Additional forms of organizing the pedagogical process. Determination of the basic principles of organizing the pedagogical process

The concept of forms of organization of the pedagogical process General characteristics of the classroom-lesson system Lesson is the main form of organization of the pedagogical process Additional forms of organization of the pedagogical process Auxiliary forms of organization of the pedagogical process

§ 1. The concept of forms of organization of the pedagogical process

Organized training and education is carried out within the framework of a particular pedagogical system and has a certain organizational design. In didactics, there are three main systems of organizational design of the pedagogical process, which differ from each other in the quantitative coverage of students, the ratio of collective and individual forms of organizing the activities of students, the degree of their independence and the specifics of the management of the educational process on the part of the teacher. These include: 1) individual training and education, 2) class-lesson system and 3) lecture-seminar system.

From the history of organizational design of pedagogical systems

The system of individual training and education developed in primitive society as a transfer of experience from one person to another, from elders to younger ones. With the advent of writing, the elder of the clan or the priest passed on this wisdom of communication through speaking signs to his potential successor, studying with him individually. With the development of scientific knowledge in connection with the development of agriculture, cattle breeding, navigation and the awareness of the need to expand access to education to a wider circle of people, the system of individual education was uniquely transformed into an individual-group one. The teacher still taught 10 - 15 people individually. Having presented the material to one, he gave him a task for independent work and moved on to another, third, etc. Having finished working with the latter, the teacher returned to the first, checked the completion of the task, presented a new portion of the material, gave an assignment - and so on until the student, in the teacher’s assessment, had mastered the science, craft or art. The content of training and education was strictly individualized, so the group could include students of different ages and varying degrees of preparedness. The beginning and end of classes for each student, as well as the timing of training, were also individualized. Rarely did a teacher gather all the students in his group for group discussions, instruction, or memorization of scriptures and poems.

When in the Middle Ages, with an increase in the number of students, children of approximately the same age began to be selected into groups, the need arose for more advanced organizational design of the pedagogical process. It found its complete solution in the class-lesson system, originally developed and described by Ya. A. Komensky in his book “The Great Didactics”.

The class-lesson system, in contrast to individual training and its individual-group version, establishes a firmly regulated mode of educational work: a constant place and duration of classes, a stable composition of students of the same level of preparedness, and later of the same age, a stable schedule. According to Ya.A. Komensky, the main form of organizing classes within the classroom-lesson system should be a lesson. The objective of the lesson should be proportionate to the hourly period of time and the development of the students. The lesson begins with a message from the teacher and ends with a test of mastery of the material. It has a constant structure: survey, teacher message, exercise, check. Most of the time was spent on exercise.

Further development of the classical teaching of J.A. Komensky about the lesson in domestic pedagogy was carried out by K.D. Ushinsky. He deeply scientifically substantiated all the advantages of the class-lesson system and created a coherent theory of the lesson, in particular, he substantiated its organizational structure and developed a typology of lessons. In each lesson, K.D. Ushinsky identified three parts that were sequentially connected to each other. The first part of the lesson is aimed at making a conscious transition from what has been learned to something new and creating in students a desire for intensive perception of the material. This part of the lesson, wrote K.D. Ushinsky, is a necessary key, like the door of the lesson. The second part of the lesson is aimed at solving the main problem and is, as it were, the defining, central part of the lesson. The third part is aimed at summarizing the work done and consolidating knowledge and skills.

A. Disterweg made a great contribution to the development of the scientific foundations of lesson organization. He developed a system of principles and rules of teaching relating to the activities of teachers and students, and substantiated the need to take into account the age capabilities of students.

The classroom-lesson system in its main features has remained unchanged for more than 300 years. The search for an organizational design of the pedagogical process, which would replace the classroom-lesson system, was carried out in two directions, primarily related to the problem of the quantitative coverage of students and the management of the educational process.

So, at the end of the 19th century. In England, a training system was formed, covering 600 or more students at a time. The teacher, being in the same room with students of different ages and levels of preparedness, taught the older and more successful ones, and they, in turn, taught the younger ones. During the lesson, he also observed the work of groups led by his assistants - monitors. The invention of the Bell-Lancaster system, which received its name from the names of its creators - the priest A. Bell and the teacher D. Lancaster, was caused by the desire to resolve the contradiction between the need for a wider dissemination of basic knowledge among workers and maintaining minimal costs for education and training of teachers.

Another direction in improving the classroom-lesson system was associated with the search for such forms of organizing educational work that would eliminate the shortcomings of the lesson, in particular its focus on the average student, the uniformity of content and the average pace of educational progress, the invariability of the structure: questioning, presentation of new things, assignments for house. A consequence of the shortcomings of the traditional lesson was that it hampered the development of cognitive activity and independence of students. The idea of ​​K.D. Ushinsky that children should work independently in the classroom whenever possible, and the teacher would supervise this independent work and provide material for it, at the beginning of the 20th century. tried to implement it in the USA by E. Parkhurst with the support of influential teachers at that time, John and Evelina Dewey. In accordance with the Dalton laboratory plan, or Dalton plan, proposed by E. Parkhurst, traditional classes in the form of lessons were canceled, students received written assignments and, after consultation, teachers worked on them independently according to an individual plan. However, work experience has shown that most students are unable to study independently without the help of a teacher. The dalton plan is not widely used.

In the 20s The color-tone plan was sharply criticized by domestic educators, primarily for its pronounced individualistic orientation. At the same time, it served as the basis for the development of a brigade-laboratory form of teaching organization, which practically replaced the lesson with its rigid structure. The brigade-laboratory method, in contrast to the color scheme, involved a combination of collective work of the entire class with brigade (team) and individual work of each student. In general classes, work was planned, assignments were discussed, preparations were made for general excursions, the teacher explained difficult issues of the topic and summed up the results of team work. When assigning a task to the team, the teacher set deadlines for completing the task and a mandatory minimum of work for each student, individualizing tasks if necessary. At the final conferences, the foreman, on behalf of the brigade, reported on the completion of the task, which, as a rule, was carried out by a group of activists, and the rest were only present. The same marks were given to all members of the brigade.

The brigade-laboratory form of organizing classes, which claimed to be universal, was characterized by diminishing the role of the teacher, reducing his functions to counseling students. The overestimation of students' educational capabilities and the method of independently acquiring knowledge led to a significant decrease in academic performance, the absence of a system in knowledge and the lack of development of the most important general educational skills. The same shortcomings have also emerged in other forms of educational organization that originated in Western Europe and the USA, but have not become widespread.

The lecture and seminar system, which originated with the creation of the first universities, has deep historical roots, but it has practically not undergone significant changes since its creation. Lectures, seminars, practical and laboratory classes, consultations and practice in the chosen specialty still remain the leading forms of training within the lecture-seminar system. Its constant attributes are colloquiums, tests and exams.

The lecture-seminar system in its pure version is used in the practice of professional training, i.e. in conditions when students already have some experience in educational and cognitive activities, when basic general educational skills have been formed, and, above all, the ability to independently acquire knowledge. It allows you to organically combine mass, group and individual forms of education, although the dominance of the former is naturally predetermined by the characteristics of the age of students: students, students of the advanced training system, etc. In recent years, elements of the lecture-seminar system are widely used in secondary schools, combined with forms of classroom teaching. lesson system.

The experience of directly transferring the lecture-seminar system to school did not justify itself. So, in the 60s. The pedagogical project developed by the American professor of pedagogy L. Trump became very famous. This form of training organization involved a combination of classes in large classrooms (100 - 150 people) with classes in groups of 10 - 15 people and individual work by students. 40% of the time was allocated for general lectures using various technical means, 20% of the time was allocated for discussion of lecture material (seminars), in-depth study of individual sections and development of skills and abilities, and the rest of the time for independent work under the guidance of a teacher or his assistants from strong students. Currently, according to Trump’s plan, only a few private schools are operating, and only certain elements have been established in the mass schools: training by a team of teachers with a narrow specialization, attracting assistants who do not have special education, classes with a large group of students, and organizing independent work in small groups. In addition to the mechanical transfer of the university system to the general education school, the Trump plan affirmed the theory of extreme individualization, expressed in giving the student complete freedom in choosing the content of education and methods of mastering it, which leads to the rejection of the leading role of the teacher, to ignoring educational standards.

§ 2. General characteristics of the class-lesson system

The classroom-lesson system, with all its shortcomings, has significant advantages over other systems for organizing the pedagogical process. Reasonable use within its framework of elements of other educational systems makes the classroom-lesson system indispensable for a comprehensive school.

The classroom-lesson system, with its mass enrollment of students, allows for organizational clarity and continuity of educational work; it is economically beneficial, especially in comparison with individual training and education. The teacher’s knowledge of the individual characteristics of students and, in turn, students of each other allows them to use with great effect the stimulating influence of the class team on the educational activities of each student.

The classroom-lesson system, like no other, presupposes a close connection between compulsory academic and extracurricular work. Extracurricular work occupies a special place in the structure of the pedagogical process organized by the school. It greatly contributes to the improvement of the educational process itself, although it is not always carried out within the walls of the school. Extracurricular (extracurricular) work can be considered as extracurricular and extracurricular. Extracurricular activities are organized by the school and most often within the walls of the school, and extracurricular activities are organized by additional education institutions, usually on their basis.

Extracurricular and extracurricular activities are of great educational importance. They contribute to the development of cognitive interests, satisfaction and development of the spiritual needs of schoolchildren, and open up additional opportunities for the formation of such valuable socially significant qualities as social activity, independence, initiative, etc. Their main purpose is to identify and develop the creative abilities and inclinations of children and adolescents in various branches of science and culture.

An undeniable advantage of the classroom-lesson system is the possibility within its framework of an organic combination of mass, group and individual forms of educational work.

Mass forms are used mainly in organizing extracurricular activities. They require the participation of the majority of students or their representatives. These are matinees, school evenings, holidays, competitions, Olympiads, KVNs, conferences, subbotniks, etc. The criteria for the effectiveness of mass forms of organizing the pedagogical process are the quantitative coverage of schoolchildren, clarity and organization in the process, the activity of students and, most importantly, the achievement of educational goals.

It is advisable to divide group forms into educational and extracurricular. Educational activities include a lesson, school lecture, seminar, excursion, laboratory and practical session, which will be discussed in detail below. Group extracurricular work is carried out with students of the same or different ages, united by common interests. Usually these are circles, clubs, sports sections organized with the aim of deepening cognitive interests and broadening horizons (subject clubs, the club for the curious “Why”, etc.); improving labor skills and development of technical creativity ("Skillful Hands", design, aircraft modeling clubs, etc.); development of artistic abilities (dance, choral clubs, vocal group, literary club, etc.); improving sportsmanship and promoting health (sports sections, teams of schools for any sport, etc.); intensification of social activities (international friendship club, clubs “Young Historian”, “Prometheus”, etc.). Circles, clubs, sections usually unite no more than 15-20 people and work according to a program drawn up for a year or six months. Indicators of the effectiveness of group forms of organizing extracurricular work are the stable composition of a circle or section; noticeable collective achievements recognized by others.

The main form of individual educational work is consultations in combination with additional classes. In recent years, individual work with students in the form of tutoring in all or some academic subjects has become widespread. Individual extracurricular educational work is organized with the aim of developing the abilities, inclinations and talents of individual students. This could be literary reading, solo performance of songs, learning to play a musical instrument, etc. The criterion for the effectiveness of individual forms of organizing training and education is progressive positive changes in the knowledge, skills, behavior, and relationships of the student, i.e. in the personality as a whole.

Additional education (out-of-school educational work), also organized through mass, group and individual forms, is based on the conditions of voluntary participation, activity and initiative of children, taking into account their age and interests. It is carried out through children's art houses, children's technical, naturalistic, local history stations, music, sports, art schools, libraries, clubs, clubs, sections at house managements, etc.

All the variety of forms of organization of the pedagogical process can be divided into basic, additional and auxiliary.

§ 3. Lesson - the main form of organizing the pedagogical process

From the standpoint of the integrity of the pedagogical process, the lesson must be considered as the main form of its organization. It is in the lesson that all the advantages of the classroom-lesson system are reflected. In the form of a lesson, it is possible to effectively organize not only educational and cognitive, but also other developmental activities of children and adolescents. It is no coincidence that in recent years, lessons in citizenship, culture, labor, poetry, etc. have become widespread.

The advantages of the lesson as a form of organizing the pedagogical process are that it has favorable opportunities for combining frontal, group and individual work; allows the teacher to systematically and consistently present the material, manage the development of cognitive abilities and form the scientific worldview of students; stimulates other activities of schoolchildren, including extracurricular and home activities; in the lesson, students master not only the system of knowledge, skills and abilities, but also the methods of cognitive activity themselves; The lesson allows you to effectively solve educational problems through the content and methods of pedagogical activity.

A lesson is a form of organizing the pedagogical process in which the teacher, for a precisely set time, manages the collective cognitive and other activities of a permanent group of students (class), taking into account the characteristics of each of them, using types, means and methods of work that create favorable conditions for so that all students master the basics of the subject being studied directly in the learning process, as well as for the education and development of cognitive abilities and spiritual strength of schoolchildren (according to A.A. Budarny).

In the above definition, we can highlight specific features that distinguish a lesson from other organizational forms. This is a permanent group of students; management of schoolchildren’s activities, taking into account the characteristics of each of them; mastering the basics of what is being studied directly in class. These signs reflect not only the specifics, but also the essence of the lesson.

Typology and structure of lessons

In each lesson, one can identify its main elements (links, stages), which are characterized by various types of activities of the teacher and students. These elements can appear in various combinations and thus determine the structure of the lesson, the relationship between the stages of the lesson, i.e. its structure.

The structure of a lesson should be understood as the relationship of lesson elements in their specific sequence and interrelationship with each other. It can be simple or quite complex, depending on the content of the educational material, the didactic goal (or goals) of the lesson, the age characteristics of the students and the characteristics of the class as a collective. The variety of lesson structures, methods of conducting them and didactic goals implies a variety of their types.

Types of lessons that are simple in structure, i.e. Having one dominant didactic goal, they are most applicable in middle and high schools. In the elementary grades, taking into account the age of the students, it is necessary to combine various types of educational work, combine the communication of new knowledge with primary consolidation, repetition of previously learned. Even control lessons quite often include other types of work: oral presentation of material, reading an interesting story, etc. Let us give a classification of lessons (according to B.P. Esipov).

A lesson in introducing students to new material or communicating (learning) new knowledge. This is a lesson whose content is new material unknown to students, which includes a relatively wide range of issues and requires significant time to study. In such lessons, depending on their content, specific didactic goal and students’ preparedness for independent work, in some cases the teacher himself presents new material, in others, independent work is carried out by students under the guidance of the teacher, in others, both are practiced. The structure of a lesson on introducing new material: repetition of previous material, which is the basis for learning new things; teacher explaining new material and working with the textbook; checking understanding and initial consolidation of knowledge; homework assignment.

Lesson to consolidate knowledge. The main content of educational work in this lesson is a secondary comprehension of previously acquired knowledge in order to strengthen it. Students in some cases comprehend and deepen their knowledge using new sources, in others they solve new problems using rules known to them, in third cases they reproduce previously acquired knowledge orally and in writing, in fourth cases they make reports on individual issues from what they have learned with the aim of deeper and deeper understanding. their strong assimilation, etc. Structurally, such lessons involve going through the following stages: checking homework; performing oral and written exercises; checking the completion of tasks; homework assignment.

Lessons on developing and consolidating skills and abilities are closely related to lessons in consolidating knowledge. The process of consolidating skills and abilities occurs over several lessons in a row, and then in the future it continues for a long time when the class is engaged in other topics. From lesson to lesson, the material should become more complex so that it can really be seen that students are coping with this learning task more and more successfully. If, at the beginning of the work, the exercises are carried out by children with a lot of help from the teacher and with a preliminary large check of how the children understood the task, then in the future the students will have to establish for themselves where which rule needs to be applied, they should learn to apply skills in a wide variety of situations , including in life practice. The structure of lessons for developing and consolidating skills and abilities: reproduction of theoretical knowledge; performing practical tasks and exercises; checking the performance of independent work; homework assignment.

In generalizing lessons (generalization and systematization of knowledge), the most significant questions from previously covered material are systematized and reproduced, existing gaps in students’ knowledge are filled and the most important ideas of the course being studied are revealed. Such lessons are held at the end of the study of individual topics, sections and training courses as a whole. Their mandatory elements are the teacher’s introduction and conclusion. The repetition and generalization itself can be carried out in the form of a story, short messages, reading individual passages from a textbook, or a conversation between a teacher and students.

Lessons testing knowledge, skills and abilities (tests) allow the teacher to identify the level of students’ training in a certain area, identify deficiencies in mastering the material, and help outline ways for further work. Test lessons require the student to use all his knowledge, skills and abilities on a given topic. Verification can be carried out both orally and in writing.

In school practice, especially in primary and early teenage classes, the most widespread are lessons in which several didactic tasks are solved. This type of lesson is called combined or mixed. Approximate structure of a combined lesson: checking homework and questioning students; learning new material; primary test of assimilation; consolidation of new knowledge during training exercises; repetition of previously learned in the form of a conversation; testing and assessing students' knowledge; homework assignment.

Mandatory elements of all the lessons described above are the organizational aspect and summing up the lesson. The organizational aspect involves setting goals and ensuring their acceptance by students, creating a work environment, updating motives for educational activities and attitudes toward perception, comprehension, and memorization of material. At the stage of summing up the lesson, it is important to record the achievement of goals, the degree of participation in their achievement of all students and each individual, evaluate the work of students and determine the prospects for further work.

In addition to the factors listed at the beginning of the paragraph, the structure of lessons is also influenced by the educational regime that has developed at the school and its class size. In this case we are talking about lessons in extended day schools and lessons in small schools.

In most extended-day schools, the compulsory academic part of the holistic educational regime does not differ from regular schools. At the same time, there is experience of convergence in time of educational work under the guidance of a teacher and independent educational work, i.e. self-training. As a result, a regular lesson is divided into two parts of 30 minutes each in elementary grades and 35 minutes in high school classes. If self-study is led by a class teacher, then it, as a rule, turns into a lesson, which is the main disadvantage of this option. There are options for another combination of double lessons of 35 minutes, where the first is an explanation of the new and its primary consolidation in training exercises, followed by an oral test, and the second is the development of skills and abilities by performing independent work with differentiated tasks and creative work based on extracurricular activities. However, most teachers advocate a 45-minute lesson with breaks for didactic games, provided that one hour is allocated for learning activities in the afternoon.

In a small primary school, where children of different ages are taught in one classroom, there are three main types of lessons. 1. A lesson in which new material is taught in both classes. 2. A lesson in which new material is studied in one class, and in another class work is organized to consolidate knowledge and skills, repeat what has been learned, or take into account the knowledge and skills of children. 3. A lesson in which both classes work on repeating what was previously learned (according to I.T. Ogorodnikov).

Frontal, group and individual work with students in the lesson

The variety of types and types of lessons opens up wide opportunities for combining frontal, group and individual work between the teacher and students. These forms of organizing educational work can be used both in compulsory (classroom) and elective classes, both in lessons and in seminars, workshops and other forms of the educational process. That is why they are called general forms of organizing educational work.

With frontal teaching, the teacher controls the educational and cognitive activities of the entire class working on a single task. The pedagogical effectiveness of frontal work largely depends on the teacher’s ability to keep the entire student body in sight and at the same time not lose sight of the work of each student. Its effectiveness invariably increases if the teacher manages to create an atmosphere of creative teamwork and maintain the attention and activity of schoolchildren. Frontal work can be used at all stages of the lesson, however, being aimed at the average student, it should be supplemented by group and individual forms.

Group forms are divided into link, brigade, cooperative-group and differentiated group. Link forms of educational work involve the organization of educational activities of permanent groups of students. In a brigade form, the activities of temporary groups of students specially formed to perform certain tasks are organized. In the cooperative group form, the class is divided into groups, each of which performs only part of the overall, usually voluminous, task. The differentiated group form of educational work is characterized by the fact that both permanent and temporary groups are selected by the teacher depending on educational capabilities, learning ability, the development of educational skills, the speed of cognitive processes and other reasons. Pair work of students is also considered group work. The teacher supervises the work of study groups both directly and indirectly through his assistants - team leaders and foremen, whom he appoints taking into account the opinions of students.

Individual work of students is carried out within the framework of both frontal and group forms. It does not involve direct contact with other students and, in its essence, is nothing more than the independent completion by students of tasks that are the same for the entire class or group. If a student, at the direction of the teacher, completes an independent task, usually taking into account his educational capabilities, then this form of work organization is called individualized. For this purpose, specially designed cards can be used. When a teacher specifically pays attention to several students in a lesson while others are working independently, this form of educational work is called individualized-group.

In modern school practice, mainly two general organizational forms are used: frontal and individual. Group and pair work is very rarely used. But the biggest drawback of the existing forms of organization of the pedagogical process is that they are not collective in the true sense of the word. Collective work that arises only on the basis of differentiated group work must have the following characteristics:

the class perceives the task given by the teacher as a task for which the class is responsible as a collective and receives appropriate social assessment;

organizing the task falls on the shoulders of the class itself and individual groups under the guidance of the teacher;

there is a division of labor that takes into account the interests and abilities of each student and allows everyone to better express themselves in common activities;

there is mutual control and responsibility to the class and group (H.J. Liimets).

It follows that not all work that formally takes place in a team is essentially collective; it can be purely individualistic in nature.* With class-wide (frontal) work, cooperation and comradely mutual assistance, distribution of responsibilities and functions are almost excluded: all students do the same thing, they are not involved in management, since only one teacher leads the educational process. Collective learning is such learning in which the team trains and educates each of its members and each member actively participates in the training and education of their comrades in joint educational work. This can be communication between teachers and students in dynamic pairs, or in shifting pairs.** The collective method of learning (CSR) is not new; it was used in the 20s and 30s. in the literacy system. Its advantages are indisputable, but its widespread use is hampered by the difficulties of its organizational and methodological support. We will discuss the collective method of learning in more detail in the section on the technology of the pedagogical process.

* See: Vinogradova M.D., Pervin I.B. Collective cognitive activity and education of schoolchildren. - M., 1977. - P. 7.

** See: Dyachenko V.K. Organizational structure of the educational process and its development. - M, 1989. - S. 88 - 89.

§ 4. Additional forms of organizing the pedagogical process

The lesson as the main form is organically complemented by other forms of organizing the educational process. Some of them developed in parallel with the lesson, i.e. within the framework of the class-lesson system (excursions, consultations, homework, educational conferences, additional classes), others are borrowed from the lecture-seminar system and adapted taking into account the age of students (lectures, seminars, workshops, tests, exams).

Excursions

An excursion is a specific educational activity, transferred in accordance with a specific educational or educational purpose to an enterprise, a museum, an exhibition, a field, a farm, etc. Like a lesson, it involves a special organization of interaction between the teacher and students. During the excursion, along with student observations, story, conversation, demonstration and other methods are used.

The educational value of excursions lies in the fact that they serve to accumulate visual ideas and facts of life, enrich the sensory experience of students; help establish a connection between theory and practice, training and education with life; contribute to solving the problems of aesthetic education, developing a feeling of love for the native land.

Depending on the objects of observation, excursions can be classified as industrial, natural history, local history, literary, geographical, etc. For educational purposes, they can be overview and thematic. According to the place and structure of the pedagogical process - introductory or preliminary, current (accompanying) and final.

Any type of excursion is not an end in itself, but is included in the general system of educational work and is used in connection with lessons and other organizational forms. An excursion is an important link in the holistic pedagogical process, therefore the teacher must determine in advance when studying which topics, considering which issues it is most appropriate, and outline in advance the tasks, plan and methods of implementation.

When preparing for an excursion, the teacher determines its content and specifies the tasks, selects an object, carefully familiarizes himself with it and decides on the management of the excursion. The excursion can be conducted by the teacher himself or by a guide (engineer, foreman, etc.) who has received instructions. At the same time, the teacher remains the organizer and leader of the children’s cognitive activity throughout the entire excursion.

The excursion plan should indicate the stages of work (conversation, observations, teacher’s generalizations, processing of material), a list of objects of observation and materials that must be collected, the necessary equipment and equipment, the distribution of time by stages, the form of organization of students (frontal, group or individual ). The duration of the excursion depends on its nature. It can take from 40 - 50 minutes to 2 - 2.5 hours. The final stage of the excursion is summing up its results during a conversation in order to bring the acquired knowledge into the system.

Additional classes and consultations

Additional classes are conducted with individual students or a group of students in order to fill gaps in knowledge, develop skills and abilities, and satisfy increased interest in the academic subject.

When lagging behind in studies, first of all, it is necessary to reveal its causes, which will determine specific forms, methods and techniques of working with students. This may be undeveloped skills and abilities in academic work, loss of interest in the academic subject, or general slow development. In additional classes, experienced teachers practice various types of assistance: clarification of individual questions, assigning weak students to strong ones, re-explaining the topic. Moreover, in some cases greater use of visualization is required, and in others - verbal specification.

To satisfy cognitive interest and a deeper study of individual subjects, classes are held with individual students in which problems of increased difficulty are solved, scientific problems that go beyond the scope of mandatory programs are discussed, and recommendations are given for independent mastery of problems of interest.

Consultations are closely related to additional classes. Unlike the former, they are usually episodic, since they are organized as needed. There are current, thematic and general (for example, in preparation for exams or tests) consultations. Consultations at school are usually group, which does not exclude, of course, individual consultations. It is often practiced to set aside a special day for consultations, although often this is not particularly necessary, since teachers and students are in constant communication and have the opportunity to agree on the time for consultations as needed.

Homework

The need for students’ homework is determined not so much by the solution of purely didactic tasks (consolidating knowledge, improving skills and abilities, etc.), but by the tasks of developing independent work skills and preparing students for self-education. Therefore, statements that there is no need for homework, since the main thing must be learned in class, are unfounded. Homework has not only educational, but also great educational value, forming a sense of responsibility for the assigned task, developing accuracy, perseverance and other socially valuable qualities.

The home educational work of students is fundamentally different from the classroom, primarily in that it proceeds without the direct guidance of the teacher, although according to his instructions. The student himself determines the time for completing the task, chooses the most appropriate rhythm and pace of work for him. Working independently at home, which differs significantly from the classroom, the student is deprived of the tools that the teacher can use to make the work more fun; There is no team at home, which has a beneficial effect on creating a working mood and stimulates healthy competition.

Based on didactic goals, three types of homework can be distinguished: preparing for the perception of new material, studying a new topic; aimed at consolidating knowledge, developing skills and abilities; requiring the application of acquired knowledge in practice. A special type are tasks of a creative nature (writing summaries, essays, making drawings, making crafts, visual aids, etc.). There may be individual homework and assignments for separate groups of students.

The method of organizing homework is one of the weak points in the activities of school and family. Often, homework assignments are not identified as an independent stage of the lesson at all. Meanwhile, homework assignments should help students learn independently. Homework should be given taking into account the student’s ability to complete it within the following limits: I grade - up to 1 hour; II - up to 1.5 hours; III - IV classes - up to 2 hours; V - VI - up to 2.5 hours; VII - up to 3 hours; VIII - XI - up to 4 hours. In order not to overload students with homework, it is advisable to organize them according to the “minimum - maximum” principle. Minimum tasks are required for everyone. Maximum assignments are optional and are designed for students who are interested in the subject and have a penchant for it.

In school practice, the following types of instruction have developed when assigning homework: a proposal to complete in the same way as similar work was done in the classroom; an explanation of how to complete a task using two or three examples; analysis of the most difficult elements of homework.

Features of preparing lessons in boarding schools and extended day schools

The advantages of self-training are that it takes place during hours that are productive for independent work (usually after rest or a walk); general guidance of self-training is carried out by the teacher (you can ask for help); the teacher can control the progress of homework and take the results into account in subsequent work in the lesson (if self-study is led by the class teacher); it is possible to mobilize the power of the collective to create public opinion, organize mutual control and mutual assistance; The class teacher can immediately check the completion of homework and thereby free up time during the lesson.

However, self-training is not without its drawbacks. Thus, in particular, cheating and hints are possible, giving rise to dependent attitudes of individual students; those who have completed the task, as a rule, are in the same room as others (they interfere, cause haste); The process of preparing oral tasks becomes more complicated.

Self-study is often led by a teacher. On the one hand, this is good, but on the other, self-preparation often turns into a lesson, as attention is paid to closing gaps and correcting shortcomings. Currently, full-time educators are increasingly being used to guide self-training. They recommend an appropriate order for completing the task; suggest working methods; organize mutual control and mutual assistance.

Educational conference

Rarely practiced in schools, but quite an effective form of organizing the pedagogical process, with the goal of summarizing the material on any section of the program, is an educational conference. It requires a lot of (primarily lengthy) preparatory work (conducting observations, summarizing excursion materials, conducting experiments, studying literary sources, etc.).

Conferences can be held in all academic subjects and at the same time go far beyond the curriculum. Students from other (primarily parallel) classes, teachers, industry representatives, war veterans, and labor veterans can take part in them.

School lecture

In high school and especially in evening and shift schools, a lecture is used - the main form of the lecture-seminar system adapted to the conditions of the school. School lectures are successfully used in the study of both humanities and natural sciences. As a rule, these are introductory and general lectures, less often they represent a modification of the lesson on communicating new knowledge.

In a school setting, a lecture is in many ways similar to a story, but much longer in time. It can take up the entire lesson time. Typically, a lecture is used when students need to provide additional material or summarize it (for example, history, geography, chemistry, physics), so it requires recording.

At the beginning of the lecture, the teacher announces the topic and writes down the outline. At the stage of listening and recording a lecture, students initially need to be told what to write down, but not turn the lecture into a dictation. In the future, they must independently identify what is being written based on intonation and tempo of presentation. Students must be taught how to record lectures, namely: show note-taking techniques, use commonly used abbreviations and notations, learn how to supplement lecture material, and apply the necessary diagrams, drawings, and tables.

A school lecture should be preceded by preparing students for perception. This could be repeating the necessary sections of the program, performing observations and exercises, etc.

Seminars and workshops

Seminar classes are held in senior classes when studying humanitarian subjects. In this case, two types of seminars are used: in the form of reports and messages; in question and answer form. The essence of the seminars is a collective discussion of proposed questions, messages, abstracts, reports prepared by students under the guidance of a teacher.

The seminar session is preceded by lengthy advance preparation. The lesson plan, basic and additional literature are reported, the work of each student and the class as a whole is outlined. Structurally, the seminars are quite simple. They begin with a brief introduction by the teacher (introduction to the topic), then the announced questions are discussed sequentially. At the end of the lesson, the teacher summarizes and makes a generalization. If messages or reports have been prepared, then the discussion is built on their basis with the active participation of opponents, who also prepare in advance and have previously familiarized themselves with the content of the messages.

A special form of a seminar is a seminar-debate. Its difference from extracurricular debates is that a constant composition of the class is maintained, the debate is always led by the teacher, and the traditions of students’ collective work in the classroom are preserved. The seminar-debate also has a special goal - the formation of value judgments, the affirmation of ideological positions.

Workshops or practical classes are used in the study of natural science disciplines, as well as in the process of labor and professional training. They are carried out in laboratories and workshops, in classrooms and at training and experimental sites, in student production plants and student production teams. Usually the work is done in pairs or individually according to instructions or an algorithm proposed by the teacher. This may include on-site measurements, assembling diagrams, familiarization with instruments and mechanisms, conducting experiments and observations, etc.

Workshops largely contribute to solving the problems of polytechnic education and labor training of schoolchildren.

§ 5. Auxiliary forms of organizing the pedagogical process

Auxiliary forms of organizing the pedagogical process include those that are aimed at satisfying the multifaceted interests and needs of children in accordance with their inclinations. These include electives and various forms of circle and club work. An effective form of differentiated training and education are electives. Their main task is to deepen and expand knowledge, develop the abilities and interests of students, and conduct systematic career guidance work. The distribution of students among electives is voluntary, but the composition remains stable throughout the year (or two years). The elective operates according to a specific program that does not duplicate the curriculum. An effective combination in elective classes is the combination of lectures by the teacher with various types of independent work by students (practical, abstract work, conducting small studies, reviews of new books, discussions in groups, completing individual assignments, discussing student reports, etc.). Testing and assessing knowledge in elective classes is more educational than controlling. A mark is given only if it is the result of a lot of work done by the students, and is most often given in the form of a pass.

Classes in hobby groups and clubs, as well as extracurricular activities, require a specific program of activities. However, it is less strict and allows for significant adjustments depending on the wishes of the children, changing circumstances of the activity and other factors. Circle and club work is based on the principles of voluntariness, development of children’s initiative and initiative, romance and play, taking into account age and individual characteristics. Along with permanent forms of organizing extracurricular activities, episodic events, such as Olympiads, quizzes, competitions, shows, competitions, exhibitions, expeditions, etc., are also of great importance in the structure of the holistic pedagogical process. In recent years, the concept that originated in the 60s has become widespread in schools. a form of collective education, known as a technique for organizing collective creative activities. It is discussed in detail in the next chapter, devoted to the technology of organizing an integral pedagogical process.

QUESTIONS AND TASKS

1. What advantages does the classroom-lesson education system have in comparison with other systems?

2. What does the structure of the lesson depend on? Give examples of the structure of different types of lessons.

3. Name the basic requirements for a modern lesson.

4. What are the features of organizing a lesson in a small rural school?

5. How does the teacher use frontal, group and individual forms of work in the lesson?

6. Give examples of the use of various forms of organizing the educational process in the experience of innovative teachers.

7. What didactic requirements should the excursion meet? Make a plan for the excursion.

8. Develop approximate types of homework on one of the topics of any academic subject.

LITERATURE FOR INDEPENDENT WORK

Drevelov X. and others. Homework: Book. for the teacher: Per. with him. - M., 1989.

Dyachenko V.K. Organizational structure of the educational process. - M., 1989.

Zotov Yu.B. Organization of a modern lesson: Book. for the teacher. - M., 1984.

Kirillova G.D. Features of the lesson in the conditions of developmental education. - L., 1976.

Collective educational and cognitive activity of schoolchildren / Ed. I.B. Pervina. - M., 1985.

Maksimova V.N. Interdisciplinary connections in the educational process of modern school. - M., 1987.

Makhmutov M.I. Modern lesson. - 2nd ed. - M., 1985.

Onishchuk V.A. Lesson in a modern school: A manual for teachers. - M., 1981.

Pedagogical search / Comp. I.N. Bazhenova. - M., 1990.

Cheredov I.M. System of forms of organization of education in the Soviet secondary school. - M., 1987.

Yakovlev N.M., Sokhor A.M. Methodology and technique of the lesson. - M., 1985.

The term " method" comes from the Greek word methodos, which means "study", "way", "way".

In the pedagogical literature there are different approaches to defining the concept “ teaching method":

way of organizing students' cognitive activity (T.A. Ilyina);

a method of orderly, connected activities of the teacher and students, aimed at solving teaching problems (Yu.K. Babansky);

a method of achieving a learning goal, which is a system of sequential, ordered actions of a teacher who, using certain means, organizes the practical and cognitive activities of students to assimilate social experience (I.Ya. Lerner).

Thus, under the teaching method one should understand the ways of professional interaction between a teacher and students in order to solve educational problems.

As a multidimensional concept, teaching methods can be grouped into systems. In this regard, there are many classifications.

Classification of teaching methods.

By sources of knowledge:

– practical (experiments, exercises, educational and productive work);

visual (illustration, demonstration, student observations, display);

verbal (explanation, clarification, story, conversation, lecture, debate, discussion);

video methods (viewing, training, exercise under computer control).

By the nature of cognitive activity(I.Ya. Lerner, M.N. Skatkin):

explanatory and illustrative methods (story, conversation, explanation, report, demonstration, instruction) - a combination of verbal and visual methods;

reproductive methods (lecture, example, demonstration, algorithmic prescription, exercise) – transfer of knowledge in finished form using verbal and visual methods;

problem methods (conversation, problem situation, game, generalization), a prerequisite for which is the presence of a problem situation;

partially search methods (discussion, observation, independent work, laboratory work) – independent acquisition of knowledge;

research methods (research modeling, collection of new facts, assignment, design).

For didactic purposes(Yu.K. Babansky and V.I. Andreev).

Methods of organizing educational and cognitive activities - verbal, visual, practical (sources):

inductive and deductive (logic);

reproductive and problem-search (thinking);

independent work and work under the guidance of a teacher (management).

2. Methods of stimulation and motivation of educational and cognitive activities:

stimulating and motivating interest in learning;

stimulation and motivation of duty, responsibility.

3. Methods of monitoring and self-control of the effectiveness of educational and cognitive activities:

• writing;

  laboratory.

By stages of training:

preparation for learning new material;

learning new material;

specification, deepening, acquisition of skills and abilities;

control and evaluation.

There are also monological (information-communicating) teaching methods, for example: story, lecture, explanation, and dialogic methods of presenting educational material (conversation, problem presentation, debate).

Issues of choosing teaching methods represent the most important aspect of a teacher’s activity. Depending on their decision, the educational process itself, the activities of the teacher and students, and, consequently, the result of learning as a whole depend.

Yu.K. To successfully select teaching methods, Babansky recommends a comparative analysis of various methods, guided by such criteria as:

compliance with training and development goals;

real learning opportunities for students;

available training conditions;

opportunities for teachers.

Pedagogical means– these are material or ideal objects intended for the organization and implementation of the pedagogical process.

Materials for training– educational visual aids, didactic equipment, educational equipment, technical teaching aids, etc.

Ideal learning tools– speech, writing, diagrams, drawings, works of art, etc.

When using any learning tools, it is unacceptable to either abuse them or ignore their capabilities.

The development of didactic technology and computers created the preconditions for the emergence of a new direction in pedagogy - pedagogicaltechnologies, which considers didactic technology, teaching methods and participants in the pedagogical process as a holistic unity.

Form of training organization– the external side of the learning process, a stable, complete organization of the pedagogical process in the unity of all its components: content, goals, principles, methods, forms, means.

In didactics, the forms of organizing the learning process are revealed through the ways in which the teacher interacts with students when solving educational problems through managing activities, learning, and relationships.

There are three main systems organization of the pedagogical process:

individual training and education;

class-lesson system;

lecture-seminar system.

Curriculum-planned forms of education (lesson, lecture, seminar, homework, exam) have educational and educational significance, contribute to the formation of a worldview, and ensure the mastery of specific academic disciplines. A system of unscheduled forms of education (consultations, conferences, excursions, clubs, classes in advanced and auxiliary programs) helps improve students' knowledge.

The functions of training forms include:

training and educational, allowing to create the best conditions for the transfer of knowledge, skills, abilities, formation of a worldview and development of practical abilities of students;

educational, promoting the active manifestation of all the spiritual powers of students;

organizational, requiring clear organizational and methodological work of the teacher.

In relation to each other, forms of education are capable of performing complementary and coordinating functions.

In the history of pedagogy, various didactic systems, in which certain forms of training had an advantage:

student interaction (Bell-Lancaster system, 18th century in England);

individual and group classes (Batavian education system, 19th century);

differentiation of training (Mannheim system);

workshop system (Dalton Plan);

brigade-laboratory training (20s of the twentieth century in Russia);

a combination of large group classes with individual student work (Trump’s American plan);

project system (project method; based on the practical activities of students).

The leading forms of organizing the learning process are the lesson and lecture (at school and university, respectively). The scientific basis for the lesson was given by Ya.A. about 400 years ago. Comenius.

Lesson Features:

permanent, staffed group of students;

managing the activities of students, taking into account the characteristics of each;

mastering knowledge directly in the classroom;

variability of students' activities.

It is in the lesson that the advantages of the classroom-lesson system are reflected:

strict organization of training;

economy (one teacher);

a prerequisite for collective activity, mutual learning, competition and student development.

The same form of educational organization can change the structure and modification of a lesson depending on the objectives and methods of educational work (for example, there is a game lesson, a conference lesson, a dialogue, a workshop).

Main Lesson– combined – includes the main types of student activities. At school, along with lessons, there are other organizational forms of education (electives, clubs, laboratory workshops, independent work).

At the university, the main forms of education are lectures and seminars.

Lecture– monologue presentation of the material by the teacher. A university lecture is the main link in the didactic learning cycle. Its goal is to form a oriented basis for students’ subsequent learning of educational material.

Seminar– a form of collective independent work of students. Seminars help consolidate knowledge, develop skills in communication and analysis, and develop student activity.

At the university, in addition to lectures and seminars, other organizational forms of training are used: laboratory work, research work, independent study work of students, practical training, internship.

Exams and tests, tests or independent work, a rating system, assessment, testing, interviews, abstracts, coursework, and dissertations are used as forms of control and evaluation of learning outcomes.

Control, or verification of learning outcomes, is a mandatory component of the learning process and is interpreted as pedagogical diagnostics. Its functions, in addition to monitoring the results of knowledge, include teaching, developmental, educational, organizational, preventive and corrective functions.

Grade– this is a determination of the degree to which students have acquired knowledge, skills, and abilities in accordance with the requirements of training programs.

Assessment requirements:

must be objective and fair, clear and understandable for the learner;

play a stimulating role;

be reasonable and have an individual character.

When assessing knowledge you need to consider:

the amount of knowledge on the academic subject (issue);

understanding of the material studied, independent judgment, conviction in what is being presented;

the effectiveness of knowledge, the ability to apply it in solving practical problems.

When assessing skills and abilities, the following are taken into account:

the opportunity to apply knowledge and skills in practice;

the presence of errors, their number, nature and their impact on work.

The assessment should be a detailed judgment:

– about the positive and negative sides of the answer;

– presence or absence of promotion;

– mark as output.

Without control and evaluation, the teacher, like the student himself, does not receive feedback and has no idea about the level of progress of the student.

“The absence of evaluation is the worst type of evaluation” (B.G. Ananyev).

Questions for self-control

What classifications of teaching methods exist?

What conditions determine the choice of teaching methods?

Expand the starting points of the classification of teaching methods.

Give a classification of forms of training.

Describe the types of control.

Familiarize yourself with various approaches to the classification of patterns and principles in pedagogy (Yu.I. Babansky, M.N. Skatkin, B.T. Likhachev, etc.)

From the standpoint of the integrity of the pedagogical process, the lesson must be considered as the main form of its organization. It is in the lesson that all the advantages of the classroom-lesson system are reflected. In the form of a lesson, it is possible to effectively organize not only educational and cognitive, but also other developmental activities of children and adolescents. It is no coincidence that in recent years, lessons in citizenship, culture, labor, poetry, etc. have become widespread.

The advantages of the lesson as a form of organizing the pedagogical process are that it has favorable opportunities for combining frontal, group and individual work; allows the teacher to systematically and consistently present the material, manage the development of cognitive abilities and form the scientific worldview of students; stimulates other activities of schoolchildren, including extracurricular and home activities; in the lesson, students master not only the system of knowledge, skills and abilities, but also the methods of cognitive activity themselves; The lesson allows you to effectively solve educational problems through the content and methods of pedagogical activity.

A lesson is a form of organizing the pedagogical process in which the teacher, for a precisely set time, manages the collective cognitive and other activities of a permanent group of students (class), taking into account the characteristics of each of them, using types, means and methods of work that create favorable conditions for so that all students master the basics of the subject being studied directly in the learning process, as well as for the education and development of cognitive abilities and spiritual strength of schoolchildren (according to A.A. Budarny).

In the above definition, we can highlight specific features that distinguish a lesson from other organizational forms. This is a permanent group of students; management of schoolchildren’s activities, taking into account the characteristics of each of them; mastering the basics of what is being studied directly in class. These signs reflect not only the specifics, but also the essence of the lesson.

§ 4. Additional forms of organizing the pedagogical process

The lesson as the main form is organically complemented by other forms of organizing the educational process. Some of them developed in parallel with the lesson, i.e. within the framework of the class-lesson system (excursions, consultations, homework, educational conferences, additional classes), others are borrowed from the lecture-seminar system and adapted taking into account the age of students (lectures, seminars, workshops, tests, exams).

Excursions

An excursion is a specific educational activity, transferred in accordance with a specific educational or educational purpose to an enterprise, a museum, an exhibition, a field, a farm, etc. Like a lesson, it involves a special organization of interaction between the teacher and students. During the excursion, along with student observations, story, conversation, demonstration and other methods are used.

The educational value of excursions lies in the fact that they serve to accumulate visual ideas and facts of life, enrich the sensory experience of students; help establish a connection between theory and practice, training and education with life; contribute to solving the problems of aesthetic education, developing a feeling of love for the native land.

Depending on the objects of observation, excursions can be classified as industrial, natural history, local history, literary, geographical, etc. For educational purposes, they can be overview and thematic. According to the place and structure of the pedagogical process - introductory or preliminary, current (accompanying) and final.

Any type of excursion is not an end in itself, but is included in the general system of educational work and is used in connection with lessons and other organizational forms. An excursion is an important link in the holistic pedagogical process, therefore the teacher must determine in advance when studying which topics, considering which issues it is most appropriate, and outline in advance the tasks, plan and methods of implementation.

When preparing for an excursion, the teacher determines its content and specifies the tasks, selects an object, carefully familiarizes himself with it and decides on the management of the excursion. The excursion can be conducted by the teacher himself or by a guide (engineer, foreman, etc.) who has received instructions. At the same time, the teacher remains the organizer and leader of the children’s cognitive activity throughout the entire excursion.

The excursion plan should indicate the stages of work (conversation, observations, teacher’s generalizations, processing of material), a list of objects of observation and materials that must be collected, the necessary equipment and equipment, the distribution of time by stages, the form of organization of students (frontal, group or individual ). The duration of the excursion depends on its nature. It can take from 40 - 50 minutes to 2 - 2.5 hours. The final stage of the excursion is summing up its results during a conversation in order to bring the acquired knowledge into the system.

Additional classes and consultations

Additional classes are conducted with individual students or a group of students in order to fill gaps in knowledge, develop skills and abilities, and satisfy increased interest in the academic subject.

When lagging behind in studies, first of all, it is necessary to reveal its causes, which will determine specific forms, methods and techniques of working with students. This may be undeveloped skills and abilities in academic work, loss of interest in the academic subject, or general slow development. In additional classes, experienced teachers practice various types of assistance: clarification of individual questions, assigning weak students to strong ones, re-explaining the topic. Moreover, in some cases greater use of visualization is required, and in others - verbal specification.

To satisfy cognitive interest and a deeper study of individual subjects, classes are held with individual students in which problems of increased difficulty are solved, scientific problems that go beyond the scope of mandatory programs are discussed, and recommendations are given for independent mastery of problems of interest.

Consultations are closely related to additional classes. Unlike the former, they are usually episodic, since they are organized as needed. There are current, thematic and general (for example, in preparation for exams or tests) consultations. Consultations at school are usually group, which does not exclude, of course, individual consultations. It is often practiced to set aside a special day for consultations, although often this is not particularly necessary, since teachers and students are in constant communication and have the opportunity to agree on the time for consultations as needed.

Homework

The need for students’ homework is determined not so much by the solution of purely didactic tasks (consolidating knowledge, improving skills and abilities, etc.), but by the tasks of developing independent work skills and preparing students for self-education. Therefore, statements that there is no need for homework, since the main thing must be learned in class, are unfounded. Homework has not only educational, but also great educational value, forming a sense of responsibility for the assigned task, developing accuracy, perseverance and other socially valuable qualities.

The home educational work of students is fundamentally different from the classroom, primarily in that it proceeds without the direct guidance of the teacher, although according to his instructions. The student himself determines the time for completing the task, chooses the most appropriate rhythm and pace of work for him. Working independently at home, which differs significantly from the classroom, the student is deprived of the tools that the teacher can use to make the work more fun; There is no team at home, which has a beneficial effect on creating a working mood and stimulates healthy competition.

Based on didactic goals, three types of homework can be distinguished: preparing for the perception of new material, studying a new topic; aimed at consolidating knowledge, developing skills and abilities; requiring the application of acquired knowledge in practice. A special type are tasks of a creative nature (writing summaries, essays, making drawings, making crafts, visual aids, etc.). There may be individual homework and assignments for separate groups of students.

The method of organizing homework is one of the weak points in the activities of school and family. Often, homework assignments are not identified as an independent stage of the lesson at all. Meanwhile, homework assignments should help students learn independently. Homework should be given taking into account the student’s ability to complete it within the following limits: I grade - up to 1 hour; II - up to 1.5 hours; III - IV classes - up to 2 hours; V - VI - up to 2.5 hours; VII - up to 3 hours; VIII - XI - up to 4 hours. In order not to overload students with homework, it is advisable to organize them according to the “minimum - maximum” principle. Minimum tasks are required for everyone. Maximum assignments are optional and are designed for students who are interested in the subject and have a penchant for it.

In school practice, the following types of instruction have developed when assigning homework: a proposal to complete in the same way as similar work was done in the classroom; an explanation of how to complete a task using two or three examples; analysis of the most difficult elements of homework.

Features of preparing lessons in boarding schools and extended day schools

The advantages of self-training are that it takes place during hours that are productive for independent work (usually after rest or a walk); general guidance of self-training is carried out by the teacher (you can ask for help); the teacher can control the progress of homework and take the results into account in subsequent work in the lesson (if self-study is led by the class teacher); it is possible to mobilize the power of the collective to create public opinion, organize mutual control and mutual assistance; The class teacher can immediately check the completion of homework and thereby free up time during the lesson.

However, self-training is not without its drawbacks. Thus, in particular, cheating and hints are possible, giving rise to dependent attitudes of individual students; those who have completed the task, as a rule, are in the same room as others (they interfere, cause haste); The process of preparing oral tasks becomes more complicated.

Self-study is often led by a teacher. On the one hand, this is good, but on the other, self-preparation often turns into a lesson, as attention is paid to closing gaps and correcting shortcomings. Currently, full-time educators are increasingly being used to guide self-training. They recommend an appropriate order for completing the task; suggest working methods; organize mutual control and mutual assistance.

Educational conference

Rarely practiced in schools, but quite an effective form of organizing the pedagogical process, with the goal of summarizing the material on any section of the program, is an educational conference. It requires a lot of (primarily lengthy) preparatory work (conducting observations, summarizing excursion materials, conducting experiments, studying literary sources, etc.).

Conferences can be held in all academic subjects and at the same time go far beyond the curriculum. Students from other (primarily parallel) classes, teachers, industry representatives, war veterans, and labor veterans can take part in them.

School lecture

In high school and especially in evening and shift schools, a lecture is used - the main form of the lecture-seminar system adapted to the conditions of the school. School lectures are successfully used in the study of both humanities and natural sciences. As a rule, these are introductory and general lectures, less often they represent a modification of the lesson on communicating new knowledge.

In a school setting, a lecture is in many ways similar to a story, but much longer in time. It can take up the entire lesson time. Typically, a lecture is used when students need to provide additional material or summarize it (for example, history, geography, chemistry, physics), so it requires recording.

At the beginning of the lecture, the teacher announces the topic and writes down the outline. At the stage of listening and recording a lecture, students initially need to be told what to write down, but not turn the lecture into a dictation. In the future, they must independently identify what is being written based on intonation and tempo of presentation. Students must be taught how to record lectures, namely: show note-taking techniques, use commonly used abbreviations and notations, learn how to supplement lecture material, and apply the necessary diagrams, drawings, and tables.

A school lecture should be preceded by preparing students for perception. This could be repeating the necessary sections of the program, performing observations and exercises, etc.

Seminars and workshops

Seminar classes are held in senior classes when studying humanitarian subjects. In this case, two types of seminars are used: in the form of reports and messages; in question and answer form. The essence of the seminars is a collective discussion of proposed questions, messages, abstracts, reports prepared by students under the guidance of a teacher.

The seminar session is preceded by lengthy advance preparation. The lesson plan, basic and additional literature are reported, the work of each student and the class as a whole is outlined. Structurally, the seminars are quite simple. They begin with a brief introduction by the teacher (introduction to the topic), then the announced questions are discussed sequentially. At the end of the lesson, the teacher summarizes and makes a generalization. If messages or reports have been prepared, then the discussion is built on their basis with the active participation of opponents, who also prepare in advance and have previously familiarized themselves with the content of the messages.

A special form of a seminar is a seminar-debate. Its difference from extracurricular debates is that a constant composition of the class is maintained, the debate is always led by the teacher, and the traditions of students’ collective work in the classroom are preserved. The seminar-debate also has a special goal - the formation of value judgments, the affirmation of ideological positions.

Workshops or practical classes are used in the study of natural science disciplines, as well as in the process of labor and professional training. They are carried out in laboratories and workshops, in classrooms and at training and experimental sites, in student production plants and student production teams. Usually the work is done in pairs or individually according to instructions or an algorithm proposed by the teacher. This may include on-site measurements, assembling diagrams, familiarization with instruments and mechanisms, conducting experiments and observations, etc.

Workshops largely contribute to solving the problems of polytechnic education and labor training of schoolchildren.

The concept of forms of organization of the pedagogical process General characteristics of the classroom-lesson system Lesson is the main form of organization of the pedagogical process Additional forms of organization of the pedagogical process Auxiliary forms of organization of the pedagogical process

§ 1. The concept of forms of organization of the pedagogical process

Organized training and education is carried out within the framework of a particular pedagogical system and has a certain organizational design. In didactics, there are three main systems of organizational design of the pedagogical process, which differ from each other in the quantitative coverage of students, the ratio of collective and individual forms of organizing the activities of students, the degree of their independence and the specifics of the management of the educational process on the part of the teacher. These include: 1) individual training and education, 2) class-lesson system and 3) lecture-seminar system.

From the history of organizational design of pedagogical systems

System of individual training and education developed back in primitive society as the transfer of experience from one person to another, from elders to younger ones. With the advent of writing, the elder of the clan or the priest passed on this wisdom of communication through speaking signs to his potential successor, studying with him individually. With the development of scientific knowledge in connection with the development of agriculture, cattle breeding, navigation and the awareness of the need to expand access to education to a wider circle of people, the system of individual education was uniquely transformed into an individual-group one. The teacher still taught 10 - 15 people individually. Having presented the material to one, he gave him a task for independent work and moved on to another, third, etc. Having finished working with the latter, the teacher returned to the first, checked the completion of the task, presented a new portion of the material, gave an assignment - and so on until the student, in the teacher’s assessment, had mastered the science, craft or art. The content of training and education was strictly individualized, so the group could include students of different ages and varying degrees of preparedness. The beginning and end of classes for each student, as well as the timing of training, were also individualized. Rarely did a teacher gather all the students in his group for group discussions, instruction, or memorization of scriptures and poems.

When in the Middle Ages, with an increase in the number of students, children of approximately the same age began to be selected into groups, the need arose for more advanced organizational design of the pedagogical process. It found its complete solution in the class-lesson system, originally developed and described by Ya. A. Komensky in his book “The Great Didactics”.

Class-lesson system in contrast to individual training and its individual-group version, it approves a firmly regulated regime of educational work: a constant place and duration of classes, a stable composition of students of the same level of preparedness, and later of the same age, a stable schedule. According to Ya.A. Komensky, the main form of organizing classes within the classroom-lesson system should be a lesson. The objective of the lesson should be proportionate to the hourly period of time and the development of the students. The lesson begins with a message from the teacher and ends with a test of mastery of the material. It has a constant structure: survey, teacher message, exercise, check. Most of the time was spent on exercise.

Further development of the classical teaching of J.A. Komensky about the lesson in domestic pedagogy was carried out by K.D. Ushinsky. He deeply scientifically substantiated all the advantages of the class-lesson system and created a coherent theory of the lesson, in particular, he substantiated its organizational structure and developed a typology of lessons. In each lesson, K.D. Ushinsky identified three parts that were sequentially connected to each other. The first part of the lesson is aimed at making a conscious transition from what has been learned to something new and creating in students a desire for intensive perception of the material. This part of the lesson, wrote K.D. Ushinsky, is a necessary key, like the door of the lesson. The second part of the lesson is aimed at solving the main problem and is, as it were, the defining, central part of the lesson. The third part is aimed at summarizing the work done and consolidating knowledge and skills.

A. Disterweg made a great contribution to the development of the scientific foundations of lesson organization. He developed a system of principles and rules of teaching relating to the activities of teachers and students, and substantiated the need to take into account the age capabilities of students.

The classroom-lesson system in its main features has remained unchanged for more than 300 years. The search for an organizational design of the pedagogical process, which would replace the classroom-lesson system, was carried out in two directions, primarily related to the problem of the quantitative coverage of students and the management of the educational process.

So, at the end of the 19th century. In England, a training system was formed, covering 600 or more students at a time. The teacher, being in the same room with students of different ages and levels of preparedness, taught the older and more successful ones, and they, in turn, taught the younger ones. During the lesson, he also observed the work of groups led by his assistants - monitors. Invention Belle-Lancaster system, which received its name from the names of its creators - the priest A. Bell and the teacher D. Lancaster, was caused by the desire to resolve the contradiction between the need for a wider dissemination of basic knowledge among workers and maintaining minimal costs for education and training of teachers.

Another direction in improving the classroom-lesson system was associated with the search for such forms of organizing educational work that would eliminate the shortcomings of the lesson, in particular its focus on the average student, the uniformity of content and the average pace of educational progress, the invariability of the structure: questioning, presentation of new things, assignments for house. A consequence of the shortcomings of the traditional lesson was that it hampered the development of cognitive activity and independence of students. The idea of ​​K.D. Ushinsky that children should work independently in the classroom whenever possible, and the teacher would supervise this independent work and provide material for it, at the beginning of the 20th century. tried to implement it in the USA by E. Parkhurst with the support of influential teachers at that time, John and Evelina Dewey. In accordance with the proposal by E. Parkhurst Dalton laboratory plan, or Dalton plan, traditional classes in the form of lessons were canceled, students received written assignments and, after consultation, teachers worked on them independently according to an individual plan. However, work experience has shown that most students are unable to study independently without the help of a teacher. The dalton plan is not widely used.

In the 20s The color-tone plan was sharply criticized by domestic educators, primarily for its pronounced individualistic orientation. At the same time, it served as the basis for the development brigade-laboratory form of training organization, which practically replaced the lesson with its rigid structure. The brigade-laboratory method, in contrast to the color scheme, involved a combination of collective work of the entire class with brigade (team) and individual work of each student. In general classes, work was planned, assignments were discussed, preparations were made for general excursions, the teacher explained difficult issues of the topic and summed up the results of team work. When assigning a task to the team, the teacher set deadlines for completing the task and a mandatory minimum of work for each student, individualizing tasks if necessary. At the final conferences, the foreman, on behalf of the brigade, reported on the completion of the task, which, as a rule, was carried out by a group of activists, and the rest were only present. The same marks were given to all members of the brigade.

The brigade-laboratory form of organizing classes, which claimed to be universal, was characterized by diminishing the role of the teacher, reducing his functions to counseling students. The overestimation of students' educational capabilities and the method of independently acquiring knowledge led to a significant decrease in academic performance, the absence of a system in knowledge and the lack of development of the most important general educational skills. The same shortcomings have also emerged in other forms of educational organization that originated in Western Europe and the USA, but have not become widespread.

Lecture-seminar system, originated with the creation of the first universities, has deep historical roots, but it has practically not undergone significant changes since its creation. Lectures, seminars, practical and laboratory classes, consultations and practice in the chosen specialty still remain the leading forms of training within the lecture-seminar system. Its constant attributes are colloquiums, tests and exams.

The lecture-seminar system in its pure version is used in the practice of professional training, i.e. in conditions when students already have some experience in educational and cognitive activities, when basic general educational skills have been formed, and, above all, the ability to independently acquire knowledge. It allows you to organically combine mass, group and individual forms of education, although the dominance of the former is naturally predetermined by the characteristics of the age of students: students, students of the advanced training system, etc. In recent years, elements of the lecture-seminar system are widely used in secondary schools, combined with forms of classroom teaching. lesson system.

The experience of directly transferring the lecture-seminar system to school did not justify itself. So, in the 60s. The pedagogical project developed by the American professor of pedagogy L. Trump became very famous. This form of training organization involved a combination of classes in large classrooms (100 - 150 people) with classes in groups of 10 - 15 people and individual work by students. 40% of the time was allocated for general lectures using various technical means, 20% of the time was allocated for discussion of lecture material (seminars), in-depth study of individual sections and development of skills and abilities, and the rest of the time for independent work under the guidance of a teacher or his assistants from strong students. Currently, according to Trump’s plan, only a few private schools are operating, and only certain elements have been established in the mass schools: training by a team of teachers with a narrow specialization, attracting assistants who do not have special education, classes with a large group of students, and organizing independent work in small groups. In addition to the mechanical transfer of the university system to the general education school, the Trump plan affirmed the theory of extreme individualization, expressed in giving the student complete freedom in choosing the content of education and methods of mastering it, which leads to the rejection of the leading role of the teacher, to ignoring educational standards.

§ 2. General characteristics of the class-lesson system

The classroom-lesson system, with all its shortcomings, has significant advantages over other systems for organizing the pedagogical process. Reasonable use within its framework of elements of other educational systems makes the classroom-lesson system indispensable for a comprehensive school.

The classroom-lesson system, with its mass enrollment of students, allows for organizational clarity and continuity of educational work; it is economically beneficial, especially in comparison with individual training and education. The teacher’s knowledge of the individual characteristics of students and, in turn, students of each other allows them to use with great effect the stimulating influence of the class team on the educational activities of each student.

The classroom-lesson system, like no other, presupposes a close connection between compulsory academic and extracurricular work. Extracurricular work occupies a special place in the structure of the pedagogical process organized by the school. It greatly contributes to the improvement of the educational process itself, although it is not always carried out within the walls of the school. Extracurricular (extracurricular) work can be considered as extracurricular and extracurricular. Extracurricular activities are organized by the school and most often within the walls of the school, and extracurricular activities are organized by additional education institutions, usually on their basis.

Extracurricular and extracurricular activities are of great educational importance. They contribute to the development of cognitive interests, satisfaction and development of the spiritual needs of schoolchildren, and open up additional opportunities for the formation of such valuable socially significant qualities as social activity, independence, initiative, etc. Their main purpose is to identify and develop the creative abilities and inclinations of children and adolescents in various branches of science and culture.

An undeniable advantage of the classroom-lesson system is the possibility within its framework of an organic combination of mass, group and individual forms of educational work.

Bulk formsare used mainly in organizing extracurricular activities. They require the participation of the majority of students or their representatives. These are matinees, school evenings, holidays, competitions, Olympiads, KVNs, conferences, subbotniks, etc. The criteria for the effectiveness of mass forms of organizing the pedagogical process are the quantitative coverage of schoolchildren, clarity and organization in the process, the activity of students and, most importantly, the achievement of educational goals.

Group formsIt is advisable to divide them into academic and extracurricular. Educational activities include a lesson, school lecture, seminar, excursion, laboratory and practical session, which will be discussed in detail below. Group extracurricular work is carried out with students of the same or different ages, united by common interests. Usually these are circles, clubs, sports sections organized with the aim of deepening cognitive interests and expanding horizons (subject clubs, the club for the curious “Why”, etc.); improving labor skills and development of technical creativity ("Skillful Hands", design, aircraft modeling clubs, etc.); development of artistic abilities (dance, choral clubs, vocal group, literary club, etc.); improving sportsmanship and promoting health (sports sections, teams of schools for any sport, etc.); intensification of social activities (international friendship club, clubs “Young Historian”, “Prometheus”, etc.). Circles, clubs, sections usually unite no more than 15-20 people and work according to a program drawn up for a year or six months. Indicators of the effectiveness of group forms of organizing extracurricular work are the stable composition of a circle or section; noticeable collective achievements recognized by others.

Basic form individual educational work are consultations in combination with additional classes. In recent years, individual work with students in the form of tutoring in all or some academic subjects has become widespread. Individual extracurricular educational work is organized with the aim of developing the abilities, inclinations and talents of individual students. This could be literary reading, solo performance of songs, learning to play a musical instrument, etc. The criterion for the effectiveness of individual forms of organizing training and education is progressive positive changes in the knowledge, skills, behavior, and relationships of the student, i.e. in the personality as a whole.

Additional education (extra-school educational work), also organized through mass, group and individual forms, is built on the conditions of voluntary participation, activity and initiative of children, taking into account their age and interests. It is carried out through children's art houses, children's technical, naturalistic, local history stations, music, sports, art schools, libraries, clubs, clubs, sections at house managements, etc.

All the variety of forms of organization of the pedagogical process can be divided into basic, additional and auxiliary.

§ 3. Lesson - the main form of organizing the pedagogical process

From the standpoint of the integrity of the pedagogical process, the lesson must be considered as the main form of its organization. It is in the lesson that all the advantages of the classroom-lesson system are reflected. In the form of a lesson, it is possible to effectively organize not only educational and cognitive, but also other developmental activities of children and adolescents. It is no coincidence that in recent years, lessons in citizenship, culture, labor, poetry, etc. have become widespread.

The advantages of the lesson as a form of organizing the pedagogical process are that it has favorable opportunities for combining frontal, group and individual work; allows the teacher to systematically and consistently present the material, manage the development of cognitive abilities and form the scientific worldview of students; stimulates other activities of schoolchildren, including extracurricular and home activities; in the lesson, students master not only the system of knowledge, skills and abilities, but also the methods of cognitive activity themselves; The lesson allows you to effectively solve educational problems through the content and methods of pedagogical activity.

A lesson is a form of organizing the pedagogical process in which the teacher, for a precisely set time, manages the collective cognitive and other activities of a permanent group of students (class), taking into account the characteristics of each of them, using types, means and methods of work that create favorable conditions for so that all students master the basics of the subject being studied directly in the learning process, as well as for the education and development of cognitive abilities and spiritual strength of schoolchildren (according to A.A. Budarny).

In the above definition, we can highlight specific features that distinguish a lesson from other organizational forms. This is a permanent group of students; management of schoolchildren’s activities, taking into account the characteristics of each of them; mastering the basics of what is being studied directly in class. These signs reflect not only the specifics, but also the essence of the lesson.

Typology and structure of lessons

In each lesson, one can identify its main elements (links, stages), which are characterized by various types of activities of the teacher and students. These elements can appear in various combinations and thus determine the structure of the lesson, the relationship between the stages of the lesson, i.e. its structure.

The structure of a lesson should be understood as the relationship of lesson elements in their specific sequence and interrelationship with each other. It can be simple or quite complex, depending on the content of the educational material, the didactic goal (or goals) of the lesson, the age characteristics of the students and the characteristics of the class as a collective. The variety of lesson structures, methods of conducting them and didactic goals implies a variety of their types.

Types of lessons that are simple in structure, i.e. Having one dominant didactic goal, they are most applicable in middle and high schools. In the elementary grades, taking into account the age of the students, it is necessary to combine various types of educational work, combine the communication of new knowledge with primary consolidation, repetition of previously learned. Even control lessons quite often include other types of work: oral presentation of material, reading an interesting story, etc. Let us give a classification of lessons (according to B.P. Esipov).

A lesson in introducing students to new material or communicating (learning) new knowledge. This is a lesson whose content is new material unknown to students, which includes a relatively wide range of issues and requires significant time to study. In such lessons, depending on their content, specific didactic goal and students’ preparedness for independent work, in some cases the teacher himself presents new material, in others, independent work is carried out by students under the guidance of the teacher, in others, both are practiced. The structure of a lesson on introducing new material: repetition of previous material, which is the basis for learning new things; teacher explaining new material and working with the textbook; checking understanding and initial consolidation of knowledge; homework assignment.

Lesson to consolidate knowledge. The main content of educational work in this lesson is a secondary comprehension of previously acquired knowledge in order to strengthen it. Students in some cases comprehend and deepen their knowledge using new sources, in others they solve new problems using rules known to them, in third cases they reproduce previously acquired knowledge orally and in writing, in fourth cases they make reports on individual issues from what they have learned with the aim of deeper and deeper understanding. their strong assimilation, etc. Structurally, such lessons involve going through the following stages: checking homework; performing oral and written exercises; checking the completion of tasks; homework assignment.

Closely related to lessons in consolidating knowledge lessons for developing and consolidating skills and abilities. The process of consolidating skills and abilities occurs over several lessons in a row, and then in the future it continues for a long time when the class is engaged in other topics. From lesson to lesson, the material should become more complex so that it can really be seen that students are coping with this learning task more and more successfully. If, at the beginning of the work, the exercises are carried out by children with a lot of help from the teacher and with a preliminary large check of how the children understood the task, then in the future the students will have to establish for themselves where which rule needs to be applied, they should learn to apply skills in a wide variety of situations , including in life practice. The structure of lessons for developing and consolidating skills and abilities: reproduction of theoretical knowledge; performing practical tasks and exercises; checking the performance of independent work; homework assignment.

On general lessons(generalization and systematization of knowledge) the most significant questions from previously covered material are systematized and reproduced, existing gaps in students’ knowledge are filled and the most important ideas of the course being studied are revealed. Such lessons are held at the end of the study of individual topics, sections and training courses as a whole. Their mandatory elements are the teacher’s introduction and conclusion. The repetition and generalization itself can be carried out in the form of a story, short messages, reading individual passages from a textbook, or a conversation between a teacher and students.

Lessons testing knowledge, skills and abilities (tests) allow the teacher to identify the level of students’ training in a certain area, identify deficiencies in mastering the material, and help outline ways for further work. Test lessons require the student to use all his knowledge, skills and abilities on a given topic. Verification can be carried out both orally and in writing.

In school practice, especially in primary and early teenage classes, the most widespread are lessons in which several didactic tasks are solved. This type of lesson is called combined or mixed. Approximate structure of a combined lesson: checking homework and questioning students; learning new material; primary test of assimilation; consolidation of new knowledge during training exercises; repetition of previously learned in the form of a conversation; testing and assessing students' knowledge; homework assignment.

Mandatory elements of all the lessons described above are the organizational aspect and summing up the lesson. The organizational aspect involves setting goals and ensuring their acceptance by students, creating a work environment, updating motives for educational activities and attitudes toward perception, comprehension, and memorization of material. At the stage of summing up the lesson, it is important to record the achievement of goals, the degree of participation in their achievement of all students and each individual, evaluate the work of students and determine the prospects for further work.

In addition to the factors listed at the beginning of the paragraph, the structure of lessons is also influenced by the educational regime that has developed at the school and its class size. In this case we are talking about lessons in extended day schools and lessons in small schools.

In most extended-day schools, the compulsory academic part of the holistic educational regime does not differ from regular schools. At the same time, there is experience of convergence in time of educational work under the guidance of a teacher and independent educational work, i.e. self-training. As a result, a regular lesson is divided into two parts of 30 minutes each in elementary grades and 35 minutes in high school classes. If self-study is led by a class teacher, then it, as a rule, turns into a lesson, which is the main disadvantage of this option. There are options for another combination of double lessons of 35 minutes, where the first is an explanation of the new and its primary consolidation in training exercises, followed by an oral test, and the second is the development of skills and abilities by performing independent work with differentiated tasks and creative work based on extracurricular activities. However, most teachers advocate a 45-minute lesson with breaks for didactic games, provided that one hour is allocated for learning activities in the afternoon.

In a small primary school, where children of different ages are taught in one classroom, there are three main types of lessons. 1. A lesson in which new material is taught in both classes. 2. A lesson in which new material is studied in one class, and in another class work is organized to consolidate knowledge and skills, repeat what has been learned, or take into account the knowledge and skills of children. 3. A lesson in which both classes work on repeating what was previously learned (according to I.T. Ogorodnikov).

Frontal, group and individual work with students in the lesson

The variety of types and types of lessons opens up wide opportunities for combining frontal, group and individual work between the teacher and students. These forms of organizing educational work can be used both in compulsory (classroom) and elective classes, both in lessons and in seminars, workshops and other forms of the educational process. That is why they are called general forms of organizing educational work.

At frontal In teaching, the teacher manages the educational and cognitive activities of the entire class working on a single task. The pedagogical effectiveness of frontal work largely depends on the teacher’s ability to keep the entire student body in sight and at the same time not lose sight of the work of each student. Its effectiveness invariably increases if the teacher manages to create an atmosphere of creative teamwork and maintain the attention and activity of schoolchildren. Frontal work can be used at all stages of the lesson, however, being aimed at the average student, it should be supplemented by group and individual forms.

Groupforms are divided into link, brigade, cooperative-group and differentiated group. Link forms of educational work involve the organization of educational activities of permanent groups of students. In a brigade form, the activities of temporary groups of students specially formed to perform certain tasks are organized. In the cooperative group form, the class is divided into groups, each of which performs only part of the overall, usually voluminous, task. The differentiated group form of educational work is characterized by the fact that both permanent and temporary groups are selected by the teacher depending on educational capabilities, learning ability, the development of educational skills, the speed of cognitive processes and other reasons. Pair work of students is also considered group work. The teacher supervises the work of study groups both directly and indirectly through his assistants - team leaders and foremen, whom he appoints taking into account the opinions of students.

IndividualStudents’ work is carried out within the framework of both frontal and group forms. It does not involve direct contact with other students and, in its essence, is nothing more than the independent completion by students of tasks that are the same for the entire class or group. If a student, at the direction of the teacher, completes an independent task, usually taking into account his learning capabilities, then this form of work organization is called individualized. For this purpose, specially designed cards can be used. When a teacher specifically pays attention to several students in a lesson while others are working independently, this form of educational work is called individual-group.

In modern school practice, mainly two general organizational forms are used: frontal and individual. Group and pair work is very rarely used. But the biggest drawback of the existing forms of organization of the pedagogical process is that they are not collective in the true sense of the word. Collective work that arises only on the basis of differentiated group work must have the following characteristics:

the class perceives the task given by the teacher as a task for which the class is responsible as a collective and receives appropriate social assessment;

organizing the task falls on the shoulders of the class itself and individual groups under the guidance of the teacher;

there is a division of labor that takes into account the interests and abilities of each student and allows everyone to better express themselves in common activities;

there is mutual control and responsibility to the class and group (H.J. Liimets).

It follows that not all work that formally takes place in a team is essentially collective; it can be purely individualistic in nature.* With class-wide (frontal) work, cooperation and comradely mutual assistance, distribution of responsibilities and functions are almost excluded: all students do the same thing, they are not involved in management, since only one teacher leads the educational process. Collective learning is such learning in which the team trains and educates each of its members and each member actively participates in the training and education of their comrades in joint educational work. This can be communication between teachers and students in dynamic pairs, or in shifting pairs.** The collective method of learning (CSR) is not new; it was used in the 20s and 30s. in the literacy system. Its advantages are indisputable, but its widespread use is hampered by the difficulties of its organizational and methodological support. We will discuss the collective method of learning in more detail in the section on the technology of the pedagogical process.

§ 4. Additional forms of organizing the pedagogical process

The lesson as the main form is organically complemented by other forms of organizing the educational process. Some of them developed in parallel with the lesson, i.e. within the framework of the class-lesson system (excursions, consultations, homework, educational conferences, additional classes), others are borrowed from the lecture-seminar system and adapted taking into account the age of students (lectures, seminars, workshops, tests, exams).

Excursions

An excursion is a specific educational activity, transferred in accordance with a specific educational or educational purpose to an enterprise, a museum, an exhibition, a field, a farm, etc. Like a lesson, it involves a special organization of interaction between the teacher and students. During the excursion, along with student observations, story, conversation, demonstration and other methods are used.

The educational value of excursions lies in the fact that they serve to accumulate visual ideas and facts of life, enrich the sensory experience of students; help establish a connection between theory and practice, training and education with life; contribute to solving the problems of aesthetic education, developing a feeling of love for the native land.

Depending on the objects of observation, excursions can be classified as industrial, natural history, local history, literary, geographical, etc. For educational purposes, they can be overview and thematic. According to the place and structure of the pedagogical process - introductory or preliminary, current (accompanying) and final.

Any type of excursion is not an end in itself, but is included in the general system of educational work and is used in connection with lessons and other organizational forms. An excursion is an important link in the holistic pedagogical process, therefore the teacher must determine in advance when studying which topics, considering which issues it is most appropriate, and outline in advance the tasks, plan and methods of implementation.

When preparing for an excursion, the teacher determines its content and specifies the tasks, selects an object, carefully familiarizes himself with it and decides on the management of the excursion. The excursion can be conducted by the teacher himself or by a guide (engineer, foreman, etc.) who has received instructions. At the same time, the teacher remains the organizer and leader of the children’s cognitive activity throughout the entire excursion.

The excursion plan should indicate the stages of work (conversation, observations, teacher generalizations, processing of material), a list of objects of observation and materials that must be collected, the necessary equipment and equipment, the distribution of time by stages, the form of organization of students (frontal, group or individual ). The duration of the excursion depends on its nature. It can take from 40 - 50 minutes to 2 - 2.5 hours. The final stage of the excursion is summing up its results during a conversation in order to bring the acquired knowledge into the system.

Additional classes and consultations

Additional classes are conducted with individual students or a group of students in order to fill gaps in knowledge, develop skills and abilities, and satisfy increased interest in the academic subject.

When lagging behind in studies, first of all, it is necessary to reveal its causes, which will determine specific forms, methods and techniques of working with students. This may be undeveloped skills and abilities in academic work, loss of interest in the academic subject, or general slow development. In additional classes, experienced teachers practice various types of assistance: clarification of individual questions, assigning weak students to strong ones, re-explaining the topic. Moreover, in some cases greater use of visualization is required, and in others - verbal specification.

To satisfy cognitive interest and a deeper study of individual subjects, classes are held with individual students in which problems of increased difficulty are solved, scientific problems that go beyond the scope of mandatory programs are discussed, and recommendations are given for independent mastery of problems of interest.

Consultations are closely related to additional classes. Unlike the former, they are usually episodic, since they are organized as needed. There are current, thematic and general (for example, in preparation for exams or tests) consultations. Consultations at school are usually group, which does not exclude, of course, individual consultations. It is often practiced to set aside a special day for consultations, although often this is not particularly necessary, since teachers and students are in constant communication and have the opportunity to agree on the time for consultations as needed.

Homework

The need for students’ homework is determined not so much by the solution of purely didactic tasks (consolidating knowledge, improving skills and abilities, etc.), but by the tasks of developing independent work skills and preparing students for self-education. Therefore, statements that there is no need for homework, since the main thing must be learned in class, are unfounded. Homework has not only educational, but also great educational value, forming a sense of responsibility for the assigned task, developing accuracy, perseverance and other socially valuable qualities.

The home educational work of students is fundamentally different from the classroom, primarily in that it proceeds without the direct guidance of the teacher, although according to his instructions. The student himself determines the time for completing the task, chooses the most appropriate rhythm and pace of work for him. Working independently at home, which differs significantly from the classroom, the student is deprived of the tools that the teacher can use to make the work more fun; There is no team at home, which has a beneficial effect on creating a working mood and stimulates healthy competition.

Based on didactic goals, three types of homework can be distinguished: preparing for the perception of new material, studying a new topic; aimed at consolidating knowledge, developing skills and abilities; requiring the application of acquired knowledge in practice. A special type are tasks of a creative nature (writing summaries, essays, making drawings, making crafts, visual aids, etc.). There may be individual homework and assignments for separate groups of students.

The method of organizing homework is one of the weak points in the activities of school and family. Often, homework assignments are not identified as an independent stage of the lesson at all. Meanwhile, homework assignments should help students learn independently. Homework should be given taking into account the student’s ability to complete it within the following limits: I grade - up to 1 hour; II - up to 1.5 hours; III - IV classes - up to 2 hours; V - VI - up to 2.5 hours; VII - up to 3 hours; VIII - XI - up to 4 hours. In order not to overload students with homework, it is advisable to organize them according to the “minimum - maximum” principle. Minimum tasks are required for everyone. Maximum assignments are optional and are designed for students who are interested in the subject and have a penchant for it.

In school practice, the following types of instruction have developed when assigning homework: a proposal to complete in the same way as similar work was done in the classroom; an explanation of how to complete a task using two or three examples; analysis of the most difficult elements of homework.

Features of preparing lessons in boarding schools and extended day schools

The advantages of self-training are that it takes place during hours that are productive for independent work (usually after rest or a walk); general guidance of self-training is carried out by the teacher (you can ask for help); the teacher can control the progress of homework and take the results into account in subsequent work in the lesson (if self-study is led by the class teacher); it is possible to mobilize the power of the collective to create public opinion, organize mutual control and mutual assistance; The class teacher can immediately check the completion of homework and thereby free up time during the lesson.

However, self-training is not without its drawbacks. Thus, in particular, cheating and hints are possible, giving rise to dependent attitudes of individual students; those who have completed the task, as a rule, are in the same room as others (they interfere, cause haste); The process of preparing oral tasks becomes more complicated.

Self-study is often led by a teacher. On the one hand, this is good, but on the other, self-preparation often turns into a lesson, as attention is paid to closing gaps and correcting shortcomings. Currently, full-time educators are increasingly being used to guide self-training. They recommend an appropriate order for completing the task; suggest working methods; organize mutual control and mutual assistance.

Educational conference

Rarely practiced in schools, but quite an effective form of organizing the pedagogical process, with the goal of summarizing the material on any section of the program, is an educational conference. It requires a lot of (primarily lengthy) preparatory work (conducting observations, summarizing excursion materials, conducting experiments, studying literary sources, etc.).

Conferences can be held in all academic subjects and at the same time go far beyond the curriculum. Students from other (primarily parallel) classes, teachers, industry representatives, war veterans, and labor veterans can take part in them.

School lecture

In high school and especially in evening and shift schools, a lecture is used - the main form of the lecture-seminar system adapted to the conditions of the school. School lectures are successfully used in the study of both humanities and natural sciences. As a rule, these are introductory and general lectures, less often they represent a modification of the lesson on communicating new knowledge.

In a school setting, a lecture is in many ways similar to a story, but much longer in time. It can take up the entire lesson time. Typically, a lecture is used when students need to provide additional material or summarize it (for example, history, geography, chemistry, physics), so it requires recording.

At the beginning of the lecture, the teacher announces the topic and writes down the outline. At the stage of listening and recording a lecture, students initially need to be told what to write down, but not turn the lecture into a dictation. In the future, they must independently identify what is being written based on intonation and tempo of presentation. Students must be taught how to record lectures, namely: show note-taking techniques, use commonly used abbreviations and notations, learn how to supplement lecture material, and apply the necessary diagrams, drawings, and tables.

A school lecture should be preceded by preparing students for perception. This could be repeating the necessary sections of the program, performing observations and exercises, etc.

Seminars and workshops

Seminar classes are held in senior classes when studying humanitarian subjects. In this case, two types of seminars are used: in the form of reports and messages; in question and answer form. The essence of the seminars is a collective discussion of proposed questions, messages, abstracts, reports prepared by students under the guidance of a teacher.

The seminar session is preceded by lengthy advance preparation. The lesson plan, basic and additional literature are reported, the work of each student and the class as a whole is outlined. Structurally, the seminars are quite simple. They begin with a brief introduction by the teacher (introduction to the topic), then the announced questions are discussed sequentially. At the end of the lesson, the teacher summarizes and makes a generalization. If messages or reports have been prepared, then the discussion is built on their basis with the active participation of opponents, who also prepare in advance and have previously familiarized themselves with the content of the messages.

A special form of a seminar is a seminar-debate. Its difference from extracurricular debates is that a constant composition of the class is maintained, the debate is always led by the teacher, and the traditions of students’ collective work in the classroom are preserved. The seminar-debate also has a special goal - the formation of value judgments, the affirmation of ideological positions.

Workshops or practical classes are used in the study of natural science disciplines, as well as in the process of labor and professional training. They are carried out in laboratories and workshops, in classrooms and at training and experimental sites, in student production plants and student production teams. Usually the work is done in pairs or individually according to instructions or an algorithm proposed by the teacher. This may include on-site measurements, assembling diagrams, familiarization with instruments and mechanisms, conducting experiments and observations, etc.

Workshops largely contribute to solving the problems of polytechnic education and labor training of schoolchildren.

§ 5. Auxiliary forms of organizing the pedagogical process

Auxiliary forms of organizing the pedagogical process include those that are aimed at satisfying the multifaceted interests and needs of children in accordance with their inclinations. These include electives and various forms of circle and club work. An effective form of differentiated training and education is electives. Their main task is to deepen and expand knowledge, develop the abilities and interests of students, and conduct systematic career guidance work. The distribution of students among electives is voluntary, but the composition remains stable throughout the year (or two years). The elective operates according to a specific program that does not duplicate the curriculum. An effective combination in elective classes is the combination of lectures by the teacher with various types of independent work by students (practical, abstract work, conducting small studies, reviews of new books, discussions in groups, completing individual assignments, discussing student reports, etc.). Testing and assessing knowledge in elective classes is more educational than controlling. A mark is given only if it is the result of a lot of work done by the students, and is most often given in the form of a pass.

Classes in mugs And interest clubs, as well as elective classes, they require a specific program of activities. However, it is less strict and allows for significant adjustments depending on the wishes of the children, changing circumstances of the activity and other factors. Circle and club work is based on the principles of voluntariness, development of children’s initiative and initiative, romance and play, taking into account age and individual characteristics. Along with permanent forms of organizing extracurricular activities, episodic events, such as Olympiads, quizzes, competitions, shows, competitions, exhibitions, expeditions, etc., are also of great importance in the structure of the holistic pedagogical process. In recent years, the concept that originated in the 60s has become widespread in schools. a form of collective education, known as a technique for organizing collective creative activities. It is discussed in detail in the next chapter, devoted to the technology of organizing an integral pedagogical process.

QUESTIONS AND TASKS

1. What advantages does the classroom-lesson education system have in comparison with other systems?

2. What does the structure of the lesson depend on? Give examples of the structure of different types of lessons.

3. Name the basic requirements for a modern lesson.

4. What are the features of organizing a lesson in a small rural school?

5. How does the teacher use frontal, group and individual forms of work in the lesson?

6. Give examples of the use of various forms of organizing the educational process in the experience of innovative teachers.

7. What didactic requirements should the excursion meet? Make a plan for the excursion.

8. Develop approximate types of homework on one of the topics of any academic subject.

LITERATURE FOR INDEPENDENT WORK

Drevelov X.and others. Homework: Book. for the teacher: Per. with him. - M., 1989.

Dyachenko V.K.Organizational structure of the educational process. - M., 1989.

Zotov Yu.B.Organization of a modern lesson: Book. for the teacher. - M., 1984.

Kirillova G.D.Features of the lesson in the conditions of developmental education. - L., 1976.

Collective educational and cognitive activity of schoolchildren / Ed. I.B. Pervina. - M., 1985.

Maksimova V.N.Interdisciplinary connections in the educational process of modern school. - M., 1987.

Makhmutov M.I.Modern lesson. - 2nd ed. -M., 1985.

Onishchuk V.A.Lesson in a modern school: A manual for teachers. - M., 1981.

Pedagogical search / Comp. I.N. Bazhenova. -M., 1990.

Cheredov I.M.System of forms of organization of education in the Soviet secondary school. - M., 1987.

Yakovlev N.M., Sokhor A.M. Methodology and technique of the lesson. - M., 1985.