Catherine's monetary reform 2 table. Reforms of Catherine II briefly

Reign of Catherine II (1762-1796)

The palace coup of 1762 brought Peter III's wife Catherine II, née Princess Sophia Augusta Frederica of Anhalt-Zerbst, to the throne. Educated and wise Catherine managed to win over not only those close to her, but also foreign monarchs, diplomats, and scientists. Having come to power as a result of a palace coup, Catherine II was forced to pursue a flexible policy, taking into account public opinion and the interests of the nobles. At the same time, she faced the most difficult task of strengthening the regime of personal power and increasing its authority. For this, the empress called into service the French Education(ideas of the philosophers Voltaire, Montesquieu, Diderot).

Age of Enlightenment(XVII – XVIII centuries) - one of the key eras in the history of European culture, associated with the development of scientific, philosophical and social thought. This intellectual movement was based on rationalism and freethinking. Starting in England under the influence of the scientific revolution of the 17th century, this movement spread to France, Germany, Russia and covered other European countries. The French enlighteners were especially influential, becoming “masters of thought.” The principles of the Enlightenment formed the basis of American Declaration of Independence and French Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen. The intellectual movement of this era had a great influence on subsequent changes in ethics and social life in Europe and America, the struggle for national independence of the American colonies of European countries, the abolition of slavery, the formulation of human rights. Moreover, it shook the authority of the aristocracy and the influence of the church on social, intellectual and cultural life.

The reign of Catherine is called the period enlightened absolutism, i.e. the period when the supreme power strengthened through the use of advanced ideas, and, in addition, sought to correct the barbaric remnants of the feudal system. The Russian version of enlightened absolutism represented a special stage of state-political development, associated in socio-economic terms With decomposition of the feudal system, politically- with the search for a compromise monarch with nobility and aristocracy, who were the main driving force behind previous coups d'etat. Moreover, the legal principles of enlightened absolutism were not the principles of the rule of law, since all power (legislative, judicial and administrative) was in the hands of the monarch, in addition, the inviolability of the class division of society was affirmed.

At the same time, Catherine II wanted not so much to drape Russian absolutism with advanced ideas, but to advance the country along the path of European progress. A clear confirmation of this is “ Order» The laid down commission, convened under the influence of the ideas of French enlighteners, to develop reforms that were supposed to ease social tensions and strengthen the base of the autocracy.

In the "Nakaz", written in 1765-1767, the empress expressed thoughts about spreading education, eradicating lawlessness, cruelty, despotism, increasing the people's well-being. In addition, the document substantiated the “naturalness” of unlimited autocracy in Russia and social inequality. The “Order” was supposed to serve as a guide in the work of the commission that met in July 1767 to prepare a new Code.

Stacked commission was a special temporary form of attracting representatives of free classes to govern the state on an administrative-bureaucratic basis and became another step towards formalizing class representation. It was attended by 564 deputies, including 161 representatives from the nobility, 208 from cities, 167 from free peasants. In December 1768, under the pretext of war with the Ottoman Empire, the Statutory Commission, which began to weigh heavily on the empress, was dissolved. The main task of the Statutory Commission (the creation of a new set of laws) was never completed.

Reforms of Catherine 2 (briefly)

Catherine 2, like most monarchs who reigned for any significant time, sought to carry out reforms. Moreover, Russia fell into a difficult situation: the army and navy were weakened, there was a large external debt, corruption, the collapse of the judicial system, etc., etc.

Provincial reform: “Institution for the management of the provinces of the All-Russian Empire” adopted on November 7, 1775. Instead of the previous administrative division into governorates, provinces and districts, divide territories into provinces(300-400 thousand people) and counties(20-30 thousand people). The number of provinces increased from twenty-three to fifty. They were divided into 10-12 districts. The troops of two or three provinces were commanded by the governor-general, otherwise called viceroy. At the head of each province was governor, appointed by the Senate and reporting directly to the Empress. The vice-governor was in charge of finances, and the Treasury Chamber was subordinate to him. The highest official of the district was the police captain. The centers of the districts were cities, but since there were not enough of them, 216 large rural settlements received city status (in Tatarstan, Tetyushi, Chistopol, Bugulma, etc.).

Judicial reform: For each class, its own court was established. Nobles judged zemstvo court, townspeople - magistrates, and the peasants - reprisals. There were also conscientious courts were established from representatives of all three classes, which performed the function of a conciliation authority. All these the courts were elected. A higher authority were the judicial chambers, whose members were appointed. And the highest judicial body of the Russian Empire was Senate.

Secularization reform:

Secularization(Late Latin saecularis - worldly, secular): - in historical science, the removal of something from church, spiritual jurisdiction and transfer to secular, civil jurisdiction.

It was held in 1764. All monastic lands, as well as the peasants living on them, were transferred to the jurisdiction of a specially established College of Economy. The state took upon itself the maintenance of monasticism, but from that moment it acquired the right to determine the number of monasteries and monks required by the empire. February 26, 1764

All church estates (911 thousand peasants) were transferred from the spiritual department to the state (to the college of economy); for the maintenance of monasteries and bishops' houses, regular salaries are assigned in three classes; patrimony-free monasteries were partly abolished, partly left to their fate (not included in the states).

Senate reform: On December 15, 1763, the manifesto of Catherine 2 was published “On the establishment of departments in the Senate, Justice, Patrimonial and Revision Boards, on the division of affairs regarding them.” The role of the Senate was narrowed, and the powers of its head, the Prosecutor General, on the contrary, were expanded. The Senate became the highest court. He was divided into six departments: the first (headed by the Prosecutor General himself) was in charge of state and political affairs in St. Petersburg, the second - judicial affairs in St. Petersburg, the third - transport, medicine, sciences, education, art, the fourth - military land and naval affairs, the fifth - state and political in Moscow and the sixth - the Moscow judicial department. The heads of all departments, except the first, were chief prosecutors subordinate to the prosecutor general.

The fragmentation of the functions of the Senate and filling it with obedient officials significantly weakened its importance. Thus, already at the beginning of the reign, measures were taken to stop any restrictions on the autocracy.

Urban reform: The reform of Russian cities was regulated by “ Certificate of rights and benefits of cities of the Russian Empire", which was released by Catherine II in 1785. Were new elective institutions were introduced. The number of voters has increased. Residents of cities were divided into six categories according to various property, class characteristics, and on merit to society and the state, namely: real city ​​dwellers– those who owned real estate within the city; merchants of three guilds; guild artisans; foreign and out-of-town guests; eminent citizens– architects, painters, composers, scientists, as well as wealthy merchants and bankers; townspeople- those who were engaged in handicrafts and crafts in the city. Each rank had its own rights, responsibilities and privileges.

Police reform: In 1782, Empress Catherine 2 introduced “ Deanery charter or policeman" According to it, the body of the city police department became deanery council. It included bailiffs, mayor and chief of police, and citizens determined by election. Court for public violations me: drunkenness, insults, gambling, etc., as well as for unauthorized construction and bribes carried out the police authorities themselves, and for other matters a preliminary investigation was carried out, after which the case was transferred to court. The punishments applied by the police were arrest, censure, imprisonment in a workhouse, a fine, and in addition, the prohibition of certain types of activities.

Education reform: Creation of public schools in cities put the beginning of the state system of comprehensive schools in Russia. They were two types: main schools V provincial cities And small- V county. These educational institutions were supported by the treasury, and people of all classes could study there. School reform was carried out in 1782, and earlier in 1764 it was opened school at the Academy of Arts, and also April 24 (May 5), 1764 Smolny Institute of Noble Maidens St. Petersburg - the first women's educational institution in Russia, which laid the foundation for female education in the country, then (in 1772) - commercial school. Open public library.

Social politics– In the provinces there were orders for public charity. In Moscow and St. Petersburg - Orphanages for street children, where they received education and upbringing. Created to help widows Widow's treasury. Compulsory smallpox vaccination introduced under Catherine II epidemic control in Russia began to acquire the character of state events that were directly included in the responsibilities of the Imperial Council and the Senate. By decree of Catherine, outposts were created, located not only on the borders, but also on the roads leading to the center of Russia. Was created " Charter of border and port quarantines" The appearance of Jews after the partitions of Poland led to the emergence of " The Pale of Settlement» for Jews, limiting the right of residence of Jews. According to the manifesto “On allowing all foreigners entering Russia to settle in the provinces they wish and on the rights granted to them” (1762), many foreigners moved to Russia, mainly Germans - to the Volga region, then Greeks and Serbs to the south of Russia - Many benefits were introduced for many “new” peoples, mainly in the matter of taxation. In total, during the reign of Catherine II, due to the annexed lands and settlers, the country's population increased by 7 million people (not counting internal growth).

Currency reform During the reign of Catherine 2 there were State Bank and Loan Bank established. And also, for the first time in Russia, paper money (notes) were introduced into circulation). Introduced into circulation in 1769 paper money - banknotes- in the first decade of its existence, they accounted for only a few percent of the metal (silver and copper) money supply, and played a positive role, allowing the state to reduce its costs of moving money within the empire. However, due to the lack of money in the treasury, which became a constant phenomenon, from the beginning of the 1780s, an increasing number of banknotes were issued, the volume of which reached 156 million rubles by 1796, and their value depreciated by 1.5 times. In addition, the state borrowed money abroad in the amount of 33 million rubles. and had various unpaid internal obligations (bills, salaries, etc.) in the amount of RUB 15.5 million. That. the total amount of government debts amounted to 205 million rubles, the treasury was empty, and budget expenses significantly exceeded revenues,

In the second half of the 18th century. much serfdom legislation expanded. By a decree of 1765, landowners were allowed to send offending peasants to hard labor in Siberia, and by a decree of 1767, peasants were prohibited from bringing complaints against the landowners. Peasant trade began.

Economic reforms– in 1775 freedom of enterprise was declared, and in 1762 the monopoly in trade and industry was abolished. By paying the fee, merchants could be freed from the poll tax and conscription.

In 1785 they were made public letters of grant to the nobilityconfirmed all the privileges that the nobility acquired in the 18th century, in addition, it was exempted from the duties of public service and corporal punishment. The charter completed the legal formation of the first estate and granted it broad rights, including the right to self-government in noble assemblies.

Letter of commendation to cities included the liberation of the top merchant class from the poll tax and conscription. The urban population was divided into six categories (each with its own rights and responsibilities). She's the same introduced city self-government.

By the end of the reign of Catherine II, there was a sharp turn in the government course to the right, associated with the reaction to the Great French Revolution and the Peasant War led by E. Pugachev. The ideas of the Enlightenment discredited themselves, becoming the ideological basis of the Great French Revolution, during which the monarchy was overthrown and the monarch was executed. Naturally, the empress could no longer use the ideology under whose banners the monarchy was overthrown and the heads of kings were cut off. Fearing a repetition of the history of the French Revolution, the government banned “harmful” ideas, punished participation in secret organizations, and all opposition forces within the country were defeated. In 1790, A. Radishchev, the author of the book “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow,” was arrested and sentenced to death. The Empress saw in the book the spread of French ideas. In 1792, book publisher N. Novikov was arrested and accused of belonging to the Masonic society.

The aging empress could no longer control public thought, financial disorder and bureaucracy. On November 6, 1796, Catherine the Great died, leaving the throne to her son, 42-year-old Pavel Petrovich.

Peasant War of 1773-1775 led by Emelyan Pugachev(Pugachevshchina, Pugachev uprising, Pugachev rebellion) - an uprising (revolt) of the Yaik (later Ural) Cossacks, which grew into a full-scale war led by E. I. Pugachev against Empress Catherine the Great. The uprising began on September 17, 1773 from the Budarinsky outpost and continued until mid-1775, despite the military defeat of the Bashkir-Cossack army and the capture of Pugachev in September 1774.

To the main reasons for popular uprisings second half of the 18th century can be attributed:

1) strengthening of serfdom(1760 - permission for landowners to exile serfs to Siberia without trial, 1765 - to hard labor, 1767 - prohibition to complain about the owner to the sovereign, increase in corvée), which forced the peasants to flee from the landowners to the outskirts of the country, to the Cossack regions and northern forests, as well as rebel against the masters (in the 1760s, 27 landowners died at the hands of serfs in the Moscow province alone).

2) intensive exploitation of working people in factories, which led to unauthorized departure from the enterprise, and also caused demands for improved working conditions and higher wages.

3) government policy towards the Cossacks, which strengthened the privileges of wealthy Cossacks to the detriment of the interests of others, depriving the Cossacks of autonomy and the right to engage in traditional crafts (fishing, etc.).

4) forced Russification of the indigenous peoples of the national borders(Volga region).

5) general deterioration of the economic situation in the country- an increase in the tax burden associated with constant wars.

6) news of palace coups, which caused distrust in power and the growth of imposture(appearance of the “sons of Tsar Ivan”, “princes Alekseev”, “Petrov II” and, most often, “Petrov III”).

Historians believe that the Peasant War of 1773-1775. was one of the manifestations acute social crisis, which broke out in the middle of Catherine’s reign, which was marked by many uprisings in different parts of the country (Kizhi uprising in Zaonezhie in 1769-1770, the plague riot of 1771 in Moscow, the uprising of the Yaik Cossacks of 1769-1772, etc.). A number of historians point to a change in the nature of social protests, their acquisition of a class, anti-noble character. Thus, D. Blum notes that participants in Pugachev’s uprising killed about 1,600 nobles, almost half of them were women and children, and cites other cases of murders of nobles during peasant uprisings of that era. As V. O. Klyuchevsky writes, the peasant uprisings during Catherine’s reign “were painted with social color, they were not uprisings of the governed against the administration, but of the lower classes - against the higher, ruling, against the nobility.”

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The main reforms of Peter I.

1. 1708-1710 - regional reform (local government reform). Back in 1702, the positions of provincial elders were abolished and replaced by governors. In 1708, the country was divided into provinces and districts. The regional administration changed its details many times. In 1719, it took the following final forms: the state was divided into 12 provinces, the provinces into provinces (about 50), and the provinces into counties. The governor is at the head of the province, the voivode or vice-governor is at the head of the province, and in the districts financial and police administration is entrusted to the zemstvo commissars. Attempts to separate the court from the administration were unsuccessful, and since 1722 the administration has again been involved in the court.

2. The Boyar Duma under Peter was dissolved - this marks the transition from an estate-representative monarchy to an absolute one. In 1711, the Senate was established, which is at the head of the entire administration (Senators - Count Musin-Pushkin, Tikhon Streshnev, Prince Pyotr Golitsyn, Prince Mikhail Dolgorukov, Grigory Plemyannikov, Prince Grigory Volkonsky, Mikhail Somarin, Vasily Apukhtin). The Senate became the highest government and judicial body, controlling the administration and collegiums. In 1721, the position of prosecutor general was established - this is the most powerful person in the administration.

3. 1718-1720 - the formation of 12 boards instead of orders headed by prosecutors: foreign affairs, military, admiralty (naval), states board (department of expenses), chamber board (department of revenues), justice board, revision board, commerce board (trade), manufactories -collegium (industry), Chief Magistrate (city government), berg college (mining), patrimonial college (industry). Along with the collegiums, there were part of the offices and orders (for example, the Siberian order). The collegiums were subordinate to the Senate. Despite the new forms and names, the basis of the administrative system remained old - all management remained exclusively in the hands of the nobility.

4. The measures taken by Peter regarding the estates did not change their position in the state; the organization of the estates and the organization of duties changed somewhat. 1714, 1723 - introduction of primary compulsory education for nobles. 1722 - “Table of Ranks” - a ladder of official ranks, including 14 ranks. Priority of personal merit. Peter's legislation turned old estates into fiefs, i.e. hereditary property. By decree of 1714, Peter forbade the nobles to split up lands when bequeathing their sons (the law on single inheritance was abolished in 1731 at the insistence of the nobles).

The urban class received a new organization. In 1699, cities were given self-government. In 1720, a chief magistrate was established in charge of the city estate. It is divided into guilds, the highest ones are exempt from recruitment duty. 1718-1722 - a population census was conducted and a per capita taxation system was introduced. Despite the absence of direct laws, peasants everywhere, according to custom, were equated with serfs (except for black sowing, monastery, palace, and assigned slaves). 1721 - Peter's decree allowing factory owners to buy peasants.

5. The military reforms of Peter I were aimed at strengthening the rudiments of the regular army. In 1715, the Senate decided, as a norm, to take one recruit from 75 households of landowners' peasants and townspeople. Compulsory service for nobles. By 1725, the Russian regular army consisted of 210 thousand people, 100 thousand Cossack troops. The fleet has 48 battleships, 787 galleys and small ships and 28 thousand people.

6. He made great efforts to develop industry, develop ore and other deposits, train specialists, and develop trade. Under Peter, more than 200 factories were founded and entire industries were founded.

7. Encouragement of science and education. 1725 - St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences was opened. 1712 - the capital was transferred from Moscow to St. Petersburg. Book printing increased significantly, which Peter personally supervised. In 1703, the first Russian newspaper, Vedomosti, began to be published regularly. Organization of museums and libraries. 1714 - opening of the Kunstkamera. Research of Siberia.

8. 1721 - “Charter on the inheritance of the throne” - the determination of the inheritance was left to the will of the sovereign.

9. 1722 - establishment of the police in Moscow.

10. For more than 20 years (1700-1721), the church was governed without a patriarch. February 14, 1721 - establishment of the Synod. This spiritual college replaced the patriarchal authority and consisted of 11 people. With the establishment of the Synod, the church became dependent not on the sovereign, as before, but on the state. Church management was introduced into the general administrative order. The reform retained authoritative power in the Russian Church, but deprived it of the political influence that the patriarchs had. Church jurisdiction is also limited. A lot of cases moved from church courts to secular courts. Part of the real estate of the church was withdrawn from the economic management of the clergy. Its management was transferred to the Monastic Order. In the era of Peter there was greater religious tolerance. In 1721, marriages with Catholics and Protestants were allowed. Regarding the Russian schism, Peter was at first tolerant, but when he saw that religious conservatism led to civil conservatism (opposition to his reforms), restrictions on the rights of schismatics and their repression followed.

The main reforms of Catherine II.

Catherine II (1729-1796) - Russian empress, one of the most educated women of her time. Liberally minded, in practical activities she was guided by Russian national traditions. In the first year of her reign, she restored the Senate (1762), which she divided into 6 departments. It was a central administrative-judicial institution, but without legislative functions. She took upon herself the development of new legislation, working for two years on the principles of the future code. By 1767, the Order written by her appeared. When discussing it with the statesmen around her, she repeatedly edited it and in the final version it bore little resemblance to the initial work. The order became a statement of principles that should guide a statesman. To draw up the code, a manifesto on December 14, 1766 convened representatives of the estates and public places in Moscow. Their meeting of 567 people was called the “Commission for drafting a new code.” They brought with them more than 10 thousand parliamentary orders. Despite the complete failure of the work of the Commission (1767-1768) and Catherine’s refusal of general legislative reform, the significance of the Commission lies in the fact that it provided rich material from the field and influenced all of Catherine’s activities (separate parts of the Commission worked until 1784) . Catherine began to implement her reform plan piece by piece.

1. 1775 - "Institutions for provincial administrations." The country was divided into 51 provinces with approximately equal population of 300-400 thousand people. The provinces were divided into districts of 20-30 thousand inhabitants. Catherine sought to increase the strength of the administration, delineate departments and attract zemstvo elements to participate in management. In each provincial city the following were established: 1) Governor's rule headed by the governor; it was of an administrative nature and represented government power in the province; 2) criminal and civil chambers - the highest court bodies in the province; 3) Treasury Chamber - financial management body; 4) The Upper Zemsky Court is the judicial place for noble litigation; 5) Provincial magistrate - a judicial seat for persons of the urban class; 6) Upper punishment - a judicial place for single-lords and state peasants; 7) Conscientious court; 8) Order of public charity - for the establishment of schools, almshouses, orphanages. There was a similar structure in the counties. The principle of separation of departments and authorities is maintained: administrative-judicial-financial institutions. Based on the class principle, local societies received broad participation in the affairs of local government: the nobility, the townspeople, and even people from the lower strata filled new institutions with their representatives. The center of gravity of all management was moved to the regions; only general management and supervision remained in the center. During the heyday of local government, central government was completely disorganized and ministries were formed under Alexander I. The establishment of 1775 gave the nobility self-government and internal organization. The nobility of each county became a whole cohesive society and, through their representatives, managed all the affairs of the county. Thus, all of Russia, from the highest to the lowest levels, began to be ruled by the nobility.

2. Later, Catherine outlined the same facts that she had established, as well as the previous rights and advantages of the nobles, in a special Charter to the nobility of 1785. This is not a new law on the nobility, but a systematic statement of the rights and advantages of the nobles. The charter established that a nobleman cannot, except by court, lose his title, and transfers it to his wife and children; judged only by peers; free from taxes and corporal punishment; free from public service, but to be elected to positions of nobility must have an “officer rank”; owns as inalienable property everything that is on his estate. Thus, the nobility by the end of the 18th century. received exclusive personal rights, broad rights of class self-government and strong influence on local government.

3. During the reign of Catherine, a peasant was actually equated to a serf. However, in the eyes of the law, he was both a slave and a citizen: peasants continued to be considered a tax-paying class, had the right to search in courts and be witnesses in court, could enter into civil obligations and even register as merchants with the consent of the landowner, the treasury allowed them to farm out with a guarantee landowner. However, in fact, Catherine’s century was the time of the greatest development of serfdom.

4. Numerous measures to organize education, art, medicine, trade and industry: 1) Establishment of educational houses in Moscow (1763) and St. Petersburg (1767), closed institutes for noblewomen and townswomen (since 1764). ), cadet corps. 2) Small public schools were opened in each county town, Main public schools were opened in each provincial town, and it was planned to open several new universities. 3) In 1763, the Medical Commission was established. Each city and county had to establish hospitals, shelters (charitable institutions), take care of the education of doctors and surgeons, establish pharmacies and factories of surgical instruments. 4) 1785 - A charter granted to cities - confirmed the right of city self-government. 5) A State Loan Bank was established with large capital and low (6%) interest. 6) Catherine destroyed the bodies of state control over industry and trade and allowed them to develop freely. Factories of steel products, tanneries, and manufactories were built. Silkworm breeding. 7) Equipment for sea expeditions to the Pacific and Arctic oceans, to the shores of Asia and America.

5. Foreign policy. Peter solved only the Swedish question. Catherine faced the Polish and Turkish questions. As a result of two Russian-Turkish wars (1768-1774, 1787-1791), Russia received the shores of the Black Sea and Azov, annexed Crimea, and received Ochakov. As a result of active policies in the West and three sections of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Russia received Belarus under the first section, another 4,500 square miles under the second section, Lithuania and Courland under the third. The Russian lands, which had been under the rule of Lithuania and Poland for many centuries, returned to Russia. Only Galicia was not returned. Under Catherine II, prominent military leaders emerged: A.V. Suvorov (1729-1800), F.F. Ushakov (1744-1817), P.A. Rumyantsev (1725-1796), G.A. Potemkin (1739-1791).

The Wanderers. In the 2nd quarter of the 19th century. the gradual establishment of realism in all types of Russian art begins. In painting, paintings appear on everyday themes that do not fit into the strict framework prescribed by the Imperial Academy of Arts. In 1870, on the initiative of I.N. Kramskoy, G.G. Myasoedov, V.G. Perov, the Partnership of Traveling Art Exhibitions (TPHV) was formed; since 1871, they have organized 48 traveling exhibitions throughout the country. They introduced Russian art to society and made it accessible to the Russian provinces. The subjects of the paintings are modern Russian life, native nature, the history of the Russian people. TPHV has become a symbol of democratic art, receptive to the new. Its members at various times included I. Repin, V. Surikov, V. Makovsky, A. Savrasov, I. Shishkin, A. and V. Vasnetsov, A. Kuindzhi, V. Polenov, N. Yaroshenko, I. Levitan, V. Serov. P.M. Tretyakov played an important role in the development of the artistic activity of the Peredvizhniki, purchasing their canvases for his gallery. TPHV disbanded in 1923.

Tax-paying classes- in Russia XVIII-XIX centuries. a group of the population (peasants and townspeople) who paid a poll tax, were subjected to corporal punishment, and performed recruiting and other in-kind duties.

Household taxation- direct taxes from each yard.

Capitation tax- in the XVIII-XIX centuries. the main direct tax, levied on all men (“souls”) of the tax-paying classes.

Posad people- in Russia there is a commercial and industrial urban population.

Enlightened absolutism- the policy of absolutism in a number of European countries in the second half. XVIII century, was expressed in the destruction “from above” and in the transformation of the most outdated forms of feudal institutions (abolition of some class privileges, subordination of the church to the state, reforms - peasant, judicial, management, schooling, softening of censorship, etc.). Representatives - Joseph II in Austria, Frederick II in Prussia, Catherine II in Russia. Taking advantage of the popularity of the ideas of the French Enlightenment, they portrayed their activities as “a union of philosophers and sovereigns.” Enlightened absolutism was aimed at strengthening the dominance of the nobility, although some reforms contributed to the development of the capitalist system.

Reduction- (from Latin - return) the confiscation of lands from the feudal aristocracy, which are leased, and the peasants are freed from serfdom, was carried out by Charles XI, King of Sweden in the second half of the 17th century.

Respectable- venerable, respectable.

Russia and the Caucasus in the 19th century. In the 19th century Russia is pursuing an active policy in the Caucasus. In 1801, the Manifesto of Paul I on the annexation of Georgia to Russia was published. In 1802-1806. Russia included: the Kuba and Talysh khanates, Mengrelia. The Russians conquered the Ganja Khanate, incorporated the Karabakh, Sheki and Shirvan khanates into Russia, and took Baku and Derbent. In 1810-1813 Abkhazia, Imereti and Guria became part of Russia. Türkiye recognized the fact that these territories became part of Russia. As a result of the war with Persia and Turkey under the Treaty of Adrianople in 1829, Russia secured the Black Sea coast from the mouth of the Kuban to Poti. The conquest of the North Caucasus lasted a long time: from 1817 to 1864 - this is the so-called Caucasian War. It begins with the advance of the Russians into Chechnya and Dagestan and is characterized by persistent bloody battles. The main characters from the Russian side are the commanders of Russian troops in the Caucasus, General Ermolov A.P., Field Marshal General Paskevich I.F., from the mountaineers - Gazi Magomed, Shamil.

Russian terrorism– its emergence in Russia is associated with social changes that occurred as a result of the great reforms of the 1860s. His strategy is associated with a tactical variety of forms and methods. The ideas of regicide and the extermination of the “imperial” party are popular. Combined with Machiavellianism and mystification. The political-ideological rationale dates back to the 1860s; as a social phenomenon emerged in the 1870s, when the theory and practice of terrorism became politics. One of the features of Russian terrorism was the “female face” - a third of the first composition of the executive committee of “Narodnaya Volya”, famous terrorists V. Zasulich, S. Perovskaya, D. Brilliant and others, 1878-1882. can be called the "terrorist five-year anniversary". The most famous terrorist acts are the assassination attempt on M.T. Loris-Melikov. in 1880, the assassination of Alexander II in 1881, the murder of P.A. Stolypin in 1911. Later it was actively used by the Socialist Revolutionary Party.

"Holy Alliance"- a reactionary alliance of Austria, Prussia and Russia, concluded in Paris on September 26, 1815, after the fall of Napoleon I. In 1815, France and a number of European states joined it. The initiative to conclude an alliance belongs to Alexander. The monarchs pledged to remain in eternal peace; “give each other aid, reinforcement and help”; govern his subjects “like fathers of families”; in political relations be guided by the commandments of love, truth and peace. However, very soon Alexander's allies took advantage of this alliance for practical purposes. The duty of sovereigns to help each other was interpreted to mean that sovereigns must intervene in the internal affairs of other states and maintain legal order in them (this line was especially pursued by Austrian diplomacy led by Metternich). In fact, this resulted in the suppression of revolutionary and national liberation movements. The Holy Alliance authorized armed intervention and suppression of revolutions by Austrian troops in Naples (1820-1821), Piedmont (1821) and by French troops in Spain (1820-1823). The contradictions between the European powers and the development of revolutionary movements undermined the Holy Alliance, and in the early 1930s it actually collapsed.

Senate- in Russia in 1711 - 1917. - The Governing Senate, the highest state body subordinate to the emperor, was established by Peter I as the highest body for legislation and public administration. Its composition was determined personally by the emperor from civil and military ranks of the first three classes according to the Table of Ranks and was headed by the prosecutor general. The Senate ex officio included ministers, their comrades (deputy ministers), and the chief prosecutor of the Synod. Consisted of 6 departments.

Synod- one of the highest government bodies in Russia 1721-1917. Introduced by Peter I instead of the abolished position of patriarch, he was in charge of the affairs of the Orthodox Church. It was headed by the Chief Prosecutor, appointed by the Tsar. After 1917 - an advisory body under the Patriarch of Moscow and All Rus'.

Slavophilism- direction of Russian social thought, ser. XIX century Main features:

1. They advocated a different path of development for Russia from the European one, based on its originality.

Related information.

What do we know about the Russian Empress Catherine the Great? Facts that have little to do with Catherine often emerge in the memory of descendants; she was a very big fan of court balls and exquisite toilets. Lines of gentlemen always followed her. The lives of her favorites, who were once connected with her by love ties, went down in history. Meanwhile, the Russian Empress was, first of all, an intelligent, bright, extraordinary personality and a talented organizer. It is worth noting that under her, the system of government was transformed for the first time since the reign of Peter the Great. There is still great interest today. Briefly summarizing them, however, is unlikely to be possible. In general, all its political changes fit into the mainstream of the theory called enlightened absolutism. This movement gained particular popularity in the 18th century. Many areas of state and public life were affected by the reforms of Catherine II. The table “Transformations within the country” given below clearly shows this.

Princess Fike's childhood and upbringing

Sophia Frederika Augusta of Anhalt-Zerbst - this was the full name of the future Russian empress. She was born in the spring of 1729 in a small German town called Stettin (now part of Poland). Her father was in the service of the Prussian king. He was a vain man. At one time, he was first a regimental commander, then a commandant, and then the governor of his hometown. The mother of the future empress was of royal blood. She was the cousin of Peter III, the future husband of her daughter. Sofia, or, as her relatives called her, Fike, was educated at home.

She studied French, Italian, English, geography, history, theology, danced and played music. The girl had a cheerful disposition, was restless, and was friends with boys. Her parents were unhappy with her behavior. The Fike family was not rich. But her mother dreamed of marrying off her daughter profitably. Soon her dreams were brought to life.

Marriage to the heir to the throne of Russia

In 1744, the Zerbst princess Fike was invited, along with her mother, to Russia to the royal court for the wedding with the future Russian emperor Peter III, who was her second cousin.

The sixteen-year-old bride was soon introduced to Elizaveta Petrovna, who, trying to secure the Romanovs' right to succession to the throne, hoped to marry her unlucky nephew. The Russian Empress believed that the pretty and graceful Sofia could distract Peter from his childhood games with puppies and toys. As soon as Fike found herself in Russia, she eagerly began to study the Russian language, court etiquette and the Orthodox law of God. The wedding was scheduled for August 25, 1745. The day before, Sofia converted to Orthodoxy and received the name Ekaterina Alekseevna. On the wedding day at 6 o'clock in the morning, the princess was taken to Elizabeth Petrovna's chambers, where she was dressed and combed. The wedding ceremony took place in the Kazan Church. It is noteworthy that 17 years after this, the Life Guards will swear allegiance to their new Empress Ekaterina Alekseevna here. After the wedding, a large ball and banquet was given at the royal court, where Fike was forced to dance with an endless series of elderly nobles. Immediately after the wedding, it became clear that the newly-made husband was not going to fulfill his marital duties. Peter spent all his time playing with tin soldiers and cardboard castles. He turned his marital bedroom into a kennel for hunting dogs. It was obvious that this ignoramus was not capable of governing the state. Meanwhile, Russia needed internal reforms. Catherine 2, as such, did not yet exist. And those close to the royal court expected that for Fike everything would be limited to the role of the emperor’s wife and mother of his children. How wrong they were.

Catherine's accession to the Russian throne

The current Empress Elizaveta Petrovna was fading away every day, her health was very weak. But the relationship between the crowned spouses did not work out. Peter openly lived with his mistress and talked about his desire to marry her. Catherine herself soon also became interested in the 26-year-old chamber cadet Sergei Saltykov. A few months after this, Fike gave birth to a son, who was named Paul. There were rumors at court that his father was Catherine's lover. Despite all this, Empress Elizabeth Petrovna proclaimed the boy second in line to the throne. Meanwhile, Russia, in alliance with Austria and France, fought with Prussia, where it won one victory after another. This pleased everyone except the infantile Peter, who considered the King of Prussia, Frederick II, an unrivaled military genius. It was clear that if he ascended the throne, Russia would conclude a humiliating peace with Prussia, losing everything that it had acquired during the war. Soon this happened. Elizabeth died on Christmas Day in 1761. After this, Peter became the Russian emperor. In March 1762, he made peace with Prussia, which caused a lot of discontent in the ranks of the Russian army. This is what Catherine’s associates, the Orlov brothers, decided to use against Peter III, one of whom, Gregory, was her lover and the father of her last child. In the Kazan Church, Catherine underwent the ceremony of anointing and taking the oath as Empress of All Rus'. The soldiers were the first to swear allegiance to her.

This happened on June 28, 1762. At that time, no one had any idea what Catherine II’s policy would be.

General information about the reign of the Empress

A week after the events described, on July 6, Catherine received a letter from Orlov stating that her husband Peter, who had written an abdication and was exiled to Ropsha Manor, had died. According to eyewitnesses, the newly-crowned empress was thrashing around, crying and screaming that her descendants would never forgive her for this. However, other sources indicate that she knew about the impending assassination attempt on her husband, since 2 days before his murder, doctor Paulsen was sent to him not with medicines, but with tools for autopsy. Be that as it may, no one challenged Catherine’s right to the throne. And today we can sum up the results of her 34-year reign. To characterize her rule within the state, historians often use a term such as “enlightened absolutism.” Adherents of this theory are convinced that the state must have a strong autocratic government that will work for the benefit of all its citizens. Catherine 2 was expressed primarily in strengthening the bureaucratic apparatus, unifying the management system and centralizing the country. The Empress believed that the vast territory of Russia and its harsh climate necessitated the emergence and prosperity of autocracy here. The reforms of Catherine 2 can be schematically depicted this way.

Table “Transformations within the country”

As we can see from the data in the table, these reforms fully demonstrated the enlightened absolutism of Catherine 2. She sought to concentrate all state power in her hands and ensure that all classes lived in the country according to the special laws she introduced.

Document “Order” - the concept of enlightened absolutism of Catherine II

The Empress, who spoke enthusiastically about the works of Montesquieu and adopted the basic principles of his theory, attempted to convene the so-called Statutory Commission, the main goal of which was to clarify the needs of the people in order to carry out the necessary transformations within the state. This body was attended by 600 deputies from various classes. As a guiding document for this Commission, Catherine issued the “Order”, which became, in essence, a theoretical justification for enlightened absolutism. It is known that it was almost completely copied from the writings of Montesquieu, an ardent supporter of this theory. Catherine herself admitted that here she owned “one line here and there, one word.”

This Commission existed for only a year and a half, and then was dissolved. Was this body called upon to carry out the administrative reforms of Catherine 2? Maybe yes. But historians today agree that all the work of the Commission was aimed at creating a favorable image of the Empress in Russia and abroad. It was this body that decided to award her the title “Great”.

Administrative reforms of Catherine 2

These innovations were legalized on November 7, 1775. The system of administrative division of Russian territory has changed. Previously, it was three-level: provinces, provinces, districts. And now the regions of the state began to be divided only into governorships and districts. At the head of several governorships was the governor-general. The governors, herald-fiscals and refatgei were subordinate to him. Finances in the governorships were in charge of the Treasury Chamber with the support of the Accounts Chamber. At the head of each district was a police captain. The city was allocated as a separate administrative unit, headed by a mayor instead of a governor.

Reform of the Senate Catherine 2

This new formation was accepted by the Empress on December 15, 1763. According to him, the Senate became the highest court. In addition, it was divided into 6 departments:

The first was in charge of all state and political affairs in St. Petersburg;

The second - court cases in St. Petersburg;

The third - medicine, science, art, education, transport;

The fourth - military sea and land affairs;

Fifth - state and political affairs in Moscow;

The sixth is court cases in Moscow.

The governance reforms of Catherine II here were aimed at making the Senate an obedient instrument of autocratic power.

Economic reforms

The reign of the empress was characterized by extensive development of the country's economy. The economic reforms of Catherine 2 affected the banking and monetary spheres, and foreign trade.

During her reign, new credit institutions appeared (loan offices and the State Bank) and began to accept funds from the population for deposits. For the first time, banknotes were issued - paper money. Under Catherine, the state began to export goods abroad in large quantities, such as cast iron, sailing cloth, timber, hemp, and bread. It is difficult to say whether these reforms of Catherine 2 brought a positive result. It is unlikely that it will be possible to talk about this briefly. Massive under its management led to famine in 1780 in many regions of Russia. Cases of mass ruin of peasants have become more frequent. Bread prices have increased. The state treasury was empty. And it exceeded 33 million rubles.

Innovations in the education system

But not all of the empress’s transformations had negative consequences. The educational reform of Catherine II began in the 1760s. Schools began to open everywhere, which children from different classes could attend. Particular attention was paid to women's education. In 1764, the Smolensk Institute of Noble Maidens was founded. In 1783, the Russian Academy opened, where eminent foreign scientists were invited. What else did the education reform of Catherine 2 manifest itself in? The fact is that in the provinces orders of public charity were formed, which were in charge of managing public schools, hospitals, shelters for the insane and sick, and hospitals. In Moscow and St. Petersburg, houses were opened for street children who received upbringing and education there.

Estates under Catherine 2

This transformation still causes controversy among historians. The class reforms of Catherine 2 consisted of her issuing two charters in 1785, one of which finally secured the privileges of the nobility, and the other divided the urban population into 6 categories. The Empress herself called these innovations “the crown of her activity.” The “charter granted to the nobility” stipulated the following:

This class was exempt from the quartering of military units, from corporal punishment, from confiscation of property for criminal offenses;

The nobility received the right to the bowels of the earth, the right to own land, and the right to have class institutions;

These people were prohibited from holding elected positions if their income from estates was less than 100 rubles, and they were also deprived of the right to vote if they did not have an officer rank.

What was the urban reform of Catherine 2? The Empress ordered to divide the population into 6 categories:

City dwellers (homeowners);

Merchants of 3 guilds;

Craftsmen;

Nonresident and foreign merchants;

Famous citizens (rich merchants, bankers, architects, painters, scientists, composers);

Posadsky (without houses).

Regarding these innovations, we can say that the policy of Catherine 2 here contributed to a strong stratification of society into rich and poor. At the same time, the economic situation of some of the nobles worsened. Many of them could not enter the civil service without being able to purchase the necessary clothing and shoes. At the same time, a number of large nobles owned vast territories of land and hundreds of thousands of serfs.

Religious politics

What other areas were affected by the state reforms of Catherine 2? This strong-willed woman tried to control absolutely everything in her state, including religion. In 1764, she issued a decree depriving the church of land. Together with the peasants, these territories were transferred to the management of a certain College of Economy. Thus, the clergy became dependent on the royal power. In general, the empress tried to pursue a policy of religious tolerance. In the first years of her reign, the persecution of Old Believers stopped, Buddhism, Protestantism, and Judaism received state support.

Catherine 2 as an adherent of Enlightenment theory

The Empress's 34-year reign was filled with many contradictory events. The enlightened absolutism of Catherine 2, which she tried to preach among the nobility, was manifested in the “Order” she created, and in the class reform, and in the administrative division of the territory of Russia, and in transformations in the field of education. True, all these reforms were limited. the autocratic principle of governance and serfdom remained unshakable. Catherine’s relationship with French enlighteners (Voltaire, Diderot) deserves special attention.

She maintained an active correspondence with them, exchanging ideas. They had a very high opinion of her. True, modern historians are confident that these relations were purely sponsorship in nature. The Empress often generously gave gifts to her “friends.”

Results of the reign of the Great Empress

The time has come to briefly characterize the reforms of Catherine 2 and summarize her reign. She carried out many transformations, sometimes very contradictory. The era of the empress is characterized by the maximum enslavement of the peasants and the deprivation of their minimum rights. Under her, a decree was issued prohibiting peasants from filing a complaint against their landowner. Corruption flourished, and on an especially large scale. The empress herself set an example, generously gifting relatives and court associates and appointing her favorites to responsible government posts. It is not surprising that after a few years of her reign, the country's treasury was empty. How did the reforms of Catherine 2 end? Briefly, we can say this: a severe economic crisis and the complete collapse of the state’s financial system. Be that as it may, she actively participated in public life and loved Russia, which had become her native country.

We learned how the enlightened absolutism of Catherine 2 was manifested during her reign, some of the provisions of which she was able to implement.

"Mandate" and the Commission of 1767 - 1768

In January 1765, Catherine began direct work on the legislative project.

In July 1767, over 500 locally elected deputies gathered in Moscow to form the “Commission on the Drafting of a New Code,” which worked for seven years. On June 30, the Commission began its work, the “Order” was officially promulgated, and all deputies received the texts of the Code of Legal Principles.

The official text of the “Order of the Commission on the drafting of a new code” consisted of 20 thematic chapters and 526 articles. Most of the text was apparently borrowed. However, in the end, Catherine came up with a creation that was independent in design and political principles. The postulates of the laws she developed were aimed at strengthening the unlimited power of the monarch, legality based on “reasonable leniency,” guaranteeing civil rights in the form of privileges for classes, and general reform of the legal system in the spirit of these principles.

The first five chapters recorded the most important principles of the power of government in Russia as indisputable, “fundamental” principles of the life of society in general. One of the very first articles of the Order proclaimed Russia a European power. This provision had an important political connotation: following Montesquieu’s criteria, all the laws of European statehood are inherent in Russia, despite its particular vastness. The main one of these laws is “The sovereign in Russia is autocratic; for no other power, as soon as the power united in his person, can act similarly to the space of such a great state.” And “any other rule would not only be harmful to Russia, but also ultimately ruinous.” However, the new, legal monarchy has a new goal: to direct all people’s actions to receive the greatest good from everyone, to promote the prosperity of society, and to guarantee the rights of citizen-subjects. The sovereign cannot and should not rule everywhere himself, although it was he who was supposed to be the legal source of all power in the state. This shows that the “Nakaz” fully preserved the absolutism of the monarchy.

Chapters 9 and 10 established the principles of legislation in the field of criminal law. A properly constructed criminal law was proclaimed to be the most important guarantee of civil “liberty.” The “mandate” categorically prohibited any form of cruel punishment and reduced possible cases of the death penalty. The court is also not so much a punitive institution as a body for protecting society and citizens. And since the court operates in a real estate society, guarantees of judicial justice in it should consist in the participation of elected representatives from estates in the consideration of cases.

Chapters 11-18 were devoted to legislation in the social and legal sphere and civil law. Society is divided into three classes, based on natural and historical differences in occupations. The more honorable place of the nobles guaranteed them special privileges in the service and in property. But it is also important for the peasantry to “establish something useful.” The law must protect everyone, but civil rights are granted according to class.

The last, 19th and 20th chapters of the “Order” established some rules in certain matters of legislation. Freedom of religion was declared, and courts not provided for by law were prohibited.

Despite the complete failure of the Commission, it still had important consequences for the subsequent activities of Catherine II. In this regard, the meeting of deputies of 1767-1768 played a major role. The deputies brought a lot of instructions, their speeches were left in the archives of the Commission, thus the opinions of both the estates and the individuals they separately elected on subjects that interested the Empress were expressed. A huge amount of factual material was collected, reflecting a picture of the views, moods and interests of the society of that time. In addition, Catherine managed to make Russians think about state freedom, political rights, religious tolerance, and the equality of all subjects in the face of the Law. The commission showed exactly what needs to be corrected and what these principles need to be applied to. After the dissolution of the Code Commission, Catherine II began her own development of a series of legislative acts that constituted the reform of “enlightened absolutism”, the basis for which were the principles and rules of the previously issued “Instruction”. The reform of local self-government was especially important.

Provincial reform

The provincial institutions of Empress Catherine II constituted an entire era in the history of local government in Russia. In 1775, an extensive legislative document “Establishment for the Administration of Provinces” was published. In accordance with this document, a new administrative-territorial division came into force, and major changes were made to local government. This system lasted for almost a century.

All newly formed provinces and districts received a uniform structure based on a strict separation of administrative, financial and judicial affairs. The province was headed by a government-appointed governor with his deputy, the vice-governor. Sometimes two or three provinces were united under the control of a governor-general. The country was divided into 50 provinces; the provinces were abolished, each province was divided into 10-12 districts. This division was based on the principle of the size of the tax-paying population. A certain number of inhabitants was established for provinces and districts: 300-400 thousand and 20-30 thousand people, respectively.

With the change in the boundaries of the former administrative territories, new district and provincial centers arose. The local government system was reorganized. The weakness of the previous local government was manifested in its inability to suppress anti-government protests on its own. This was convincingly proven by the events of the Moscow “plague riot” of 1771 (a widespread uprising caused by the strictness of quarantine), and especially the Pugachev uprising. Now the central government had numerous administrative institutions at its disposal; any armed uprising would have met with quick and brutal rebuff.

Catherine II developed her provisions on the provinces, striving, first of all, to increase the strength of the administration, delineate departments and attract zemstvo elements to management. In each provincial city, the following were established: provincial boards headed by the governor (had an administrative nature, represented government power and was the auditor of the entire administration), criminal and civil chambers (the highest court bodies in the province), the treasury chamber (financial management body), the upper zemstvo court (judicial place for noble litigation and for the trial of nobles), provincial magistrate (judicial place for persons of the urban class for claims and litigation against them), upper justice (judicial place for fellow believers and state peasants), order of public charity for the establishment of schools, almshouses, etc. All these institutions were collegial in nature and were considered class-based, but in reality all power belonged to the governor.

In each district city there were: a lower zemstvo court (in charge of the affairs of the district police and administration, consisting of a police officer and assessors), a district court (for nobles, subordinate to the Upper Zemstvo Court), a city magistrate (a judicial seat for citizens, subordinate to the provincial magistrate), a lower reprisal (court for state peasants, subordinated to the upper reprisal).

Judicial reform

For the first time in Russia, a court appeared, separated from the executive branch, although dependent on it. The activities of the new bodies acquired the features of self-government, since local residents took part in it. The new courts were elected. Separately, courts were elected for the nobles, the urban population and for those peasants who were not in serfdom.

As a result of the regional reform, police and noble supervision over the population was strengthened, and the number of officials was increased. 216 new cities appeared due to the abolition of the autonomy of the outskirts (in 1775 the Zaporozhye Sich was destroyed, Cossack self-government on the Don was abolished, and the autonomy of Estland and Livonia was abolished).

These were the main measures taken by Catherine II regarding government. As a result, the empress strengthened the composition of the administration, correctly distributed departments between governing bodies and gave broad participation to the zemstvo in new institutions. But the disadvantage of the local institution of 1775 was the previous system in the central administration, the responsibility for leadership and general supervision. With the exception of two institutions (the court of conscience and the order of public charity), all the rest were bodies of one class. Self-government acquired a strictly class character: it was not an innovation for the townspeople, but was a major reform for the nobility.

"Certificate of Nobility"

In 1785, Catherine II published the Charter of the Nobility and in it confirmed all their rights received from previous sovereigns, giving them new ones.

Under Catherine II, the nobleman became a member of the provincial noble corporation, which was privileged and held local self-government in its hands. The charter of 1785 established that a nobleman cannot, except by court, lose his title and transfer it to his wife and children. He was freed from taxes and corporal punishment, owned as inalienable property everything that was on his estate, was finally freed from the formerly obligatory public service, but could not take part in elections to noble positions if he did not have an officer rank. Deprivation of noble dignity could be carried out only by decision of the Senate with the highest approval. The estates of convicted nobles were not subject to confiscation. The nobility was now called "noble".

Peasant reforms

She forbade free people and freed peasants from re-entering serfdom. By her order, for the newly established cities, the government bought out serfs and turned them into townspeople. Children of serfs, taken into state care in orphanages, became free. Catherine was preparing a decree according to which children of serfs born after 1785 were considered free. She also dreamed of implementing another project - it would lead to the gradual liberation of peasants during the transfer of estates from one hand to another. But this project was not published, as the empress was afraid of noble discontent.

"Certificate of Complaint to Cities"

Simultaneously with the Charter, a Charter was issued to the nobility on the rights and benefits of the cities of the Russian Empire. Like the nobility, urban society was viewed as a legal entity enjoying corporate rights, the main of which was the right of self-government. Its primary body was the city assembly, which elected the city mayor and representatives of the judiciary. The administrative body of class self-government was the general city duma, which met once every three years. It represented the mayor and the so-called vowels (deputies) from six categories of the city population (“real city inhabitants,” that is, owners of real estate within the city); merchants of three guilds; guild artisans; Russian and foreign specialists; “famous citizens” - a large group of people who served in elections, businessmen, intelligentsia, townspeople. In the interval between meetings of the city duma, its functions were transferred to the executive body - the six-vote duma, which included one vowel from each category of the population. Compared to the self-government of the nobility, elected city bodies had much fewer rights and were subject to petty state-bureaucratic supervision.

A comparison of all three documents (the Charter to the nobility, the Charter to the cities and the unpublished Charter to the state peasants) allows us to believe that the empress did not so much strive to support one or another class, but rather cared about strengthening the state, the basis of which was, in her opinion, the strong classes of Western European type. It was under Catherine II that a civil society based on the strengthening of classes began to take shape.

Other works on legislation and law, developed by Catherine II in 1770-1780, also played an important role in the formation of the civil society of the Russian Empire. Catherine II was engaged in other projects: about the reconstruction of prisons, about changing the search procedure. From the Code arose a small decree of 1781 changing the responsibility for various types of theft. At the same time, Catherine drew up an extensive charter for the deanery, promulgated in 1782. The Charter defined the principles of reforming police institutions in the country, new tasks of police institutions - not only to search for criminals and maintain order, but also to regulate social life in cities in general. The Charter also included the Criminal Code (since the powers included the right not only to put on trial, but also to determine punishments for minor crimes).

Development of trade and industry

Among the individual events of the enlightened government of Catherine II, the Empress’s patronage of Russian trade also stands out, evidence of which is the Charter of the Cities of 1785. Catherine’s attitude towards Russian trade and industry was affected by the empress’s dependence on Western European ideas. Since Peter I in Russia, a system of old government control was established over trade and industry, and the activities of the commercial and industrial class were constrained by regulation. Catherine II removed these restrictions and destroyed the control bodies - the Berg Manufactory Collegium. She promoted the development of industry and trade. Under her, banknotes, or paper money, were issued for the first time, which greatly helped trade. Wanting to better organize credit, Catherine II established a state loan bank with large capital.

In November 1775, for the development of trade and industry, a Manifesto was issued on the freedom to establish industrial enterprises ("stans"), and freedom of entrepreneurship was declared. Merchants who owned capital over 500 rubles were exempt from the poll tax and paid a tax of one percent on capital; A representative of the merchant class could be freed from conscription duty by paying 360 rubles. Also in 1775, the empress adopted a preferential customs tariff for the Black Sea ports and abolished industrial and trade monopolies. The development of southern Russia made grain trade on the Black Sea possible; New cities were founded in Russia, a naval base was built in Sevastopol. These measures, carried out by Catherine in Russia's economic policy, contributed to the expansion of exports and the improvement of various industries.

Expansion of public education

Important results of the activities of the government of “enlightened absolutism” include the measures taken by Catherine II regarding public education. Catherine II, in her “Instructions,” was the first to talk about the educational significance of education and then began to take care of the establishment of various educational institutions.

In accordance with the “General Institution for the Education of Both Sexes of Youth,” a school was opened at the Academy of Arts (1764), the Society of Two Hundred Noble Maidens (1764) with sections for middle-class girls, a commercial school (1772)

In 1782, the Commission on the Establishment of Schools was formed to carry out a larger school reform. These schools were all-class and were maintained at the expense of the state.

The main merit of Catherine II in the field of educational reforms can be considered the first experience of creating in Russia a system of general primary education, not limited by class barriers (with the exception of serfs). The significance of this reform is very high, because it was about creating an all-Russian educational school system.

Organization of medical care to the population

It is also noteworthy that under Catherine II, the organization of medical care to the population was entrusted to the authorities. Concerns about public health and hygiene led to an attempt under the empress to properly organize medical care throughout the country. The medical commission, established in 1763, and the orders of public charity were supposed to oversee the medical unit in the empire and train medical workers. Each city was required to have a hospital and a pharmacy, where patients were offered not those medicines that were cheaper, but those prescribed by the doctor. The city was also supposed to establish asylums for the incurable and the insane. Since there were not enough doctors, they were discharged from abroad and Russian doctors and surgeons were trained. At the same time, pharmacies and surgical instrument factories were founded. In 1783, Catherine II organized a medical service to monitor the health of the population. She established hospitals and psychiatric hospitals.

Development of Russian science

Russian science is making a big step forward. In 1783, a special Russian Academy was founded for the study of language and literature. The Academy of Sciences, which existed since Peter the Great's time, conducted five geographical expeditions in the years 1768-1774, which made a valuable contribution to the study of the geography of the country. The Academy of Sciences began publishing Russian chronicles, and twenty-five volumes of ancient Russian documents were published. In 1765, the Free Economic Society emerged, intended to popularize advanced agronomic knowledge and promote landowner rationalization. Numerous articles on the organization and management of agriculture were published in the proceedings of the Free Economic Society. The number of Russian scientists at the Academy of Sciences has increased significantly, among them the outstanding naturalists I. I. Lepyokhin, N. Ya. Ozeretskovsky, astronomer S. Ya. Rumovsky, mineralogist V. M. Severgin and others. The second half of the 18th century included the activities of prominent historians M. M. Shcherbatov and I. N. Boltin; sources on Russian history were actively published (by N.I. Novikov, the Academy of Sciences). Publishing output is increasing enormously. Over the entire 18th century, 9,500 books were published in Russia, of which about 85% were published during the reign of Catherine II. On January 15, the Empress signed a decree allowing the establishment of “free” printing houses.

Positive changes have also occurred in the organization of research work. In 1783, Princess E.R. Dashkova was appointed director of the Russian Academy of Sciences, who showed remarkable abilities in the administrative field. During the twelve years of her tenure in this post, the academic economy and academic educational institutions were put in order, the work of publicly accessible courses in the main branches of science was established, and the publishing activity of the Academy was intensified.

Catherine the Second, the Great Empress, ruled our country for exactly 34 years. This is a huge period of history, during which many different events took place.

In the mass consciousness, this ruler is associated with a lady insatiable in love. Well, Catherine II is known for her love affairs; in many historical novels you can read that the empress constantly changed favorites. But let's face the truth: has she really been busy exclusively with this for all 34 years? Surely not: all Russian historians consider the period of her reign to be the heyday of Russian literature, science and painting; It was then that Russian opera appeared and theatrical art developed at an unprecedented pace.

It was Catherine 2, whose reforms were thought out, balanced, and therefore cautious, who left a deep mark on the history of Russian diplomacy and legislation.

We should not forget about the brilliant military victories. While this autocrat occupied the throne, Russia did not suffer a single military defeat, unlike in previous periods. For example, in 1812 we defeated the French, although before that the victories on the battlefield belonged to them. Catherine's time is characterized by the annexation of Crimea, as well as harsh “lessons” for the Polish gentry. Finally, let us remember the famous reforms of Catherine 2.

Domestic policy

What was happening at this time inside the country? There were many events, since Catherine, unlike many of her predecessors, came to power with a ready-made program of action, which allowed her to pursue a truly effective policy. She positioned herself as “a faithful follower of the thinkers of the Enlightenment.” To her credit, Catherine knew how to understand which of their theories was suitable for real life and which was not so good.

So, in 1773, the famous Denis Diderot arrived in Russia on a visit, who was very interested in the management reforms of Catherine 2. He was surprised to find that the Empress listened to him attentively, listening to all his proposals, but... was in no hurry to implement any of them into life. When the somewhat stung philosopher asked why this was happening, Catherine said: “Paper can withstand anything, but I have to deal with people whose skin is much thinner than the paper web.”

Her second important thought concerned the fact that any initiative and reform should be carried out gradually, gradually preparing society for their acceptance. This distinguished Catherine favorably from both domestic rulers and European monarchs, who almost never took into account the interests of their subjects in such a matter.

So, what exactly did Empress Catherine 2 do? Reforms should begin to be described from the provincial level.

Provincial reform

She began to carry it out shortly after the Pugachev riot, which shook the very pillars of the Empire and was a kind of harbinger of future tragic events. Unlike Nicholas II, Catherine knew how to draw conclusions.

Firstly, the very name of this transformation is completely incorrect. The thing is that the essence of the reform was much deeper, representing the creation of an almost new management system “on the ground”.

A new division of the country was proposed. There were 50 provinces in total, and this division remained virtually unchanged until the collapse of the Empire in 1917. What does this mean? Simply put, several times more cities of “federal” significance were formed in the country than there were before. An appointed governor arrives in a specific locality, and a mass of energetic, educated people are sent there. As a result, the quiet and “musty” county town soon turned into a local center of social and political life.

Response to Pugachev's rebellion

Here an attentive reader may well ask the question: “And where is the influence of Pugachev’s rebellion?” It's simple: after these events, Catherine wanted most of the local authorities to be recruited from natives of the same area. Simply put, for the first time in the history of the House of Romanov, the people had the opportunity to independently choose those who would rule them. An unprecedented breakthrough for those times! This is what Catherine 2 became famous for. Her reforms made it possible to move away from the mossy social system of the early 16th century and finally forced many industries to really develop.

Bodies of self-government arose that are familiar to our time, but were a curiosity for that era. Let’s make a reservation right away: all this theoretically existed before Catherine. But this was not done purposefully, but only because of the lack of capital officials who could be sent to all the cities and villages of the vast empire. All these bodies had no real powers, limited only to the right to collect taxes and other mechanical operations. If we draw parallels with modern times, then the internal reforms of Catherine 2 were aimed at redistributing power.

All these transformations were a consequence of the empress’s conviction that all riots arise from the inability of appointed officials to quickly “get into” problems on the ground and solve them. In principle, such governors had no desire to do so: it was important for them to report on the achievements of the “people's five-year plan” and collect taxes. Nothing else was required of them, and initiative was always punishable.

It is important to note that after 1775, when this reform was carried out, there was not a single (!) repetition of the Pugachev rebellion. Local authorities, although sometimes distinguished by the same desire for bribery, were still much more interested in improving the life of their native land. Simply put, the government reforms of Catherine 2 were truly aimed at the benefit of the country.

The emergence of civic consciousness

Many historians agree that from then on, faint but still noticeable features of civil society and identity began to emerge. So, it was precisely in those days that it constantly happened that residents of small county towns held meetings, collected voluntary donations and used these funds to build gymnasiums, libraries, churches and other objects of the social and spiritual sphere.

Until then, such coherence and unanimity could not even be imagined. How far was the mentioned Diderot from a real solution to social problems!

Senate reform

Of course, Catherine 2 (whose reforms we describe here) was far from being a “herald of democracy.” She could not even imagine limiting her power in any way and weakening the institution of state absolutism. So, seeing the increasing independence of the Senate, the empress decided to take it “under the strong government wing,” limiting in every possible way any real power of this important body.

At the end of 1763, the structure of the Senate was recognized as “not corresponding to reality.” The role of the prosecutor general, who was appointed by the empress herself, was extremely elevated.

A. A. Vyazemsky was nominated to this place. In general, he was a famous man: even his enemies respected him for his incorruptibility, honesty and zeal in serving the Fatherland. He reported daily to Catherine on the work of the Senate, subordinated all the provincial prosecutors to himself, and also single-handedly performed many functions that until then had been distributed in the Senate. Of course, the role of this body was constantly declining, although formally this was not the case.

All functions of the Senate were soon distributed among completely autonomous departments, which in fact were only puppets and could no longer pursue a coherent general policy.

Changing the structure of public administration

At the same time, the complete inconsistency of the old system of urban management with the new aspirations of the state began to become more and more apparent. The provincial reform of Catherine II, which we have already described, made each city an absolutely independent administrative unit. The mayor was responsible for managing it, whose status immediately grew disproportionately.

He was appointed from among the nobles who had served in military service and had enormous power. This same official was responsible for police duties, and not just managerial functions, and therefore a person in this position had to be distinguished by enviable hard work. This reform of local government by Catherine II immediately contributed to the restoration of order locally.

On the contrary, town halls and magistrates immediately practically lost all their administrative significance, turning into judicial bodies for merchants and industrialists. A new magistrate was created, people were recruited on the recommendations of merchants and industrialists. This body was managed by the mayor. In addition, public and orphan courts operated in cities. From all this, city self-government was formed, the creation of which was aimed at the creation of many of the reforms of Catherine 2. Of course, it was under constant supervision by the central government, but still it was also a breakthrough in the field of social and managerial spheres. However, the authorities had no other choice: cities grew rapidly, many enterprises, communities, educational and other institutions appeared. All this had to be “brought to a common denominator”; everything required adequate urban management, which only the provincial reform of Catherine II could implement in practice.

Catherine's judicial reform

All of the above leads to a very simple conclusion: such a rapid development of the social sphere would be impossible without normal judicial bodies that could correctly resolve the inevitably arising contradictions and disputes, both between individual members of society and between their entire groups.

It should also be emphasized that the judicial reform of Catherine 2 was based on a similar initiative of Peter I, only the empress was able to find a much more elegant solution, and therefore the program was not only implemented, but also gave very good results.

In 1775, the first set of official regulations was published. Many administrative courts were abolished and completely disbanded. Finally, two branches of government were clearly delineated: judicial and administrative, which had previously been merged together. Moreover, the administrative power retained its unity of command, while the judicial authorities were governed collectively.

Of course, this is not what made the reforms of Catherine 2 famous. Their main significance for the judicial system is briefly revealed below.

Important Note

Most importantly, civil and criminal lawsuits were finally separated. At one time, it was this “atavism” that interfered with the administration of normal justice, since it was difficult to adequately distinguish between guilt for administrative violations and truly serious acts. The lower authority was the district court. Small and insignificant matters were sorted out in him. This significantly reduced the load on judges who were doing something really important.

In general, the results of Catherine 2’s reforms in all areas are the same - a sharp increase in the efficiency of many industries. This still makes us respect the empress for her remarkable managerial talent. But let's get back to the courts.

The county authority was considering more serious applications. Unlike the zemstvo described above, in this court the assessors were recruited from landowners. Meetings were held exactly three times a year, and the work of this body was already supervised by the prosecutor, whose duties included the function of “internal police,” since he recorded all cases of violation of the laws by the judges themselves and reported them “to the top.”

At the provincial level, the main body in the hierarchy became the Higher Zemstvo Court, which could be located not only in the provincial, but also in the district city. From now on, each administrative center could have several such bodies at once. Each of them already had ten assessors. The chairmen were chosen exclusively by the Senate, and their approval was often carried out personally by the head of state.

But this was not the only thing that marked the reforms of Catherine II: in short, the courts became more specialized.

Structural division of courts

The Upper Zemsky Court was divided into criminal and purely administrative departments. This was an important authority for the “junior” authorities. In addition, its judges had the right to hear more complex cases. The fact is that even then a list of offenses was established by law, which representatives of the lower zemstvo and district courts, as well as members of the magistrate, could not consider. All this hindered the development of nepotism in the localities.

The Provincial Court also had a public and criminal chamber. Each had its own chairman, as well as a couple of advisers and assessors. They could also be elected exclusively by the Senate and confirmed by the Supreme Power. It was the highest court of those times, in which the most complex cases were considered, and all the most serious and dangerous crimes were dealt with.

In a word, the judicial reform of Catherine 2 was very, very complex.

Secularization reform

Catherine began her work in 1764. All monastery lands were now officially transferred to the management of the Economic Board. During this reform, Catherine followed in the footsteps of Peter I, who did not favor the clergy too much. On the one hand, from now on the state was obliged to support the Church... but at the same time, the secular authorities themselves determined how many monasteries and clergy the country needed. The Collegium also had the right to alienate “excess” lands to the state fund.

Transformations in the educational sector

The education reform of Catherine II is also known. Its main task was the creation of educational homes, the pupils of which received monetary allowance, full maintenance and education. As a result, the country replenished the ranks of its citizens with a large number of educated and intelligent young people who were devoted to the state and brought up in the necessary moral and ethical spirit.

Police reform

In 1782, the “Charter of the Deanery” was approved. The council began to officially manage the city police department. It included: bailiffs, a police chief and a mayor, as well as a commission of citizens, the composition of which was determined by voting. This body could impose a fine or censure, and also had the right to prohibit certain types of activities.

What other important reforms of Catherine 2 were there? The table will give us the answer to this question, and will also somewhat complement the goals of the activities that have already been discussed in this article.

Here are the other reforms of Catherine 2. The table reveals their essence in sufficient detail.

results

Without exaggeration, we can say that all the events carried out were truly fateful. What did the reforms of Catherine 2 contribute to? Briefly (the table reveals this point), they were aimed at achieving dual goals:

Strengthening autocracy.

Economic freedom of the population, the opportunity for capable people to rise from the lower classes.

During her reign, the threat of disobedience from the Cossack freemen was almost completely eliminated. What other consequences can be named of the reforms of Catherine 2? The church was finally subordinated to the will of the state, the judicial branch became more flexible. Citizens, one way or another, got the opportunity to participate in the fate of their own city or even province.

This is what marked the reforms of Catherine 2. Briefly (the table will help you see this), society has become more conscious, free and socially protected.