Human physiology. What does the science of physiology study? Physiology of man and microorganisms Normal physiology what studies

Physiology literally means the study of nature. This is a science that studies the life processes of an organism, its constituent physiological systems, individual organs, tissues, cells and subcellular structures, the mechanisms of regulation of these processes, as well as the effect of environmental factors on the dynamics of life processes.

History of the development of physiology

Initially, ideas about the functions of the body were formed on the basis of the works of scientists of Ancient Greece and Rome: Aristotle, Hippocrates, Gallen, and others, as well as scientists from China and India.

Physiology became an independent science in the 17th century, when, along with the method of observing the activity of the body, the development of experimental research methods began. This was facilitated by the work of Harvey, who studied the mechanisms of blood circulation; Descartes, who described the reflex mechanism.

In the 19th and 20th centuries physiology is developing rapidly. So, studies of tissue excitability were carried out by K. Bernard, Lapik. A significant contribution was made by scientists: Ludwig, Dubois-Reymond, Helmholtz, Pfluger, Bell, Langley, Hodgkin and domestic scientists: Ovsyanikov, Nislavsky, Zion, Pashutin, Vvedensky.

Ivan Mikhailovich Sechenov is called the father of Russian physiology. Of outstanding importance were his works on the study of the functions of the nervous system (central or Sechenov's inhibition), respiration, fatigue processes, etc. In his work "Reflexes of the Brain" (1863), he developed the idea of ​​the reflex nature of the processes occurring in the brain, including thought processes. Sechenov proved that the psyche is determined by external conditions, i.e. its dependence on external factors.

An experimental substantiation of Sechenov's provisions was carried out by his student Ivan Petrovich Pavlov. He expanded and developed the reflex theory, studied the functions of the digestive organs, the mechanisms of regulation of digestion, blood circulation, developed new approaches to conducting physiological experience "methods of chronic experience". For work on digestion in 1904 he was awarded the Nobel Prize. Pavlov studied the main processes occurring in the cerebral cortex. Using the method of conditioned reflexes developed by him, he laid the foundations of the science of higher nervous activity. In 1935, at the World Congress of Physiologists I.P. Pavlov was called the patriarch of the physiologists of the world.

Purpose, tasks, subject of physiology

Animal experiments provide a lot of information for understanding the functioning of the body. However, the physiological processes occurring in the human body have significant differences. Therefore, in general physiology, a special science is distinguished - human physiology. The subject of human physiology is a healthy human body.

Main goals:

1. study of the mechanisms of functioning of cells, tissues, organs, organ systems, the body as a whole;

2. study of the mechanisms of regulation of the functions of organs and organ systems;

3. identification of the reactions of the body and its systems to changes in the external and internal environment, as well as the study of the mechanisms of emerging reactions.

Experiment and its role.

Physiology is an experimental science and its main method is experiment:

1. Sharp experience or vivisection ("live cutting"). In its process, under anesthesia, a surgical intervention is performed and the function of an open or closed organ is examined. After the experience, the survival of the animal is not achieved. The duration of such experiments is from several minutes to several hours. For example, the destruction of the cerebellum in a frog. The shortcomings of the acute experience are the short duration of the experience, the side effects of anesthesia, blood loss and subsequent death of the animal.

2. chronic experience is carried out by carrying out surgical intervention at the preparatory stage to access the organ, and after healing, they begin research. For example, the imposition of a salivary duct fistula in a dog. These experiences last up to several years.

3. Sometimes isolated subacute experience. Its duration is weeks, months.

Experiments on humans are fundamentally different from classical ones:

1. most studies are carried out in a non-invasive way (ECG, EEG);

2. studies that do not harm the health of the subject;

3. clinical experiments - the study of the functions of organs and systems in case of their damage or pathology in the centers of their regulation.

Registration of physiological functions carried out by various methods:

1. simple observations;

2. graphic registration.

In 1847, Ludwig proposed a kymograph and a mercury manometer for recording blood pressure. This made it possible to minimize experimental errors and facilitate the analysis of the obtained data. The invention of the string galvanometer made it possible to record the ECG.

At present, registration of the bioelectric activity of tissues and organs and the microelectronic method are of great importance in physiology. The mechanical activity of organs is recorded using mechano-electrical transducers. The structure and function of internal organs are studied using ultrasonic waves, nuclear magnetic resonance, and computed tomography.

All data obtained using these techniques are fed to electric writing devices and recorded on paper, photographic film, in computer memory and subsequently analyzed.

Physiology is the science of how the organs and systems of living organisms function. What does the science of physiology study? More than any other, it studies biological processes at an elementary level in order to explain how each individual organ and the whole organism works.

The concept of "physiology"

As one famous physiologist Ernest Starling once said, physiology of today is the medicine of tomorrow. is the science of the mechanical, physical and biochemical functions of man. which serves as the basis for modern medicine. As a discipline, it is relevant to areas such as medicine and health care and provides a foundation for understanding how the human body adapts to stress, disease, and physical activity.

Modern research in the field of human physiology contributes to the emergence of new ways to ensure and improve the quality of life, the development of new medical methods of treatment. The main principle, which is the basis for the study of human physiology, is the maintenance of homeostasis through the functioning of complex control systems, covering all levels of the hierarchy of human structure and functions (cells, tissues, organs and organ systems).

human physiology

As science deals with the study of the mechanical, physical and biochemical functions of a person in good health, his organs and the cells of which they are composed. The main level of attention of physiology is the functional level of all organs and systems. Ultimately, science provides insight into the complex functions of the organism as a whole.

Anatomy and physiology are closely related fields of study, anatomy studies forms and physiology studies functions. What does human physiology study? This biological discipline deals with the study of how the body functions in a normal state, and also explores the possible dysfunctions of the body and various diseases.

What does the science of physiology study? Physiology provides answers to questions about how the body works, what happens when a person is born and develops, how body systems adapt to stresses such as exercise or extreme environmental conditions, and how bodily functions change. in painful conditions. Physiology affects functions at all levels, from nerves to muscles, from the brain to hormones, from molecules and cells to organs and systems.

Human body systems

Human physiology as a science studies the functions of the organs of the human body. The physique includes several systems that work together for the proper functioning of the entire body. Some systems are interconnected, and one or more elements of one system may be part of or serve as another.

There are 10 major body systems:

1) The cardiovascular system is responsible for pumping blood through the veins and arteries. Blood must flow into the body, constantly producing fuel and gas for the organs, skin and muscles.

2) The gastrointestinal tract is responsible for processing food, digesting it and converting it into energy for the body.

3) is responsible for reproduction.

4) consists of all the key glands responsible for the production of secretions.

5) is the so-called "container" for the body, to protect the internal organs. Her main organ, the skin, is covered with a large number of sensors that transmit external sensory signals to the brain.

6) Musculoskeletal system: The skeleton and muscles are responsible for the overall structure and shape of the human body.

7) The respiratory system is represented by the nose, trachea and lungs and is responsible for breathing.

8) helps the body get rid of unwanted waste.

9) Nervous System: A network of nerves connects the brain to the rest of the body. This system is responsible for human senses: sight, smell, taste, touch and hearing.

10) The immune system protects or tries to protect the body from disease and disease. If foreign bodies enter the body, the system begins to produce antibodies to protect the body and destroy unwanted guests.

Who needs to know human physiology and why?

What the science of human physiology studies can be a fascinating topic for physicians and surgeons. In addition to medicine, other areas of knowledge are also affected. Human physiology data is essential for sports professionals such as coaches and physiotherapists. In addition, within the framework of the world practice of medicine, various types of therapy are used, for example, massage, where it is also important to know how the body works so that the treatment is as effective as possible and brings only benefit, not harm.

The role of microorganisms

Microorganisms play a key role in nature. They enable the recycling of materials and energy, they can be used as cellular "factories" for the production of antibiotics, enzymes and foods, they can also cause infectious diseases in humans (for example, foodborne infection), animals and plants. Their existence directly depends on the ability to adapt to a changeable environment, the availability of nutrients and light, the pH factor also plays an important role, such categories as pressure, temperature and many others.

Physiology of microorganisms

The basis of the vital activity of microorganisms and all other living beings is the exchange of substances with the environment (metabolism). In the study of such a discipline as the physiology of microorganisms, metabolism plays an important role. This is the process of building chemical compounds in the cell and their destruction in the course of activity to obtain the necessary energy and building elements.

Metabolism includes anabolism (assimilation) and catabolism (dissimilation). The physiology of microorganisms studies the processes of growth, development, nutrition, ways of obtaining energy for the implementation of these processes, as well as their interaction with the environment.

Physiology (from the Greek phýsis - nature and ... Logia)

animals and humans, the science of the vital activity of organisms, their individual systems, organs and tissues, and the regulation of physiological functions. Physics also studies the laws governing the interaction of living organisms with the environment and their behavior under various conditions.

Classification. F. is the most important branch of biology; unites a number of separate, largely independent, but closely related disciplines. A distinction is made between general, particular, and applied physiology. General physiology studies the basic physiological patterns that are common to various types of organisms; reactions of living beings to various stimuli; processes of excitation, inhibition, etc. Electrical phenomena in a living organism (bioelectric potentials) are studied by Electrophysiology. Physiological processes in their phylogenetic development in different species of invertebrates and vertebrates are considered by Comparative Physiology. This section of physiology serves as the basis of evolutionary physiology, which studies the origin and evolution of life processes in connection with the general evolution of the organic world. Problems of evolutionary physiology are also inextricably linked with questions of age-related physiology. , investigating the regularities of the formation and development of the physiological functions of the body in the process of ontogenesis - from the fertilization of the egg until the end of life. The study of the evolution of functions is closely related to the problems of ecological physiology, which studies the features of the functioning of various physiological systems depending on living conditions, that is, the physiological basis of adaptations (adaptations) to various environmental factors. Private F. investigates the processes of vital activity in certain groups or species of animals, for example, in the village - x. animals, birds, insects, as well as the properties of individual specialized tissues (for example, nervous, muscular) and organs (for example, kidneys, heart), the patterns of their combination into special functional systems. Applied physiology studies the general and particular patterns of the work of living organisms, and especially man, in accordance with their special tasks, for example, labor physiology, sports, nutrition, aviation physiology, and space physiology. , underwater, etc.

F. subdivide conditionally into normal and pathological. Normal physiology primarily studies the patterns of functioning of a healthy organism, its interaction with the environment, and the mechanisms of stability and adaptation of functions to the action of various factors. Pathological physiology studies the altered functions of a diseased organism, the processes of compensation, the adaptation of individual functions in various diseases, the mechanisms of recovery and rehabilitation. A branch of pathological F. is clinical F., elucidating the occurrence and course of functional functions (for example, blood circulation, digestion, higher nervous activity) in diseases of animals and humans.

Communication of physiology with other sciences. F. as a branch of biology is closely connected with the morphological sciences - anatomy, histology, cytology, because. morphological and physiological phenomena are interdependent. Physics makes extensive use of the results and methods of physics, chemistry, and also cybernetics and mathematics. The patterns of chemical and physical processes in the body are studied in close contact with biochemistry, biophysics and bionics, and evolutionary patterns - with embryology. The function of higher nervous activity is associated with ethology, psychology, physiological psychology, and pedagogy. F. s.-x. animals is of direct importance for animal husbandry, animal husbandry and veterinary medicine. Physiotherapy has traditionally been most closely associated with medicine, which uses its achievements to recognize, prevent, and treat various diseases. Practical medicine, in turn, puts before F. new research tasks. The experimental facts of F. as a basic natural science are widely used by philosophy to substantiate the materialistic worldview.

Research methods. F.'s progress is inextricably linked with the success of research methods. “... Science moves in jolts, depending on the progress made by the technique. With each step of the methodology forward, we seem to rise a step higher ... ”(Pavlov I.P., Complete collection of works, vol. 2, book 2, 1951, p. 22). The study of the functions of a living organism is based both on physiological methods proper and on the methods of physics, chemistry, mathematics, cybernetics, and other sciences. Such an integrated approach makes it possible to study physiological processes at various levels, including cellular and molecular ones. The main methods of understanding the nature of physiological processes, the patterns of work of living organisms are observations and experiments carried out on different animals and in various forms. However, any experiment performed on an animal under artificial conditions has no absolute significance, and its results cannot be unconditionally transferred to humans and animals under natural conditions.

In so-called. acute experiment (see. Vivisection) artificial isolation of organs and tissues is used (see. Isolated organs) , excision and artificial stimulation of various organs, removal of bioelectric potentials from them, etc. Chronic experience allows you to repeatedly repeat studies on one object. In a chronic experiment in F., various methodological techniques are used: the imposition of fistulas, the removal of the studied organs into the skin flap, heterogeneous anastomoses of the nerves, and the transplantation of various organs (see Transplantation) , implantation of electrodes, etc. Finally, in chronic conditions, complex forms of behavior are studied, for which they use the techniques of conditioned reflexes (See Conditioned reflexes) or various instrumental techniques in combination with stimulation of brain structures and registration of bioelectrical activity through implanted electrodes. The introduction into clinical practice of multiple long-term implanted electrodes, as well as microelectrode technology for the purpose of diagnosis and treatment, has made it possible to expand research on the neurophysiological mechanisms of human mental activity. Registration of local changes in bioelectrical and metabolic processes in dynamics created a real opportunity to elucidate the structural and functional organization of the brain. With the help of various modifications of the classical method of conditioned reflexes, as well as modern electrophysiological methods, success has been achieved in the study of higher nervous activity. Clinical and functional tests in humans and animals are also one of the forms of physiological experiment. A special type of physiological research methods is the artificial reproduction of pathological processes in animals (cancer, hypertension, Graves' disease, peptic ulcer, etc.), the creation of artificial models and electronic automatic devices that imitate the brain and memory functions, artificial prostheses, etc. Methodological improvements have fundamentally changed the experimental technique and methods of recording experimental data. Mechanical systems have been replaced by electronic converters. It turned out to be possible to more accurately study the functions of the whole organism by using the techniques of electroencephalography, electrocardiography, electromyography (See electromyography), and especially biotelemetry (See Biotelemetry) in animals and humans. The use of the stereotaxic method made it possible to successfully study deeply located brain structures. To record physiological processes, automatic photography from cathode ray tubes onto film or recording with electronic devices is widely used. The registration of physiological experiments on magnetic and perforated tape and their subsequent processing on a computer is becoming more and more widespread. The method of electron microscopy of the nervous system made it possible to more accurately study the structure of interneuronal contacts and determine their specificity in various brain systems.

Historical essay. The initial information from the field of physiology was obtained in ancient times on the basis of empirical observations by naturalists and physicians, and especially anatomical autopsies of animal and human corpses. For many centuries, the views on the body and its functions were dominated by the ideas of Hippocrates and (5th century BC) and Aristotle (See Aristotle) ​​(4th century BC). However, the most significant progress in physics was determined by the widespread introduction of vivisection experiments, which were initiated in ancient Rome by Galen (second century BC). In the Middle Ages, the accumulation of biological knowledge was determined by the demands of medicine. During the Renaissance, the development of physics was facilitated by the general progress of the sciences.

Physiology as a science originates from the work of the English physician W. Harvey. , which, with the discovery of blood circulation (1628), "...makes science out of physiology (of man and also of animals)" (Engels F., Dialectics of Nature, 1969, p. 158). Harvey formulated ideas about the large and small circles of blood circulation and about the heart as the engine of blood in the body. Harvey was the first to establish that blood flows from the heart through the arteries and returns to it through the veins. The basis for the discovery of blood circulation was prepared by the studies of the anatomists A. Vesalius (See Vesalius) , the Spanish scientist M. Servet a (1553), the Italian scientist R. Colombo (1551), G. Fallopia (See Fallopius), and others. The Italian biologist M. Malpighi , for the first time (1661) who described capillaries, proved the correctness of ideas about blood circulation. The leading achievement of philosophy, which determined its subsequent materialistic orientation, was the discovery in the first half of the 17th century of French scientist R. Descartes and later (in the 18th century) Czech. doctor J. Prohaska (See Prohaska) of the reflex principle, according to which every activity of the body is a reflection - a reflex - of external influences carried out through the central nervous system. Descartes assumed that sensory nerves are actuators that stretch when stimulated and open valves on the surface of the brain. Through these valves, “animal spirits” exit, which are sent to the muscles and cause them to contract. The discovery of the reflex dealt the first crushing blow to the church-idealistic ideas about the mechanisms of the behavior of living beings. In the future, "... the reflex principle in the hands of Sechenov became a weapon of the cultural revolution in the sixties of the last century, and after 40 years in the hands of Pavlov it turned out to be a powerful lever that turned the entire development of the problem of the mental by 180 °" (Anokhin P.K., From Descartes do Pavlov, 1945, p. 3).

In the 18th century Physical and chemical research methods are being introduced into physics. The ideas and methods of mechanics were especially actively used. Thus, the Italian scientist G. A. Borelli, at the end of the 17th century. uses the laws of mechanics to explain the movements of animals, the mechanism of respiratory movements. He also applied the laws of hydraulics to the study of the movement of blood in the vessels. The English scientist S. Gales determined the value of blood pressure (1733). The French scientist R. Réaumur and the Italian naturalist L. Spallanzani investigated the chemistry of digestion. Franz. the scientist A. Lavoisier, who studied the processes of oxidation, tried to approach the understanding of respiration on the basis of chemical laws. The Italian scientist L. Galvani discovered "animal electricity," that is, bioelectrical phenomena in the body.

By the 1st half of the 18th century. the beginning of F.'s development in Russia concerns. The department of anatomy and physiology was created in the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences, opened in 1725. It was headed by D. Bernoulli , L. Euler , I. Veitbrecht dealt with the biophysics of blood flow. Important for F. were the studies of M. V. Lomonosov, who attached great importance to chemistry in the knowledge of physiological processes. The leading role in the development of physiology in Russia was played by the medical faculty of Moscow University, opened in 1755. The teaching of the fundamentals of physiology, together with anatomy and other medical specialties, was started by S. G. Zybelin. An independent department of physiology at the university, headed by M. I. Skiadan and I. I. Vech, was opened in 1776. The first dissertation on physiotherapy was written by F. I. Barsuk-Moiseev and was devoted to respiration (1794). The St. Petersburg Medical and Surgical Academy (now the S. M. Kirov Military Medical Academy) was founded in 1798, where phlebotomy subsequently developed significantly.

In the 19th century F. finally separated from anatomy. The achievements of organic chemistry, the discovery of the law of conservation and transformation of energy, the cellular structure of the organism, and the creation of a theory of the evolutionary development of the organic world were of decisive importance for the development of physics at that time.

At the beginning of the 19th century believed that chemical compounds in a living organism are fundamentally different from inorganic substances and cannot be created outside the body. In 1828 it. chemist F. Wöhler synthesized an organic compound, urea, from inorganic substances, and thereby undermined vitalistic ideas about the special properties of chemical compounds in the body. Soon German. the scientist J. Liebig, and then many other scientists, synthesized various organic compounds found in the body and studied their structure. These studies marked the beginning of the analysis of chemical compounds involved in the construction of the body and metabolism. Studies of the metabolism and energy in living organisms were developed. Methods of direct and indirect calorimetry were developed, which made it possible to accurately measure the amount of energy contained in various nutrients, as well as released by animals and humans at rest and during work (works by V. V. Pashutin and , A. A. Likhachev in Russia, M. Rubner a in Germany, F. Benedict, W. Atwater a in the USA, etc.); nutritional norms were determined (K. Voit and others). F. of neuromuscular tissue has received significant development. This was facilitated by the developed methods of electrical stimulation and mechanical graphic recording of physiological processes. German scientist E. Dubois-Reymond proposed a sledge induction apparatus, German. the physiologist C. Ludwig invented (1847) a kymograph, a float manometer for recording blood pressure, a blood clock for recording blood flow velocity, etc. The French scientist E. Marey was the first to use photography to study movements and invented a device for recording movements of the chest, the Italian scientist A. Mosso proposed a device for studying the blood filling of organs (see Plethysmography) , a device for the study of fatigue (Ergograf) and a weight table for studying the redistribution of blood. The laws of the action of direct current on excitable tissue were established (German scientist E. Pfluger , Russian – B. F. Verigo , ), the rate of conduction of excitation along the nerve was determined (G. Helmholtz). Helmholtz also laid the foundations for the theory of vision and hearing. Using the method of telephone listening to an excited nerve, Rus. The physiologist N. E. Vvedensky made a significant contribution to understanding the basic physiological properties of excitable tissues and established the rhythmic character of nerve impulses. He showed that living tissues change their properties both under the influence of stimuli and in the process of activity itself. Having formulated the doctrine of the optimum and pessimum of irritation, Vvedensky was the first to note reciprocal relationships in the central nervous system. He was the first to consider the process of inhibition in genetic connection with the process of excitation, he discovered the phases of transition from excitation to inhibition. Studies of electrical phenomena in the body, initiated by Italian. scientists L. Galvani and A. Volta, were continued by him. scientists - Dubois-Reymond, L. German, and in Russia - Vvedensky. Rus. scientists I. M. Sechenov and V. Ya. Danilevsky were the first to register electrical phenomena in the central nervous system.

Research has begun on the nervous regulation of physiological functions with the help of methods of transection and stimulation of various nerves. German the scientists brothers E. G. and E. Weber discovered the inhibitory effect of the vagus nerve on the heart, Rus. physiologist I. F. Zion – the action of the sympathetic nerve that speeds up heart contractions, IP Pavlov - the amplifying effect of this nerve on heart contractions. A. P. Walter in Russia, and then K. Bernard in France, discovered sympathetic vasoconstrictor nerves. Ludwig and Zion discovered centripetal fibers coming from the heart and aorta, reflexively changing the work of the heart and vascular tone. F. V. Ovsyannikov discovered the vasomotor center in the medulla oblongata, and N. A. Mislavsky studied in detail the previously discovered respiratory center of the medulla oblongata.

In the 19th century ideas have developed about the trophic role of the nervous system, that is, about its influence on metabolic processes and the nutrition of organs. Franz. In 1824, the scientist F. Magendie described pathological changes in tissues after nerve transection; Bernard observed changes in carbohydrate metabolism after an injection into a certain area of ​​the medulla oblongata (“sugar prick”); R. Heidenhain established the influence of sympathetic nerves on the composition of saliva; nerves to the heart. In the 19th century the formation and deepening of the reflex theory of nervous activity continued. The spinal reflexes have been studied in detail and the reflex arc analyzed (See Reflex arc) . Shotl. scientist C. Bell in 1811, as well as Magendie in 1817 and German. scientist I. Muller studied the distribution of centrifugal and centripetal fibers in the spinal roots (Bella - Magendie law (See Bell - Magendie law)) . Bell in 1826 suggested that there are afferent influences coming from the muscles during their contraction into the central nervous system. These views were later developed by the Russian scientists A. Volkman and A. M. Filomafitsky. The work of Bell and Magendie served as an impetus for the development of research on the localization of functions in the brain and formed the basis for subsequent ideas about the activity of physiological systems according to the feedback principle (See Feedback). In 1842 the French physiologist P. Flourens , investigating the role of various parts of the brain and individual nerves in voluntary movements, he formulated the concept of the plasticity of nerve centers and the leading role of the cerebral hemispheres in the regulation of voluntary movements. The work of Sechenov, who discovered the process of inhibition in 1862, was of outstanding importance for the development of physics. in the central nervous system. He showed that stimulation of the brain under certain conditions can cause a special inhibitory process that suppresses excitation. Sechenov also discovered the phenomenon of summation of excitation in the nerve centers. The works of Sechenov, who showed that "... all acts of conscious and unconscious life, according to the method of origin, are reflexes" ("Reflexes of the brain", see in the book: Selected philosophical and psychological works, 1947, p. 176) , contributed to the establishment of materialistic F. Under the influence of Sechenov’s research, S. P. Botkin and Pavlov introduced the concept of Nervism a , i.e., the idea of ​​the primary importance of the nervous system in regulating physiological functions and processes in a living organism (arose as a contrast to the concept of humoral regulation (See Humoral regulation)). The study of the influence of the nervous system on the functions of the body has become a tradition in Rus. and owls. F.

In the 2nd half of the 19th century. With the widespread use of the method of extirpation (removal), the study of the role of various parts of the brain and spinal cord in the regulation of physiological functions was begun. The possibility of direct stimulation of the cerebral cortex was shown to him. scientists G. Fritsch and E. Gitzig in 1870, and the successful removal of the hemispheres was carried out by F. Goltz in 1891 (Germany). An experimental surgical technique was widely developed (works by V. A. Basov, L. Tiri, L. Vell, R. Heidenhain, Pavlov, etc.) for monitoring the functions of internal organs, especially the digestive organs, Pavlov established the basic patterns in the work of the main digestive glands, the mechanism of their nervous regulation, changes in the composition of digestive juices depending on the nature of food and rejected substances. Pavlov's research, awarded the Nobel Prize in 1904, made it possible to understand the work of the digestive apparatus as a functionally integral system.

In the 20th century a new stage in the development of philosophy began, a characteristic feature of which was the transition from a narrowly analytical understanding of life processes to a synthetic one. The work of I. P. Pavlov and his school on the physics of higher nervous activity had a huge impact on the development of domestic and world physics. Pavlov's discovery of the conditioned reflex made it possible, on an objective basis, to begin studying the mental processes underlying the behavior of animals and humans. Over the course of a 35-year study of higher nervous activity, Pavlov established the basic patterns of the formation and inhibition of conditioned reflexes, the physiology of analyzers, types of the nervous system, revealed the features of violations of higher nervous activity in experimental neuroses, developed a cortical theory of sleep and hypnosis, laid the foundations for the doctrine of two signal systems . Pavlov's works formed a materialistic foundation for the subsequent study of higher nervous activity; they provide a natural scientific justification for the theory of reflection created by V. I. Lenin.

A major contribution to the study of the physiology of the central nervous system was made by the English physiologist C. Sherrington. , who established the basic principles of the integrative activity of the brain: reciprocal inhibition, occlusion, convergence (See Convergence) of excitations on individual neurons, etc. Sherrington's work enriched the F. of the central nervous system with new data on the relationship between the processes of excitation and inhibition, on the nature of muscle tone and its disturbance, and had a fruitful influence on the development of further research. Thus, the Dutch scientist R. Magnus studied the mechanisms of maintaining a posture in space and its changes during movements. Owls. the scientist V. M. Bekhterev showed the role of subcortical structures in the formation of emotional and motor reactions in animals and humans, discovered the pathways of the spinal cord and brain, the functions of the visual tubercles, etc. Owls. scientist A. A. Ukhtomsky formulated the doctrine of the dominant (See Dominant) as a leading principle of the brain; this doctrine significantly supplemented the ideas about the rigid determination of reflex acts and their brain centers. Ukhtomsky found that the excitation of the brain caused by the dominant need not only suppresses less significant reflex acts, but also leads to the fact that they enhance the dominant activity.

Significant achievements have enriched F. physical direction of research. The use of a string galvanometer by the Dutch scientist W. Einthoven , and then by the Soviet researcher A.F. Samoilov made it possible to register the bioelectric potentials of the heart. With the help of electronic amplifiers, which made it possible to amplify weak biopotentials hundreds of thousands of times, the American scientist G. Gasser, English - E. Adrian and Russian. physiologist D. S. Vorontsov registered the biopotentials of the nerve trunks (see Bioelectric potentials). Registration of electrical manifestations of brain activity - electroencephalography - was first carried out in Rus. physiologist VV Pravdich-Neminsky and continued and developed by German. researcher G. Berger. The Soviet physiologist MN Livanov applied mathematical methods to analyze the bioelectric potentials of the cerebral cortex. The English physiologist A. Hill registered heat generation in the nerve during the passage of an excitation wave.

In the 20th century studies of the process of nervous excitation by methods of physical chemistry began. The ionic excitation theory was proposed by Rus. scientist V. Yu. Chagovets (See Chagovets) , then developed in the works of him. scientists Yu. Bernshtein, V. Nernst and Rus. researcher P.P. Lazarev a. In the works of the English scientists P. Boyle, E. Conway and A. Hodgkin a , A. Huxley and B. Katz developed the membrane theory of excitation. The Soviet cytophysiologist D. N. Nasonov established the role of cellular proteins in the processes of excitation. The development of the theory of mediators, i.e., chemical transmitters of nerve impulses in nerve endings, is closely connected with research on the process of excitation (Austrian pharmacologist O. Loewy (See Lay) , Samoilov, I. P. Razenkov , A. V. Kibyakov, K. M. Bykov , L. S. Stern , E. B. Babsky, Kh. S. Koshtoyants in the USSR; W. Cannon in the USA; B. Mintz in France, etc.). Developing ideas about the integrative activity of the nervous system, the Australian physiologist J. Eccles developed in detail the doctrine of the membrane mechanisms of synaptic transmission.

In the middle of the 20th century American scientist H. Magone and Italian - J. Moruzzi discovered nonspecific activating and inhibitory effects of the reticular formation (See Reticular formation) on various parts of the brain. In connection with these studies, classical ideas about the nature of the distribution of excitations through the central nervous system, about the mechanisms of cortical-subcortical relationships, sleep and wakefulness, anesthesia, emotions and motivations, have significantly changed. Developing these ideas, the Soviet physiologist P. K. Anokhin formulated the concept of the specific nature of the ascending activating influences of subcortical formations on the cerebral cortex during reactions of various biological qualities. The functions of the limbic system have been studied in detail (See Limbic system) brain (Amer. scientist P. McLane, Soviet physiologist I. S. Beritashvili, etc.), its participation in the regulation of autonomic processes, in the formation of emotions (See Emotions) and motivations (See Motivations) was revealed , processes of memory, the physiological mechanisms of emotions are studied (Amer. researchers F. Bard, P. McLane, D. Lindeli, J. Olds; Italian - A. Zanchetti; Swiss - R. Hess, R. Hunsperger; Soviet - Beritashvili, Anokhin, A.V. Valdman, N.P. Bekhtereva, P.V. Simonov and others). Studies of the mechanisms of sleep have received significant development in the works of Pavlov, Hess, Moruzzi, fr. researcher Jouvet, owls. researchers F. P. Mayorov, N. A. Rozhansky, Anokhin, N. I. Grashchenkov a and etc.

At the beginning of the 20th century there was a new doctrine about the activity of the endocrine glands - Endocrinology. The main violations of physiological functions in lesions of the endocrine glands were elucidated. Ideas about the internal environment of the body, a single neurohumoral regulation (See Neurohumoral regulation), Homeostasis e , barrier functions of the body (the work of Kennon, the Soviet scientists L. A. Orbeli, Bykov, Stern, G. N. Kassil, and others). The studies of Orbeli and his students (A. V. Tonkikh, A. G. Ginetsinsky and others) of the adaptive-trophic function of the sympathetic nervous system and its effect on skeletal muscles, sensory organs and the central nervous system, as well as the school of A. D. Speransky (See Speransky) – the influence of the nervous system on the course of pathological processes - Pavlov's idea of ​​the trophic function of the nervous system was developed. Bykov, his students and followers (V. N. Chernigovsky , I. A. Bulygin, A. D. Slonim, I. T. Kurtsin, E. Sh. Airapetyants, A. V. Rikkl, A. V. Solovyov and others) developed the theory of cortico-visceral physiology and pathology. Bykov's research shows the role of conditioned reflexes in the regulation of the functions of internal organs.

In the middle of the 20th century significant success has been achieved by F. nutrition. The energy consumption of people of various professions was studied and scientifically based nutritional norms were developed (Sov. scientists M. N. Shaternikov, O. P. Molchanova, German researcher K. Voit, American physiologist F. Benedikt, and others). In connection with space flights and exploration of the water space, space and underwater physics developed. In the second half of the 20th century. The physics of sensory systems is being actively developed by the Soviet researchers Chernigovskii, A. L. Vyzov, G. V. Gershuni, and R. A. Durinyan; the Swedish researcher R. Granit; and the Canadian scientist V. Amasyan. Owls. researcher A. M. Ugolev discovered the mechanism of parietal digestion. Central hypothalamic mechanisms for the regulation of hunger and satiety were discovered (American researcher J. Brobek, Indian scientist B. Anand, and many others).

A new chapter was the doctrine of vitamins, although the need for these substances for normal life was established as early as the 19th century. - the work of the Russian scientist N. I. Lunin.

Major advances have been made in the study of the functions of the heart (the works of E. Starling, T. Lewis in Great Britain; K. Wiggers in the USA; A. I. Smirnov, G. I. Kositsky, F. Z. Meyerson in the USSR; and others), blood vessels (the work of H. Goering in Germany; K. Geymans in Belgium; V. V. Parin, Chernigovsky in the USSR; E. Neal in the UK; and others) and capillary circulation (the work of the Danish scientist A. Krogh, owls. physiologist A. M. Chernukh and others). The mechanism of respiration and transport of gases by blood was studied (works by J. Barcroft and , J. Haldane a In Great Britain; D. Van Slyke in the USA; E. M. Kreps a in the USSR; and etc.). The regularities of functioning of the kidneys have been established (studies by the English scientist A. Keshni, the American scientist A. Richards, and others). Owls. physiologists generalized the patterns of evolution of the functions of the nervous system and the physiological mechanisms of behavior (Orbeli, L. I. Karamyan, and others). The development of F. and medicine was influenced by the work of the Canadian pathologist G. Selye , who formulated (1936) the concept of stress as a non-specific adaptive reaction of the body under the action of external and internal stimuli. Since the 60s. A systematic approach is increasingly being introduced in physics. The achievement of the owls F. is the theory of the functional system developed by Anokhin, according to which various organs of the whole organism are selectively involved in systemic organizations that ensure the achievement of final, adaptive results for the organism. The systemic mechanisms of brain activity are being successfully developed by a number of Soviet researchers (M. N. Livanov, A. B. Kogan, and many others).

Modern trends and tasks of physiology. One of the main tasks of modern physiology is to elucidate the mechanisms of the mental activity of animals and humans in order to develop effective measures against neuropsychiatric diseases. The solution of these issues is facilitated by studies of functional differences between the right and left hemispheres of the brain, elucidation of the finest neural mechanisms of the conditioned reflex, the study of brain functions in humans using implanted electrodes, and artificial modeling of psychopathological syndromes in animals.

Physiological studies of the molecular mechanisms of nervous excitation and muscle contraction will help to reveal the nature of the selective permeability of cell membranes, create their models, understand the mechanism of transport of substances through cell membranes, and elucidate the role of neurons, their populations and glial elements in the integrative activity of the brain, and in particular in memory processes. The study of various levels of the central nervous system will make it possible to clarify their role in the formation and regulation of emotional states. Further study of the problems of perception, transmission and processing of information by various sensory systems will make it possible to understand the mechanisms of formation and perception of speech, recognition of visual images, sound, tactile and other signals. F. of movements, compensatory mechanisms for restoring motor functions in various lesions of the musculoskeletal system, as well as the nervous system, are actively developing. Research is underway on the central mechanisms of regulation of the vegetative functions of the body, the mechanisms of the adaptive and trophic influence of the autonomic nervous system, and the structural and functional organization of the autonomic ganglia. Studies of respiration, blood circulation, digestion, water-salt metabolism, thermoregulation and the activity of the endocrine glands make it possible to understand the physiological mechanisms of visceral functions. In connection with the creation of artificial organs - the heart, kidneys, liver, etc. F. must find out the mechanisms of their interaction with the body of recipients. For medicine, F. solves a number of problems, for example, determining the role of emotional stress in the development of cardiovascular diseases and neuroses. Important areas of F. are age physiology and gerontology. Before F. page - x. animals are faced with the task of increasing their productivity.

Evolutionary features of the morpho-functional organization of the nervous system and various somato-vegetative functions of the body, as well as ecological and physiological changes in the body of humans and animals, are intensively studied. In connection with scientific and technological progress, there is an urgent need to study human adaptation to working and living conditions, as well as to the action of various extreme factors (emotional stress, exposure to various climatic conditions, etc.). An urgent task of modern physiology is to elucidate the mechanisms of a person's resistance to stressful influences. In order to study human functions in space and underwater conditions, work is being carried out on modeling physiological functions, creating artificial robots, etc. In this direction, self-controlled experiments are gaining wide development, in which, with the help of a computer, various physiological parameters of the experimental object are kept within certain limits, despite various influences on it. It is necessary to improve and create new systems for protecting a person from the adverse effects of a polluted environment, electromagnetic fields, barometric pressure, gravitational overloads, and other physical factors.

Scientific institutions and organizations, periodicals. Physiological research is carried out in the USSR in a number of large institutions: the Institute of Physiology. IP Pavlov Academy of Sciences of the USSR (Leningrad), Institute of Higher Nervous Activity of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR (Moscow), Institute of Evolutionary Physiology and Biochemistry. I. M. Sechenov Academy of Sciences of the USSR (Leningrad), Institute of Normal Physiology. P. K. Anokhin Academy of Medical Sciences of the USSR (Moscow), Institute of General Pathology and Pathological Physiology of the Academy of Medical Sciences of the USSR (Moscow), Institute of the Brain of the Academy of Medical Sciences of the USSR (Moscow), Institute of Physiology. A. A. Bogomolets Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR (Kyiv), Institute of Physiology of the Academy of Sciences of the BSSR (Minsk), Institute of Physiology. I. S. Beritashvili (Tbilisi), Institute of Physiology. L. A. Orbeli (Yerevan), Institute of Physiology. A. I. Karaev (Baku), Institutes of Physiology (Tashkent and Alma-Ata), Institute of Physiology. A. A. Ukhtomsky (Leningrad), the Institute of Neurocybernetics (Rostov-on-Don), the Institute of Physiology (Kyiv), and others. IP Pavlov, uniting the work of large branches in Moscow, Leningrad, Kyiv and other cities of the USSR. In 1963, the Department of Physiology of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR was organized, which led the work of physiological institutions of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR and the All-Union Physiological Society. Approximately 10 journals are published on F. (see Physiological journals). Pedagogical and scientific activities are carried out by the departments of F. medical, pedagogical and agricultural. institutions of higher learning and universities.

Since 1889, every 3 years (with a break of 7 years in connection with the first and 9 years in connection with the second world wars), international physiological congresses have been convened: the first in 1889 in Basel (Switzerland); 2nd in 1892 in Liege (Belgium); 3rd in 1895 in Bern (Switzerland); 4th in 1898 in Cambridge (Great Britain); 5th in 1901 in Turin (Italy); 6th in 1904 in Brussels (Belgium); 7th in 1907 at Heidelberg (Germany); 8th in 1910 in Vienna (Austria); 9th in 1913 in Groningen (Netherlands); 10th in 1920 in Paris (France); 11th in 1923 in Edinburgh (Great Britain); 12th in 1926 in Stockholm (Sweden); 13th in 1929 in Boston (USA); 14th in 1932 in Rome (Italy); 15th in 1935 in Leningrad-Moscow (USSR); 16th in 1938 in Zurich (Switzerland); 17th in 1947 at Oxford (Great Britain); 18th in 1950 in Copenhagen (Denmark); 19th in 1953 in Montreal (Canada); 20th in 1956 in Brussels (Belgium); 21st in 1959 in Buenos Aires (Argentina); 22nd in 1962 in Leiden (Netherlands); 23rd in 1965 in Tokyo (Japan); 24th in 1968 in Washington (USA); 25th in 1971 in Munich (FRG); 26th in 1974 in New Delhi (India); 27th in 1977 in Paris (France). In 1970, the International Union of Physiological Sciences (JUPS) was organized; print organ - Newsletter. In the USSR, physiological congresses have been convened since 1917: the first in 1917 in Petrograd; 2nd in 1926 in Leningrad; 3rd in 1928 in Moscow; 4th in 1930 in Kharkov; 5th in 1934 in Moscow; 6th in 1937 in Tbilisi; 7th in 1947 in Moscow; 8th in 1955 in Kyiv; 9th in 1959 in Minsk; 10th in 1964 in Yerevan; 11th in 1970 in Leningrad; 12th in 1975 in Tbilisi.

Lit.: Story- Anokhin P.K., From Descartes to Pavlov, M., 1945; Koshtoyants Kh. S., Essays on the history of physiology in Russia, M. - L., 1946; Lunkevich V.V., From Heraclitus to Darwin. Essays on the history of biology, 2nd ed., vol. 1–2, M., 1960; Mayorov F.P., History of the doctrine of conditioned reflexes, 2nd ed., M. - L., 1954; Development of biology in the USSR, M., 1967; History of biology from ancient times to the beginning of the 20th century, M., 1972; History of biology from the beginning of the 20th century to the present day, M., 1975.

Collections of works, monographs- Lazarev P. P., Works, vol. 2, M. - L., 1950; Ukhtomsky A. A., Sobr. soch., vol. 1–6, L., 1950–62; Pavlov I.P., Complete collection of works, 2nd ed., vol. 1–6, M., 1951–52; Vvedensky N, E., Complete collection of works, vols. 1–7, L., 1951–63; Mislavsky N.A., Izbr. Prod., M., 1952; Sechenov I. M., Izbr. Prod., vol. 1, M., 1952; Bykov K. M., Izbr. Prod., vol. 1–2, M., 1953–58; Bekhterev V. M., Izbr. Prod., M., 1954; Orbeli L. A., Lectures on higher nervous activity, M. - L., 1945; his own, Fav. works, vols. 1-5, M. - L., 1961-68; Ovsyannikov F.V., Izbr. Prod., M., 1955; Speransky A. D., Izbr. works, M., 1955; Beritov I.S., General physiology of the muscular and nervous system, 3rd ed., vol. 1–2, M., 1959–66; Eccles J., Physiology of nerve cells, trans. from English, M., 1959; Chernigovsky VN, Interoreceptors, M., 1960: Stern L, S., Immediate nutrient medium of organs and tissues. Physiological mechanisms that determine its composition and properties. Fav. works, M., 1960; Beritov I. S., Nervous mechanisms of behavior of higher vertebrates, M., 1961; Goffman B., Cranefield P., Electrophysiology of the heart, trans. from English, M., 1962; Magnus R., Setting the body, trans. from German., M. - L., 1962; Parin V. V., Meyerson F. Z., Essays on clinical physiology of blood circulation, 2nd ed., M., 1965; Hodgkin A., Nerve impulse, trans. from English, M., 1965; Gelhorn E., Lufborrow J., Emotions and emotional disorders, trans. from English, M., 1966; Anokhin P.K., Biology and neurophysiology of the conditioned reflex, M., 1968; Thin AV, Hypothalamo-pituitary region and regulation of the physiological functions of the body, 2nd ed., L., 1968; Rusinov V. S., Dominant, M., 1969; Eccles J., Inhibitory pathways of the central nervous system, trans. from English, M., 1971; Sudakov K. V., Biological motivations, M., 1971; Sherrington Ch., Integrative activity of the nervous system, trans. from English, L., 1969; Delgado H., Brain and Consciousness, trans. from English, M., 1971; Ugolev A. M., Membrane digestion. Polysubstrate processes, organization and regulation, L., 1972; Granit R., Fundamentals of regulation of movements, trans. from English, M., 1973; Asratyan E. A., I. P. Pavlov. Moscow, 1974. Beritashvili I.S., Memory of vertebrates, its characteristics and origin, 2nd ed., M., 1974; Sechenov I. M., Lectures on Physiology, M., 1974; Anokhin P.K., Essays on the physiology of functional systems, M., 1975.

Tutorials and guides- Koshtoyants Kh. S., Fundamentals of Comparative Physiology, 2nd ed., vol. 1–2, M., 1950–57; Human Physiology, ed. Babsky E. B., 2nd ed., M., 1972; Kostin A.P., Sysoev A.A., Meshcheryakov F.A., Physiology of farm animals, M., 1974; Kostyuk P. G., Physiology of the central nervous system, K., 1971; Kogan A. B., Electrophysiology, M., 1969; Prosser L., Brown F., Comparative animal physiology, trans. from English, M., 1967; Iost H., Physiology of the cell, trans. from English, M., 1975.

Physiology guides- Physiology of the blood system, L., 1968; General and private physiology of the nervous system, L., 1969; Physiology of muscular activity, labor and sports, L., 1969; Physiology of higher nervous activity, parts 1–2, L., 1970–71; Physiology of sensory systems, parts 1–3, L., 1971–75; Clinical neurophysiology, L., 1972; Physiology of the kidney, L., 1972; Physiology of respiration, L., 1973; Physiology of digestion, L., 1974; Grachev I. I., Galantsev V. P., Physiology of lactation, L., 1973; Khodorov B. A., General physiology of excitable membranes, L., 1975; Age physiology, L., 1975; Physiology of movements, L., 1976; Physiology of speech, L, 1976; Lehrbuch der Physiologic, Hrsg. W. Rudiger, B., 1971; Ochs S.. Elements of neurophysiology, N. Y. - L. - Sydney, 1965; Physiology and biophysics, 19 ed., Phil. – L., 1965; Ganong W. F., Review of Medical physiology, 5 ed., Los Altos, 1971.

(see general physiology), and individual physiological systems and processes (eg physiology of locomotion), organs, cells, cell structures (private physiology). As the most important synthetic branch of knowledge, physiology seeks to reveal the mechanisms of regulation and patterns of the life of the organism, its interaction with the environment.

Physiology studies the basic quality of a living thing - its vital activity, its constituent functions and properties, both in relation to the whole organism and in relation to its parts. The basis of ideas about life is knowledge about the processes of metabolism, energy and information. Vital activity is aimed at achieving a useful result and adapting to environmental conditions.

Physiology is traditionally divided into plant physiology and human and animal physiology.

Brief history of human physiology

The first works that can be attributed to physiology were already performed in antiquity.

The father of medicine, Hippocrates (460-377 BC) represented the human body as a kind of unity of liquid media and the mental make-up of the personality, emphasized the connection of a person with the environment and that movement is the main form of this connection. This determined his approach to the complex treatment of the patient. An approach similar in principle was characteristic of physicians in ancient China, India, the Middle East and Europe.

Directions of physiology

Physiology includes several separate interrelated disciplines.

Molecular physiology studies the essence of living things and life at the level of molecules that make up living organisms.

Cell physiology studies the vital activity of individual cells and, together with molecular physiology, are the most general disciplines of physiology, since all known forms of life exhibit all the properties of a living thing only inside cells or cellular organisms.

The physiology of microorganisms studies the patterns of vital activity of microbes.

Plant physiology is closely related to plant anatomy and studies the vital activity of plant organisms and their symbionts.

The physiology of fungi is the study of the life of fungi.

Human and animal physiology - is a logical continuation of human and animal anatomy and histology and is directly related to medicine (see Normal Physiology, Pathological Physiology).

Due to the fact that these individual disciplines, in turn, not only have their own specifics, but are also diverse, they distinguish such disciplines as the physiology of photosynthesis, the physiology of chemosynthesis, the physiology of digestion, the physiology of labor, the physiology of blood circulation, which studies the work of the heart and blood vessels, electrophysiology - studies electromagnetic processes during the work of nerves and muscles, and many others. Neurophysiology deals with the nervous system. The physiology of higher nervous activity studies the higher mental functions by physiological methods.

Physiological organizations

• (Saint Petersburg, Russia). Founded in 1925.
• Founded in 1890 as an office, transformed into an institute in 1925, transferred to Moscow in 1934.
• (Russia, Irkutsk). Founded in 1961.
• (Saint Petersburg, Russia). Founded in 1956.
• Research Institute of Normal Physiology. P.K. Anokhin RAMS (Russia, Moscow). Founded in 1974.

see also

• normal physiology
• Physiologist (book) - an ancient collection of stories about nature. Appeared in the 2-3 centuries. n. e.
• Human physiology en:Human physiology

Links

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See what "Physiology" is in other dictionaries:

Physiology ... Spelling Dictionary

PHYSIOLOGY- PHYSIOLOGY, one of the main branches of biology (see), the tasks of the swarm are: the study of the patterns of living functions, the emergence and development of functions and transitions from one type of functioning to another. Independent sections of this science ... ... Big Medical Encyclopedia

- (from the Greek physis, nature and ... logic), a science that studies the processes of life (functions) of animals and grows, organisms, their otd. systems, organs, tissues and cells. The physiology of man and animals is divided into several. closely related... Biological encyclopedic dictionary

physiology- and, well. physiologie f., German. Physiology gr. physis nature + logos science. 1. The science of vital functions, the functions of a living organism. ALS 1. Physiology explains .. studies the internal functions in the human body, such as: digestion, ... ... Historical Dictionary of Gallicisms of the Russian Language

- (Greek physiologia, from physis nature, and logos word). The science that deals with life and the organic functions through which life manifests itself. Dictionary of foreign words included in the Russian language. Chudinov A.N., 1910. PHYSIOLOGY ... ... Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language

PHYSIOLOGY, physiology, pl. no, female (from Greek physis nature and logos doctrine). 1. The science of the functions, functions of the body. Human physiology. Physiology of plants. || These very functions and the laws that govern them. Physiology of respiration. Physiology ... ... Explanatory Dictionary of Ushakov

- (from the Greek physis nature and ... logic) the science of the life of the whole organism and its individual parts of cells, organs, functional systems. Physiology studies the mechanisms of various functions of a living organism (growth, reproduction, respiration, etc.) ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

1.1 THE SUBJECT OF PHYSIOLOGY, ITS RELATION WITH OTHER DISCIPLINES AND METHODS OF PHYSIOLOGICAL

RESEARCH

Physiology - a science that studies the functions and processes occurring in the body and the mechanisms of their regulation, ensuring the vital activity of the animal in conjunction with the external environment.

Physiology seeks to understand the functional processes of vital activity in a healthy animal, to find out the mechanisms of regulation and adaptation of the body to the action of continuously changing environmental conditions. In this way, she points out the ways for the normalization of physiological functions in cases of their pathology in order to save animals and increase their productivity.

Modern physiology has been widely developed in various directions, singled out as independent courses and even disciplines.

General physiology studies the general laws of functions, phenomena, processes characteristic of animals of different species, as well as the general laws of the body's reactions to the influence of the external environment.

Comparative physiology explores similarities and differences, specific features of any physiological processes in animals of different species.

evolutionary physiology studies the development of physiological functions and mechanisms in animals in their historical, evolutionary terms (in onto- and phylogenesis).

age physiology is of exceptional importance for veterinary medicine, since it studies the age-related features of the body's functions at different stages of its individual (age-related) development. This allows doctors and zooengineers to exert the necessary influence on maintaining the vital activity of the organism in favorable physiological parameters, taking into account its age characteristics.

private physiology studies the physiological processes of individual animal species or their individual organs and systems.

In the process of development of physiology, a number of its sections were distinguished, which are of great applied importance. One of such sections in agricultural physiology is the physiology of animal nutrition. Its practical purpose is to study the characteristics of digestion in different species and age groups of farm animals. Sections on the physiology of their reproduction, lactation, metabolism, adaptation of the body to different environmental conditions are of great practical importance.

One of the main tasks of the physiology of farm animals is to study the regulatory, unifying role of the central nervous system (CNS) in the body so that, by influencing it, it would be possible to normalize other functions of the animal.

Physiology, as the main branch of the biological sciences, is in close contact with a number of other disciplines, in particular with chemistry and physics, and uses their research methods. Knowledge of physics and chemistry allows a deeper understanding of such physiological processes as diffusion, osmosis, absorption, the occurrence of electrical phenomena in tissues, etc.

Physiology has an exceptionally great connection with morphological disciplines - cytology, histology, anatomy, since the function of organs and tissues is inextricably linked with their structure. It is impossible, for example, to understand the process of urine formation without knowing the anatomical and histological structure of the kidneys.

A veterinarian devotes a significant part of his work to the treatment of sick animals, therefore normal physiology is important for the subsequent study of pathological physiology, clinical diagnostics, therapy and other disciplines that study the patterns of occurrence and development of pathological processes that can only be understood by knowing the functions of organs and systems of a healthy body. Achievements in physiology have always been used in veterinary clinical disciplines, which, in turn, also play a positive role for a deeper understanding and explanation of many physiological processes occurring in the body. Physiology, studying the processes of digestion, metabolism, lactation, reproduction, creates theoretical prerequisites for organizing rational feeding, keeping animals, their reproduction and increasing productivity. Therefore, it has a connection with many zootechnical sciences.

Physiology is close to philosophy, which makes it possible to give a materialistic explanation of many physiological processes occurring in animals.

In connection with the introduction of new methods and production technologies into animal husbandry, physiology faces more and more new problems in studying the mechanisms of animal adaptation in order to create more favorable conditions for them to productive life.