. acquired the meaning of “a small trader who imports goods from abroad (or exports them abroad) with their subsequent sale in local markets.”

A special type of words of this kind are individually authored neologisms, which are created by poets, writers, and publicists with special stylistic purposes. Their distinctive feature is that they, as a rule, do not become active vocabulary, remaining occasionalisms - single or rarely used new formations: Kuchelbecker (A. Pushkin), green-haired (N. Gogol), Moscow soul (V. Belinsky), passenger , become masculine (A. Chekhov), machinery (V. Yakhontov), ​​frown (E. Isaev), six-story building (N. Tikhonov), vermutorno (V. Vysotsky). overblown (A. Blok), multi-powder, mandolin, hammer-handed (V. Mayakovsky). Only individual author’s formations over time become words in the active dictionary: industry (N. Karamzin), bungler (M. Saltykov-Shchedrin), procrastinators (V. Mayakovsky), mediocrity (I. Severyanin), etc.

The creation of new words is a creative process that reflects a person’s desire for novelty and completeness in the perception of reality. Native speakers create new words that reflect the nuances of existence and its assessment: for example, psychoteca, soulful, soulful dance, joyfulness, specialness, self-righteousness, etc. (from the collection of neologisms by M. Epstein).

However, the results of word searches should not always be considered successful. For example, the new formations found in the following statements are unlikely to enrich the national lexicon.

The question has been formed and guaranteed.
The store urgently needs a vegetable shop to sell vegetables.
There are also real masterpieces of toy making.
Material assets were stolen, although the warehouse was special.

Ticket 15. Phraseological norm. Origin and stylistic coloring of phraseological units. Updating phraseological units in speech. Speech errors associated with the use of phraseological units.

The use of non-free combinations of words and phraseological units that are reproduced or not reproduced in speech is called phraseological speech norms.

By origin, some phraseological units are actually Russian, others are borrowed.

Most phraseological units are of original Russian origin. The main source of Russian phraseology are free phrases, which, when used in a figurative meaning, become phraseological units. Wed: The boat floats with the flow. - He doesn’t want to change anything, he goes with the flow. By order of the commander, the soldier left the ranks. - The device broke down very quickly and needs repair. The usual area for the occurrence of such expressions is colloquial speech.

Actually, Russian phraseological units are associated with the history and culture of Russia, the customs and traditions of the Russian people, for example: clumsy work, register Izhitsa, the sky seemed like a sheepskin. Many arose from proverbs: the sparrow ate the dog; works of art: Trishkin's caftan, a disservice, like a squirrel in a wheel, to the village grandfather.

Some phraseological units are borrowed from the Old Church Slavonic language: bear your cross, salt of the earth, manna from heaven, unbelieving Thomas; from the myths of different peoples: Augean stables, Procrustean bed.

Many phraseological units turn out to be difficult to understand due to their grammatical design and unclear meaning of the words that make them up. For example: the voice of one crying in the wilderness is a call for something that remains unanswered; stumbling block - hindrance, difficulty; pitch darkness - complete, hopeless darkness; abomination of desolation - a state of complete devastation; to throw pearls before swine - to talk about something that exceeds the understanding of the listener; Sisyphean labor - endless and fruitless work; Homeric laughter - uncontrollable, thunderous laughter; a talk of the town - a subject of general conversation, a sensation; to drink the cup to the bottom - to experience misfortune; skim the surface - do not delve deeply into something.

Stylistically, phraseological units differ from words in that the bulk of words are stylistically neutral, and the bulk of phraseological units are expressive and stylistically significant. From the point of view of expressive and stylistic coloring, phraseological units of the Russian language are divided into colloquial (a week without a year, for the whole of Ivanovo, you can’t spill water, a white crow), bookish (people of good will, on the brink of war, give testimony, put into operation) and inter-style.

Phraseological innovation - in order to update phraseological units, writers give them an unusual form. Modifications of phraseological units can be expressed in the reduction or expansion of their composition.

Reduction, or reduction of composition, phraseology usually associated with its rethinking. For example: “Make the deputy pray to God ... (cutting off the second part of the proverb - “so he will break his forehead” - only strengthens the irony in assessing the decision of the Duma of the Russian Federation, which aggravated the political situation in Transnistria. Another example: Useful tips: Don’t be born beautiful (“ LG") - cutting off the second part of the proverb Do not be born beautiful, but be born happy led to a change in its meaning, the meaning of the new aphorism is "beauty leads to misfortune."

The opposite of reduction expansion of the composition of phraseological units. For example: The questions we touched upon were not accidental... These are those granite stumbling blocks on the road of knowledge, which at all times were the same, frightened people and attracted people to themselves (Hertz.) - the granite definition introduced in a stable phrase that gives the image a special clarity. The composition of phraseological units is often expanded due to the introduction of clarifying words (Cats are not ordinary, but with long yellow claws, scratching her heart. - Ch.; Happiness is not in our money.).

Changing the composition of a phraseological unit can become a means of enhancing the expressive coloring of speech(I will wait with the greatest impatience... just don’t put it off for too long. - M.G.). In other cases, the introduction of additional words into phraseological units gives them new semantic shades. For example: It’s a bad time for joint performances - you can sit in a dirty puddle, but you don’t want to (M. G.) - sitting in a puddle means “putting yourself in an awkward, stupid, funny position”; the definition introduced into this phraseological unit expands the meaning: "to allow oneself to be involved in a dishonest game, to become a victim of the machinations of hostile people."

The following can be distinguished speech errors related to violation of phraseological norms:

· Unjustified reduction or expansion of phraseological units due to the inclusion or exclusion of individual words.

She rushed to run with all her long legs (correctly: as fast as you can).

It is necessary to note this aggravating circumstance (correctly: aggravating circumstance).

· Replacement of any component of a phraseological unit, usually a word.

The young man succeeds in everything, he must have been born under a lucky moon (correct: born under a lucky star).

Without further ado, I will quote an excerpt from the article (correctly: without further ado).

· Distortion of the grammatical form of the components of phraseological units.

At the graduation ceremony, a representative of the administration said that talented managers had arrived in the regiment (correctly: the regiment arrived).

Management put two questions at the forefront (correctly: at the forefront).

· Contamination, or confusion, of two phraseological units.

Mutual understanding plays a big role in family life (IS OF GREAT IMPORTANCE AND PLAYS AN IMPORTANT ROLE).

I can't speak up to talk about it ( the tongue does not turn and the hand does not rise).

· Use of phraseological units without taking into account their meaning.

In planning departments and accounting departments, they are settling their last scores with the past year (to settle their last scores (with life) means ‘to commit suicide’).

· Destruction of the figurative meaning of phraseological units.

Oblomov was the banner of the times (that’s right : sign of the times).

· Reading phraseological units in their literal meaning (deidiomatization).

A person is not satisfied with bread alone; he also needs potatoes, noodles, meat would not hurt (The phraseological unit is not satisfied with bread alone indicates the need for spiritual food, here we are talking about material food, food products).

Announcement at the shooting range: Each shooter who hits the target receives a bullet ( get a bullet has the meaning ‘to be shot, killed’, in the context it speaks of the possibility of an additional shot).

Ticket 16. Morphological norm. System of parts of speech in modern Russian language. Noun. Lexico-grammatical categories: features of use. Category of number of nouns.

All words of the Russian language can be divided into groups called parts of speech. Morphology is a section of grammar that studies the parts of speech. Together with syntax, morphology makes up a branch of the science of language called grammar.
Each part of speech has characteristics that can be grouped into three groups:

All parts of speech are divided into two groups - independent (significant) and official . Interjections occupy a special position in the system of parts of speech.
Independent (nominative) parts of speech include words naming objects, their actions and signs. You can ask questions about independent words, and in a sentence significant words are members of the sentence.

The independent parts of speech in Russian include the following: :

1) As already noted, in linguistics there is no single point of view on the position of participles and gerunds in the system of parts of speech. Some researchers classify them as independent parts of speech, others consider them special forms of the verb. Participle and gerund really occupy an intermediate position between independent parts of speech and forms of the verb. In this manual we adhere to the point of view reflected, for example, in the textbook: Babaytseva V.V., Chesnokova L.L. Russian language. Theory. Grades 5–9. M., 2001.
2) In linguistics there is no single point of view on the composition of such parts of speech as numerals. In particular, in “academic grammar” it is customary to consider ordinal numbers as a special category of adjectives. However, school tradition classifies them as numerals. We will adhere to this position in this manual.
3) Different manuals characterize the composition of pronouns differently. In particular, the words there, there, nowhere etc. in some school textbooks they are classified as adverbs, in others - as pronouns. In this manual we consider such words as pronouns, adhering to the point of view reflected in “academic grammar” and in the textbook: Babaytseva V.V., Chesnokova L.L. Russian language. Theory. Grades 5–9. M., 2001.

Functional parts of speech - these are words that do not name objects, actions, or signs, but express only the relationships between them.

• Functional words cannot be questioned.
• Function words are not parts of the sentence.
• Function words serve independent words, helping them connect with each other as part of phrases and sentences.

The auxiliary parts of speech in Russian include the following:

· preposition ( in, on, about, from, because of);

· union ( and, but, however, because, so that, if);

· particle ( would, whether, not, even, exactly, only).

Interjections occupy a special position among parts of speech.

• Interjections do not name objects, actions, or signs (as independent parts of speech), do not express relationships between independent words and do not serve to connect words (as auxiliary parts of speech).
• Interjections convey our feelings. To express amazement, delight, fear, etc., we use interjections such as ah, oh, uh; to express the feeling of cold - br-r, to express fear or pain – Ouch etc.

1.Noun – an independent part of speech that denotes an object and answers questions Who? What?
Based on the nature of their lexical meaning, nouns are divided into two categories:

· common nouns name a class of homogeneous objects;

· proper nouns name single (individual) objects, which include first names, patronymics, last names of people, names of animals, names of cities, rivers, seas, oceans, lakes, mountains, deserts (geographical names), names of books, paintings, films, magazines, newspapers, performances, names of ships, trains, various organizations, historical events, etc.

Based on their meaning, nouns are divided into four main categories:

· A) specific – name specific objects of living and inanimate nature (varied by numbers, combined with cardinal numerals).

b) real - name various substances, a homogeneous mass of something (they have only one form of number - singular or plural; they are not combined with cardinal numerals; they are combined with the words many, few, as well as with various units of measurement).

· V) distracted – are called abstract phenomena that are perceived mentally (they have only a singular or only a plural, and are not combined with cardinal numerals).

· G) collective – call many identical objects as one whole (they have only a singular form; they are not combined with cardinal numbers).

Based on the type of objects they denote, nouns are divided into two categories:

· animate nouns name objects of living nature, a question is asked about them Who?

· inanimate nouns name objects of inanimate nature, a question is asked about them What?

Noun number

1. Most nouns have two numbers - the only thing And plural . In the singular form, a noun denotes one thing; in the plural form, it denotes several things. Pencil - pencils; doctor - doctors.
2. Only one form (singular or plural) have real, collective, abstract and some concrete nouns.
Only the form singular have:

· most real nouns; Oil, cement, sugar, pearls, sour cream, milk.

· most abstract nouns; Joy, goodness, grief, fun, redness, running, gray hair.

· most collective nouns; Teaching, students, foliage, animals, crows, children.

· most proper names. Voronezh, Caucasus, Caspian Sea, Ural.

In some cases, nouns that have only a singular form can form plural forms. But such education is necessarily associated with a change in the meaning of the word:
1) for real
a) types, varieties of substance: wine – dessert wines, oil – industrial oils;
b) the value of the large space covered by this substance: water – ocean waters, sand – Karakum sands;
2) at distracted of nouns the plural form has the meaning:
a) various manifestations of qualities, properties, states, opportunity - new opportunities, joy - our joys;
b) duration, frequency and degree of manifestation of a sign, condition, action: frost – prolonged frosts, pain – severe pain, scream – screams.

Only the form plural have : some real nouns ( Ink, sawdust, cleaning), some abstract nouns ( Name days, elections, attacks, intrigues, beatings), some collective nouns ( Money, finance, wilds), some proper names ( Karakum, Carpathians, novel “Demons”, words denoting paired objects, that is, objects consisting of two parts ( Glasses, trousers, sleigh, gates, scissors, pliers), some names of time periods ( Twilight, day, weekdays, holidays).
For nouns that only have a plural form, not only the gender, but also the declension is not determined!