The era of feudal fragmentation in Europe, the distinctive features of feudalism in the Russian lands. Moscow State University of Printing Arts

The era of feudal fragmentation in Europe, the distinctive features of feudalism in the Russian lands.

The period of feudal fragmentation is a natural stage in the progressive development of feudalism. The dismemberment of the early feudal grandiose empires (Kievan Rus or the Carolingian Empire in Central Europe) into a number of virtually sovereign states was an inevitable stage in the development of feudal society.

Back in the 4th century. (395 ᴦ.) The Roman Empire split into two independent parts - Western and Eastern. The capital of the Eastern part was Constantinople, founded by Emperor Constantine on the site of the former Greek colony of Byzantium. Byzantium was able to withstand the storms of the so-called “great migration of peoples” and survived after the fall of Rome (in 1410, the Visigoths took Rome after a long siege) as the “Roman Empire”. In the VI century. Byzantium occupied vast territories of the European continent (even Italy was unnecessarily conquered). Throughout the Middle Ages, Byzantium maintained a strong centralized state.

The overthrow of Romulus Augustine (1476 ᴦ.) is considered to be the end of the Western Roman Empire. On its ruins, numerous “barbarian” states arose: the Ostrogothic (and then Lombard) in the Apennines, the Visigothic kingdom on the Iberian Peninsula, the Anglo-Saxon kingdom in Britain, the Frankish state on the Rhine, etc.

The Frankish leader Clovis and his successors expanded the borders of the state, pushed back the Visigoths and soon became hegemons in Western Europe. The position of the empire strengthened even more under the Carolingians (VIII-IX centuries). At the same time, behind the external centralization of Charlemagne's empire, its internal weakness and fragility was hidden. Created by conquest, it was very diverse in its ethnic composition: it included Saxons, Frisians, Alamans, Thuringians, Lombards, Bavarians, Celts and many other peoples. Each of the lands of the empire had little connection with the others and, without constant military and administrative coercion, did not want to submit to the power of the conquerors.

This form of empire - outwardly centralized, but internally amorphous and fragile political unification, gravitating towards universalism - was characteristic of many of the largest early feudal states in Europe.

The collapse of the empire of Charlemagne (after the death of his son Louis the Pious) in the 40s of the 9th century. and the formation of France, Germany and Italy on its basis meant the beginning of a new era in the development of Western Europe.

X-XII centuries are a period of feudal fragmentation in Western Europe. There is an avalanche-like process of fragmentation of states: The feudal state in Western Europe in the X-XII centuries. exists in the form of small political entities - principalities, duchies, counties, etc., which had significant political power over their subjects, sometimes completely independent, sometimes only nominally united under the authority of a weak king.

Many cities of Northern and Central Italy - Venice, Genoa, Siena, Bologna, Ravenna, Lucca, etc.
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- in the IX-XII centuries. became city-states. Many cities in Northern France (Amiens, Soussan, Laon, etc.) and Flanders also became self-governing commune states. They elected the council, its head - the mayor, had their own court and militia, their own finances and taxes. Often the city-communes themselves acted as a collective lord in relation to the peasants living in the territory surrounding the city.

In Germany, a similar position was occupied in the 12th-13th centuries. the largest of the so-called imperial cities. Formally they were subordinate to the emperor, but in reality they were independent city republics (Lübeck, Nuremberg, Frankfurt am Main, etc.). Οʜᴎ were governed by city councils, had the right to independently declare war, conclude peace and alliances, mint coins, etc.

A distinctive feature of the development of Germany during the period of feudal fragmentation was the predominance of the territorial principle over the tribal principle in its political organization. In place of the old tribal duchies, about 100 principalities appeared, over 80 of which were spiritual. Territorial princes took the place of tribal dukes in the feudal hierarchy, forming the class of imperial princes - direct lenients of the crown. Many German imperial princes in the 12th century. found themselves in vassal dependence on foreign sovereigns (sometimes even from several states).

In general, the period of feudal fragmentation was a period of economic growth in Europe. In the X-XII centuries. The feudal system in Western Europe assumed a pan-European character and was experiencing a period of takeoff: the growth of cities, commodity production, and the deepened division of labor turned commodity-money relations into the most important factor in social life. Clearing for arable land was accompanied by deforestation and reclamation work (Lombardy, Holland). The secondary landscape has increased; The area of marshes has decreased. Mining and metallurgical production experienced a qualitative leap: in Germany, Spain, Sweden, and England, mining and metallurgical industries grew into independent, special industries. Construction is also on the rise. In the 12th century. The first water supply system with sewerage elements is being built in Troyes. Production of mirrors begins (Venice). New mechanisms are being created in weaving, mining, construction, metallurgy and other crafts. So, in Flanders in 1131 ᴦ. the first modern loom appeared, etc. There was an increase in foreign and domestic trade.

On the other hand, the increase in the needs of the feudal lords in connection with the development of the market not only led to an increase in the exploitation of the peasantry, but also increased the desire of the feudal lords to seize other people's lands and wealth. This gave rise to many wars, conflicts, and clashes. Many feudal lords and states found themselves drawn into them (due to the complexity and interweaving of vassal ties). State borders were constantly changing. More powerful sovereigns sought to subjugate others, making claims to world dominion, and tried to create a universalist (all-encompassing) state under their hegemony. The main bearers of universalist tendencies were the Roman popes, Byzantine and German emperors.

Only in the XIII-XV centuries. In the countries of Western Europe, the process of centralization of the state begins, which gradually takes the form of an estate monarchy. Here, relatively strong royal power is combined with the presence of class-representative assemblies. The process of centralization took place most rapidly in the following Western European states: England, France, Castile, and Aragon.

In Rus', the period of feudal fragmentation began in the 30s of the 12th century. (in 1132 ᴦ. the Grand Duke of Kiev Mstislav, the son of Vladimir Monomakh, dies; under 1132 ᴦ. the chronicler wrote: ʼʼAnd the whole Russian land was angry...ʼʼ). In place of a single state, sovereign principalities began to live an independent life, equal in scale to Western European kingdoms. Novgorod and Polotsk separated themselves earlier than others; followed by Galich, Volyn and Chernigov, etc. The period of feudal fragmentation in Rus' continued until the end of the 15th century.

Within this more than three-century period of time, there was a clear and difficult milestone - the Tatar invasion of 1237-1241, after which the foreign yoke sharply disrupted the natural course of the Russian historical process and greatly slowed it down.

Feudal fragmentation became a new form of statehood in the conditions of rapid growth of productive forces and was largely due to this development. Tools were improved (scientists count more than 40 types of them made of metal alone); Arable farming became established. Cities became a major economic force (there were about 300 of them in Rus' at that time). The connections with the market of individual feudal estates and peasant communities were very weak. They sought to satisfy their needs as much as possible using internal resources. Under the dominance of subsistence farming, it was possible for each region to separate from the center and exist as independent lands.

In the last years of the existence of Kievan Rus, the local boyars of many thousands received the Extensive Russian Pravda, which determined the norms of feudal law. But the book on parchment, stored in the grand ducal archive in Kyiv, did not contribute to the real implementation of boyar rights. Even the strength of the grand ducal virniks, swordsmen, and governors could not really help the distant provincial boyars of the outskirts of Kievan Rus. Zemsky boyars of the 12th century. they needed their own, close, local government, which would be able to quickly implement the legal norms of the Truth, help in clashes with the peasants, and quickly overcome their resistance.

Feudal fragmentation was (as paradoxical as it may seem at first glance!) the result not so much of differentiation as of historical integration. Feudalism grew in breadth and was strengthened locally (under the dominance of subsistence farming); feudal relations were formalized (vassal relations, immunity, right of inheritance, etc.).

The optimal scale and geographical boundaries for feudal integration of that time were developed by life itself, even on the eve of the formation of Kievan Rus - “tribal unions”: Polyans, Drevlyans, Krivichi, Vyatichi, etc. - Kievan Rus collapsed in the 30s. XII century into one and a half dozen independent principalities, more or less similar to one and a half dozen ancient tribal unions. The capitals of many principalities were at one time centers of tribal unions (Kyiv near the Polyans, Smolensk among the Krivichi, etc.). Tribal unions were a stable community that took shape over centuries; their geographical limits were determined by natural boundaries. During the existence of Kievan Rus, cities that competed with Kiev developed here; the clan and tribal nobility turned into boyars.

The order of occupation of the throne that existed in Kievan Rus based on seniority in the princely family gave rise to a situation of instability and uncertainty. The transfer of the prince by seniority from one city to another was accompanied by the movement of the entire domain apparatus. To resolve personal disputes, the princes invited foreigners (Poles, Cumans, etc.). The temporary stay of the prince and his boyars in any land gave rise to increased, “hasty” exploitation of peasants and artisans. New forms of political organization of the state were needed, taking into account the existing balance of economic and political forces. Feudal fragmentation became such a new form of state-political organization. In the centers of each of the principalities, their own local dynasties formed: Olgovichi - in Chernigov, Izyaslavich - in Volyn, Yuryevich - in the Vladimir-Suzdal land, etc. Each of the new principalities fully satisfied the needs of the feudal lords: from any capital of the 12th century. it was possible to ride to the border of this principality in three days. Under these conditions, the norms of Russian Truth could be confirmed by the sword of the ruler in a timely manner. A calculation was also made on the prince's interest - to transfer his reign to his children in good economic condition, to help the boyars, and help them settle here.

Each of the principalities kept its own chronicle; the princes issued their statutory charters. In general, the initial phase of feudal fragmentation (before the factor of conquest intervened in normal development) is characterized by the rapid growth of cities and the vibrant flowering of culture in the 12th - early 13th centuries. in all its manifestations. The new political form promoted progressive development and created conditions for the expression of local creative forces (each principality developed its own architectural style, its own artistic and literary trends).

Let us also pay attention to the negative aspects of the era of feudal fragmentation:

A clear weakening of the overall military potential, facilitating foreign conquest. However, a caveat is needed here too. Authors of the book ʼʼHistory of the Russian State. Historical and bibliographical essays pose the question: “Would the Russian early feudal state be able to resist the Tatars?” Who will dare to answer in the affirmative? The forces of only one of the Russian lands - Novgorod - a little later turned out to be enough to defeat the German, Swedish and Danish invaders by Alexander Nevsky. In the person of the Mongol-Tatars, there was a clash with a qualitatively different enemy.

Internecine wars. But even in a single state (when it came to the struggle for power, for the grand ducal throne, etc.), princely strife was sometimes more bloody than during the period of feudal fragmentation. The goal of strife in the era of fragmentation was already different than in a single state: not the seizure of power in the entire country, but the strengthening of one’s principality, the expansion of its borders at the expense of its neighbors.

Increasing fragmentation of princely possessions: in the middle of the 12th century. there were 15 principalities; at the beginning of the 13th century. (on the eve of Batu’s invasion) - about 50, and in the 14th century. (when the unification process of the Russian lands had already begun), the number of great and appanage principalities reached approximately 250. The reason for such fragmentation was the division of the princes' possessions between their sons: as a result, the principalities became smaller, weakened, and the results of this spontaneous process gave rise to ironic sayings among contemporaries (ʼʼIn the Rostov land - a prince in every village; “In the Rostov land, seven princes have one warrior,” etc.). Tatar-Mongol invasion 1237-1241. Russia found Rus' a flourishing, rich and cultural country, but already stricken by the “rust” of feudal appanage fragmentation.

In each of the separated principalities-lands at the initial stage of feudal fragmentation, similar processes took place:

the growth of the nobility ("youths", "children", etc.), palace servants;

strengthening the positions of the old boyars;

the growth of cities - a complex social organism of the Middle Ages. The unification of artisans and merchants in cities into “brotherhoods”, “communities”, corporations close to the craft guilds and merchant guilds of the cities of Western Europe;

the development of the church as an organization (dioceses in the 12th century coincided territorially with the borders of the principalities);

intensifying contradictions between the princes (the title “Grand Duke” was borne by the princes of all Russian lands) and the local boyars, the struggle between them for influence and power.

In each principality, due to the peculiarities of its historical development, its own balance of forces developed; its own special combination of the elements listed above appeared on the surface.

Thus, the history of Vladimir-Suzdal Rus' is characterized by the victory of the grand ducal power over the landed aristocracy by the end of the 12th century. The princes here were able to suppress the separatism of the boyars, and power was established in the form of a monarchy.

In Novgorod (and later in Pskov), the boyars were able to subjugate the princes and established boyar feudal republics.

In the Galicia-Volyn land there was extremely intense rivalry between the princes and local boyars, and there was a kind of “balance of power”. The boyar opposition (moreover, constantly relying either on Hungary or on Poland) failed to transform the land into a boyar republic, but significantly weakened the grand ducal power.

A special situation has developed in Kyiv. On the one hand, he became first among equals. Soon, some Russian lands caught up and even ahead of him in their development. On the other hand, Kyiv remained an “apple of discord” (they joked that there was not a single prince in Rus' who did not want to “sit” in Kyiv). Kyiv was “reconquered,” for example, by Yuri Dolgoruky, the Vladimir-Suzdal prince; at 1154 ᴦ. he achieved the Kyiv throne and sat on it until 1157 ᴦ. His son Andrei Bogolyubsky also sent regiments to Kyiv, etc. Under such conditions, the Kiev boyars introduced a curious system of “duumvirate” (co-government), which lasted throughout the second half of the 12th century. The meaning of this original measure was as follows: at the same time, representatives of two warring branches were invited to the Kyiv land (an agreement was concluded with them - ʼʼryadʼʼ); Thus, relative balance was established and strife was partially eliminated. One of the princes lived in Kyiv, the other in Belgorod (or Vyshgorod). They went on military campaigns together and conducted diplomatic correspondence in concert. So, the duumvirs-co-rulers were Izyaslav Mstislavich and his uncle, Vyacheslav Vladimirovich; Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich and Rurik Mstislavich.

The era of feudal fragmentation in Europe, the distinctive features of feudalism in the Russian lands. - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "The era of feudal fragmentation in Europe, the distinctive features of feudalism in the Russian lands." 2017, 2018.

What did Charles Martel's military reform change in Frankish society?

Why did Charlemagne's empire collapse? What is feudal fragmentation? 1.

“There is no war without fires and blood.” In

During the times of feudal fragmentation (IX-XI centuries), the possession of any large feudal lord became, as it were, a state within a state.

The feudal lord collected taxes from the subject population, judged them, and could declare war on other feudal lords and make peace with them.

Feast at a noble lord. Medieval miniature

Peasants are harvesting.

Medieval miniature

2 - E. V. Agibalova

The battle of the Franks led by Roland with the locals in the Pyrenees Mountains. Miniature from the 14th century.

The gentlemen almost constantly fought among themselves: such wars were called internecine. During civil strife they were burned

Death of Roland. Stained glass window of the cathedral. XIII century On the right, the mortally wounded Roland blows his horn, calling for help. On the left - he unsuccessfully tries to break the sword on the rock

villages, cattle were stolen, crops were trampled. Those who suffered the most from this

peasants. 2.

Lords and vassals.

Each large feudal lord distributed part of the land with peasants to small feudal lords as a reward for their service, and they swore an oath of allegiance to him. He was considered a lord in relation to these feudal lords

(senior), and the feudal lords, who seemed to “hold” the lands from him, became his vassals (subordinates).

Vassals were obliged to

the order of the lord to go on a campaign and bring with him a detachment of warriors, to participate in the lord’s battle, to help him with advice, to ransom the lord from captivity. The lord defended “my vassals from attacks by other feudal lords and rebel peasants, rewarded them for their service, and was obliged to take care of their orphaned children.

It happened that vassals opposed their lords, did not carry out their orders, or moved to another lord. And then only force could force them to obey. 3.

Feudal staircase. The king was considered the head of all feudal lords and the first lord of the country: he was the highest judge in disputes between them and during the war he led the army. The king was the lord of the highest nobility (aristocracy) - dukes and nobles.

Excerpt from "The Song of Roland"

In the 11th century, the French epic “The Song of Roland” was written down. It tells about the heroic death of Count Roland’s detachment during the retreat of Charlemagne from Spain and about the revenge of the Frankish king for the death of his nephew:

The count felt that death had overtaken him,

Cold sweat streams down your forehead.

The Count says: “Mother of God, help me,

It's time for us, Durendal6, to say goodbye to you,

I won't need you anymore.

You and I have beaten many enemies,

With you, large lands were conquered.

There Charles the greybeard now rules...

He turned his face to Spain,

So that King Charles can see

When he and his army are here again,

That the count died, but won the battle.

What qualities of a vassal were valued in the early Middle Ages?

fov. There were usually hundreds of villages in their domains, and they commanded large detachments of warriors. Below were barons and viscounts - vassals of dukes and counts. Usually they owned two to three dozen villages and could field a detachment of warriors. Barons were lords of knights, who sometimes no longer had their own vassals, but only dependent peasants. Thus, the same feudal lord was the lord of a smaller feudal lord and the vassal of a larger one. In Germany and France there was a rule: “The vassal of my vassal is not my vassal.”

Feudal staircase

king! dukes and counts barons Historians call this organization of feudal lords the feudal ladder. Despite frequent conflicts between feudal lords, which even the kings themselves could not always cope with, vassal relations united the lords into a single class in importance and place in society (albeit consisting of different layers and groups). This was a class of noble (from a good family) people who dominated over the commoners.

When a war with another state began, the king called on dukes and counts to go on a campaign, and they turned to the barons, who brought detachments of knights with them. This is how a feudal army was created, which is usually called knightly (from the German “ritter” - horseman, mounted warrior).

L. The weakness of royal power in France. The power of the last kings of the Carolingian dynasty in France weakened significantly. Contemporaries gave the kings humiliating nicknames: Karl the Fat, Karl the Simple, Louis the Stutterer, Louis the Lazy.

At the end of the 10th century, the major feudal lords of France elected the rich and powerful Count of Paris, Hugo Capet, as king (the nickname was given by the name of his favorite headdress - the hood). From then until the end of the 18th century, the royal throne remained in the hands of the Capetian dynasty or its side branches - the Valois and Bourbons.

The French kingdom then consisted of 14 large fiefs. Many feudal lords had larger lands than the king himself. The dukes and counts considered the king only the first among equals and did not always obey his orders.

The king owned a domain (domain) in the northeast of the country with the cities of Paris on the Seine River and Orleans on the Loire River. In other lands, the castles of rebellious vassals rose. As a contemporary put it, the inhabitants of these “hornets’ nests”

“They devoured the country with their robbery.”

Lacking power over the entire country, the king did not issue general laws and could not collect taxes from its population.

Therefore, the king had neither a permanent strong army nor paid officials. His military forces consisted of detachments of vassals who received fiefs in his possession, and he ruled with the help of his courtiers7.

Otto I. Image from a chronicle of the 12th century. 5.

Formation of the Holy Roman Empire. In Germany, the power of the king was at first stronger than in France. A unified state was necessary to protect against external enemies.

Attacks by the Hungarians (Magyars) were very frequent. These tribes of nomadic pastoralists moved at the end of the 9th century from the foothills of the Southern Urals to Europe and occupied the plain between the Danube and Tissa rivers. From there, the Hungarian light cavalry raided the countries of Western Europe. She broke through the Rhine and reached Paris. But Germany suffered especially: the Hungarians ravaged and captured many of its inhabitants.

In 955, German and Czech troops led by the German king Otto I utterly defeated the Hungarians in a battle in southern Germany. Soon the Hungarian invasions ceased. At the beginning of the 11th century, the Kingdom of Hungary was formed, where King Stephen introduced Christianity.

In 962, taking advantage of the fragmentation of Italy, Otto I marched on Rome, and the pope proclaimed him emperor. In addition to Germany, part of Italy fell under the rule of Otto I. Thus the Roman Empire was restored once again. Later, this political entity began to be called the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation.

This became possible because Germany and Italy at that time also did not

2* Dust by united states. Like France, they consisted of many separate independent duchies, counties, baronies, principalities, etc., each of which had its own main city, its own sovereign, its own flag and coat of arms. Feudal fragmentation in these countries existed throughout the Middle Ages.

Crown and holder; Emperors of the Holy Roman Empire

The Emperor wanted to be considered the voice of all the rulers of Europe. But real power was limited. Even the German dukes gradually achieved independence from him. The population of Italy did not stop fighting the invaders. Each new German king, in order to be crowned with the imperial crown, had to march beyond the Alps and reconquer Italy.

1. Prove that every major feudal lord had the same power in his possessions as the ruler of the state. Why was this possible? 2. What was the weakness of royal power in France in the 9th-11th centuries? 3. When was the Holy Roman Empire formed? 4. Explain why the German emperors sought to be crowned in Rome. 5. Calculate how many years there was no empire in Europe (how much time elapsed between the collapse of the empire of Charlemagne and the proclamation of Emperor Otto I).

S1.If the king, during feudal fragmentation, was considered only “first among equals,” then why was royal power maintained at all? 2. Can one knight be a vassal of several lords? Justify your answer 3.

The laws of Germany of the 11th century say that the lord cannot take away the fief from you without guilt, but only if the vassal violated his duties: abandoned the lord in battle, attacked the lord or killed his brother. What role did this law play in the organization of medieval society? 4. Were peasants included in the feudal ladder? Why? 5. Pair with one-click. The dialogue between the lord and his vassal is dreary as they sort out a controversial situation about the breaking of a vassal oath. What arguments will both sides bring to prove that they are right? How will the dispute end?

In the 9th–11th centuries. States are also being formed in other parts of Europe, where the process of formation of new ethnic groups and nationalities is underway. In the northern mountainous regions of the Iberian Peninsula, from the 8th century, after the conquest of Visigothic Spain by the Arabs (Moors), Asturias retained its independence, becoming a kingdom in 718. In the 9th century. The Kingdom of Navarre was formed, spun off from the Spanish March founded by Charlemagne. The County of Barcelona then emerged from it, and temporarily became part of France. Asturias was the forerunner of the future united Spanish state, whose territory still had to be conquered over the centuries from the Arabs. In most of the rest of Spain, the Arab state continued to exist - the Emirate of Cordoba, which arose in the middle of the 8th century. and turned into the Cordoba Caliphate in 929, which in the first half of the 11th century. broke up into a number of small independent emirates.

State formation among the Anglo-Saxons

The Anglo-Saxon kingdoms in Britain united in 829 into one kingdom - England. In the north of Britain there was the independent kingdom of Scotland, and in the west there were the Celtic principalities of Wales. The independent Celtic tribes that inhabited Ireland were in the process of uniting clans and forming the supreme royal power.

In northern Europe in the 9th–11th centuries. The Scandinavian countries - Denmark, Norway, Sweden - entered the path of developing the formation of states. In the 8th century The Kingdom of Denmark was formed at the end of the 9th century. The united Kingdom of Norway began to take shape, and from the 11th century. - Kingdom of Sweden.

In the 9th century, throughout Europe, priests offered prayers: “Lord, protect us from the fury of the Normans!” The Normans are the ancient Scandinavians, the ancestors of modern Danes, Swedes, Norwegians and Icelanders. The inhabitants of Western Europe called them Normans - “northern people”; in Rus' they were known as Varangians. Scandinavia, where they live, has a rather harsh climate. There was little land suitable for cultivation, so the sea played a huge role in the life of the Scandinavians. The sea provided food, the sea was a road that allowed people to quickly get to other countries.

In the 8th-10th centuries in Scandinavia, the influence of leaders increased, strong squads were formed, striving for glory and booty. And as a result - attacks, conquests and resettlement to new lands. Daredevils who dared to risk their lives on long voyages and robberies were called Vikings in Scandinavia. From the end of the 8th century and for almost three centuries, attacks by the Normans followed one after another. They devastated the coast, penetrated far into any country along rivers, and ravaged London, Paris, and Aachen. Their attacks were so sudden that by the time the army of the local ruler came out against them, they managed to sail back with rich booty, leaving smoking ruins behind them. Where the Normans did not expect an easy victory, they showed caution: putting their swords aside, they pretended to be merchants and began to engage in trade with profit.

Over time, the Normans began to seize the coastal regions of other countries and establish their own states there. This was the case in Scotland, Ireland, and England. In the 10th century, the French king was forced to cede vast lands in the north of the country to the Normans. This is how the Duchy of Normandy arose. The Scandinavians who settled there converted to Christianity and adopted the local language and customs.

Discoveries of the Normans

The Normans were the best sailors of their time. Their fast ships easily moved along narrow rivers, but also withstood ocean storms. At the end of the 9th century, the Normans discovered the island, which they named Iceland - “the land of ice”, and began to populate it. In the 10th century, an Icelander Erich the Red discovered a large land northwest of Iceland, which he named Greenland - “green country”. Around the year 1000, the son of Eirik the Red, Leif, nicknamed the Happy, reached the coast of North America. Leif and his companions named this country Vinland - "land of grapes." They turned out to be the first Europeans to visit the New World, 500 years before Columbus. Already in our time, archaeologists have excavated a Norman settlement on the island of Newfoundland. True, the Normans failed to gain a foothold in America for a long time. Stories about the country of Vinland were passed down from generation to generation, but no one outside of Scandinavia knew about it.

For those whose lands were ravaged by the Normans, they were pagan barbarians who destroyed Christian culture. However, the Scandinavians also created their own, distinctive culture. They used a special writing system - runes, and passed on epic tales about gods and heroes from generation to generation. Their historical tales - sagas - told of bold voyages and fierce battles. It was from the sagas that historians learned about voyages to Greenland and Vinland. When Viking ships appeared off the coast of England at the end of the 8th century, there were several kingdoms founded there in the 5th-6th centuries by the Germanic tribes of the Angles and Saxons. In the 9th century, Viking attacks became increasingly dangerous. Soon most of the country came under their rule. It seemed impossible to stop them.

King Alfred the Great (871-900) managed to organize resistance to the Normans. He strengthened the border with new fortresses and carried out army reform. Previously, the basis of the army was the people's militia. The new army was much smaller than the previous one, because only every sixth Anglo-Saxon fit for service remained in it. But the other five fed and armed him, so that he could diligently engage in military affairs and fight with the Scandinavians on equal terms. Relying on the new army, Alfred achieved a turning point in the fight against the Normans, and his successors completely drove the enemies out of the country.

After the death of the English king Edward the Confessor, so nicknamed for his piety, the Norman Duke William became one of the contenders for the throne. The English nobility nominated their candidate - Harold. Army Wilhelm crossed the English Channel and won the Battle of Hastings in 1066. Harold was killed in action. The Duke of Normandy became the English king and received the nickname Conqueror. By the end of the 11th century, states were formed in Scandinavia whose population adopted Christianity. The Vikings who settled in other countries also created their own kingdoms. The era of invasions and long voyages is over.

Feudal fragmentation

One of the reasons for the Vikings' success was the military weakness of their opponents, especially France. There were reasons for this. The first Carolingians retained a certain power over the lands that their ancestors had once granted as benefices. But over time, the owners of the latter began to freely pass them on by inheritance. These were no longer benefices, but fiefs. The owners of the fiefs - the feudal lords - tried in every possible way to reduce the service in favor of the king. This was facilitated by the monarchs themselves, who, trying to attract the nobility to their side, granted it more and more privileges: to judge the local population, punish criminals, collect taxes. Sometimes the king's representatives could not even enter the possessions of the feudal lord without his permission.

Continuous attacks by enemies also contributed to the further strengthening of the feudal lords. The weakened royal power did not have time to establish resistance, and the local population could only count on the feudal lords, whose power increased accordingly. Since the weakening of royal power was closely connected with the transformation of benefices into fiefs, the fragmentation that triumphed at that time in Western Europe is usually called feudal. In the 9th-10th centuries, the fastest fragmentation of power occurred in the West Frankish kingdom, which at that time began to be called France.

The last Carolingians did not have much power in France, and in 987 the feudal lords handed over the crown to the powerful Count of Paris, Hugo Capet, who became famous for his successful fight against the Normans. His descendants are Capetians - ruled France until the 14th century, and the side branches of the dynasty (Valois and Bourbons) respectively until the end of the 16th and until the end of the 18th century.

The king officially led the French army in major wars with its neighbors, acted as a mediator in disputes between feudal lords, but otherwise had no power over the country and could only count on the resources of his domain. This was the territory that belonged to him not as a king, but as the heir to the counts of Paris - a narrow strip of land from the Seine to the Loire with the cities of Paris and Orleans. But even there the king was not the complete master: the feudal lords, having strengthened themselves in the royal fortresses, felt the powerlessness of power and did not obey it.

The French kingdom was then divided into many large and small feudal estates. Some feudal lords - the Dukes of Normandy, the Counts of Champagne and others - had more lands and wealth than the king himself, and felt independent of the monarch in their possessions, considering him only the first among equals. They collected taxes, minted coins, and fought wars. But, having taken away power from the king, they also lost it in favor of medium and small feudal lords.

The emergence of Germany in the 10th century.

The dukes, turning into large landowners, used their position as tribal leaders to strengthen their own power. This led to the preservation of tribal disunity, which hampered the development of Germany. In 911, after the Carolingian dynasty ended in Germany, one of the tribal dukes, Conrad I of Franconia, was elected king, under whom an open conflict broke out between the royal power and the tribal dukes, ending in the defeat of the king. After the death of Conrad I, a power struggle developed between the tribal dukes; as a result, in 919 two kings were elected at once - Henry of Saxony and Arnulf of Bavaria.

However, various social forces were interested in strong royal power: medium and large landowners, monasteries and bishoprics. In addition, the political unification of Germany at this time was necessary in the face of external danger; from the end of the 9th century. Germany became the scene of raids by the Normans, and from the beginning of the 10th century. A new danger arose - raids by the Hungarians who had settled in Pannonia. Their cavalry troops unexpectedly invaded Germany, devastating everything in their path, and just as suddenly disappeared. Attempts to organize an effective rebuff to the Hungarians with the foot militia of individual duchies turned out to be ineffective.

Henry of Saxony, through skillful politics, achieved recognition of his power by all tribal dukes, including Arnulf of Bavaria , having received the title Henry I (919 -936) and becoming the founder Saxon dynasty (919 – 1024). His activities, which consisted in the construction of castles (burgs) and the creation of heavily armed knightly cavalry, were successful in the fight against the nomadic Hungarians. In 955, in a decisive battle on the Lech River, near Augsburg, they suffered a crushing defeat. The raids on Germany stopped, and the Hungarians themselves began to settle down.

However, the tribal dukes were not inclined to lose their independence. They recognized the royal title of Henry I only after he renounced any interference in the internal affairs of the duchies. But when the son and successor of Henry I, Otto I (936-973), made an attempt to change the current situation and suppress the independence of the dukes, this caused an uprising.

In the struggle to strengthen his power, the king began to pursue an active policy of supporting the church, turning it into an ally capable of carrying out the policies he needed on the ground. To do this, he generously endowed her with land holdings. These land holdings, together with the living population, were entirely controlled only by the church authorities. On the other hand, any appointments to high church posts could only happen with the approval of the king. The clergy only nominated candidates for these positions, but they were approved and inaugurated by the king. When the office of bishop or imperial (royal) abbot remained vacant, all income from their land went to the king, who was therefore in no hurry to replace them.

Higher church dignitaries were recruited by the king to perform administrative, diplomatic, military, and public service. Vassals of bishops and imperial abbots made up the majority of the army; often at the head of his units was a militant bishop or abbot. This system of the imperial church arose under the Carolingians. The church became the main means of governing Germany, which the rulers used to their advantage. The most important goal of royal policy was now to achieve the subordination of the Pope as the head of the entire Catholic Church.

These plans are closely related to attempts at a new unification of Europe, the revival of a semblance of the empire of Charlemagne. The intentions of the royal power to expand the state by including new territories found full support of landowners. Even under Henry I, Lorraine was annexed, and the conquest of the eastern Slavic lands began (the onslaught to the east - the Drang nach Osten policy). Otto I, having influence in the West Frankish Empire, directed his claims towards Italy, beyond the Alps. His desire to be crowned in Rome is quite understandable.

In Italy, where there was no single center and various forces fought among themselves, it was not possible to organize a rebuff to the German troops. In 951, as a result of the first campaign, Northern Italy (Lombardy) was captured. Otto I took the title of King of the Lombards. He married the heiress of the Italian kingdom, freeing her from prison.

The Rise of the Holy Roman Empire

10 years later, taking advantage of another escalation of the struggle between the pope and the Italian landowners, the king achieved his goal. At the beginning of 962, the pope crowned Otto I in Rome with the imperial crown. Before this, Otto I, by a special treaty, recognized the pope's claims to secular possessions in Italy, but the German emperor was proclaimed the supreme lord of these possessions. A mandatory oath of the pope to the emperor was introduced, which was an expression of the papacy’s subordination to the empire.

So in 962 the Holy Roman Empire arose led by the German emperor, which included, in addition to Germany, Northern and a significant part of Central Italy, some Slavic lands, as well as part of the South in South-Eastern France. In the first half of the 11th century. The Kingdom of Burgundy (Arelat) was annexed to the empire.

An interesting page in the history of the early empire is associated with the grandson of Otto I the Great Otto III . His mother was the Byzantine princess Theophano, although she had no rights to the throne. But her son, half Saxon, half Greek, considered himself the heir of both Charlemagne and the rulers of Constantinople. Otto III received a good education and considered it his historical mission to revive the ancient Roman Empire in all its splendor. He became the king of Italy, and for the first time under him a German was elevated to the papal throne under the name of Gregory V, who immediately crowned his benefactor with the imperial crown. In his dreams, Otto saw himself as the ruler of a single world Christian power with capitals in Rome, Aachen, and possibly Constantinople. Otto III ordered to build himself a palace on the site where the Roman emperors lived. He declared a fake the document according to which the popes laid claim to secular power, the so-called “Donation of Constantine.”

However, the emperor’s plans did not find support either in Germany, which in this case was destined for the fate of a separate part of the general whole, or in Italy, both among the clergy and among the large landowners-nobiles. There was a rebellion in Rome, Otto III fled the city and soon died at the age of 22, leaving no heir. Power in the empire passed to Henry II (1002 -1024), who became the last representative of the Saxon dynasty.

The Holy Roman Empire of the German nation (this name will be established later) will exist in Europe until the conquests of Napoleon I at the beginning of the 19th century, when the Confederation of the Rhine will be formed in its place.

This artificial political formation, which had neither a common economic base nor ethnic unity, caused innumerable disasters for Italy over many centuries of its history. German kings and emperors, considering themselves the masters of Italian lands, constantly organized campaigns to plunder Italy and subjugate it to their power.

The emergence of the Holy Roman Empire and the confrontation with the papacy will have an impact on the further history of the development of Germany. The German emperors will waste their strength on fruitless attempts to conquer Italy, while their absence in the country will provide an opportunity for large landowners, secular and spiritual, to strengthen themselves, thereby promoting the development of centrifugal tendencies.

After the suppression of the Saxon dynasty, representatives of Franconian dynasty (1024-1125). The first decades of their reign were not easy. In Italy at this time, an alliance finally formed between the papacy and the strong group of Italian large landowners that supported it and a number of Italian cities, on the one hand, and powerful German secular landowners, on the other, which was directed against the strengthening of the power of the emperor. Under the Emperor Henry IV (1056-1106) the conflict resulted in open confrontation, called by historians fight for investiture . Investiture is the act of taking possession of land, the transfer of a fief by a lord to his vassal. When applied to bishops and abbots, investiture included not only the introduction of a new bishop or abbot into the administration of the lands and dependent people of the corresponding ecclesiastical institution (bishopric or abbey), but also confirmation in clergy, as a sign of which a ring and a staff were presented. The right of investiture meant, in essence, the right to appoint and confirm in office bishops and abbots chosen by the clergy.

Beginning with Otto I, emperors carried out the investiture of bishops and abbots and saw this as one of the most important pillars of their power. The popes, who had previously put up with this order, in the second half of the 11th century began to challenge the emperor’s right to investiture of senior clergy - bishops and abbots. This struggle engulfed all parts of the empire. During the confrontation, a whole range of important issues were resolved. For example, about the supremacy of the emperor or pope in church affairs, about the fate of the empire in Germany, about the foundations of the further political development of German society, about the relationship between Germany and the Italian regions of the empire, about the further development of the cities of Northern and Central Italy.

IN 1059 on Lateran Church Council (Rome) a new procedure for choosing popes was established. According to the decision of the council, the pope was to be elected without any outside interference by the cardinals - the highest dignitaries of the church, who received their title from the pope. This decision was directed against the emperor's desire to interfere in the elections of popes. The Lateran Council also spoke out against the secular investiture of bishops and abbots.

Cluny movement

Having strengthened his possessions in Saxony and suppressed the uprising here (1070-1075), the emperor was ready to enter into battle with the Pope. The papacy saw a solution in uniting church forces. It relied on supporting the movement that originated in the 10th century. in the monastery of Cluny (French Burgundy). The goal of this movement was to strengthen the church in every possible way, raise its moral authority and eradicate all the negative aspects that had become widespread among it by that time. This includes the sale of church positions, the “secularization” of clergy, subordination to secular authorities, etc.

Principles Cluny movement found a warm response in the monasteries of Germany, which contributed to the spread of centrifugal tendencies within the country. Fourteen years after the Lateran Council, in 1073, the monk Hildebrand, a zealous supporter of the Clunian demands, was elected pope under the name of Gregory VII and began to put into practice his program of strengthening the church, removing several German bishops who, in his opinion, had been appointed incorrectly.

Henry IV resolutely opposed Gregory VII's desire to subjugate the German clergy and weaken their connection with royal power. In 1076, at a meeting of the highest German clergy, he announced the deposition of Gregory VII. In response to this, the pope used an unprecedented means: he excommunicated Henry IV from the church and deprived him of his royal rank, and freed the king’s subjects from their oath to their sovereign. Immediately the secular nobility, many bishops and abbots, opposed the king.

Henry IV was forced to capitulate to Gregory VII. In January 1077, with a small retinue, he went on a date with the pope to Italy. After a difficult journey through the Alps, Henry began to seek a meeting with Gregory VII, who was in the castle of Canossa (in Northern Italy). According to chroniclers, Henry IV, having removed all the signs of royal dignity, stood barefoot and hungry for three days from morning to evening in front of the castle. Finally he was allowed to see the pope and begged his forgiveness on his knees.

However, Henry's submission was only a maneuver. Having somewhat strengthened his position in Germany after the pope lifted his excommunication, he again opposed Gregory VII. The struggle between the empire and the papacy, which continued for a long time after this with varying success, ended with the signing of the so-called Concordat of Worms (1122) - an agreement concluded by the son and successor of Henry IV, Henry V, and Pope Calixtus II. It regulated the procedure for electing bishops, establishing a different system for electing bishops in different regions of the empire.

In Germany, bishops were henceforth to be elected by the clergy in the presence of the emperor, who had the final say in the presence of several candidates. The emperor performed a secular investiture - the transfer of a scepter, symbolizing power over the lands of the bishopric. After the secular investiture there followed a spiritual one, carried out by the pope or his legate - the transfer of a ring and a staff, symbolizing the spiritual power of the bishop.

In Italy and Burgundy, the election of bishops was to take place without the participation of the emperor or his representatives. Only six months after the election and confirmation of the new bishop by the pope, the emperor performed an investiture with a scepter, which thus turned into a purely formal act.

The Concordat of Worms destroyed the system of the imperial church in Italy and Burgundy. In Germany, a compromise order was established, which was a violation of the fundamental principles of Ottonian church policy. He strengthened the position of the German princes. And this reduced the capabilities of the central government.

In the 12th century. central state power in Germany weakens, and a long period of political fragmentation begins.

Thus, over the course of several centuries, the most important processes took place in medieval Europe. Huge masses of Germanic, Slavic and nomadic tribes moved across its spaces, their placement further shaping the boundaries of future state formations. At first these formations were fragile and short-lived in their existence. Under the blows of nomads and powerful neighbors, they faded into oblivion.

The first to emerge were the Germanic barbarian kingdoms, created on the territory of Ancient Rome. By the end of the 1st millennium AD. states developed among the Slavs and in northern Europe. They were cemented by the Christian religion. Of the barbarian kingdoms, the strongest, the Frankish kingdom, had the historical perspective. It was here that the representative of the Carolingian dynasty, Charlemagne, had the opportunity to unite Europe almost within the borders of the Roman Empire by force of arms with the support of the Catholic Church in 800.

However, the empire of Charlemagne was an internally weak formation that united territories that were completely different in level. If in the former Frankish kingdom the strengthening of feudal relations based on the ownership of land property with a dependent population was in full swing, then in the east, in the Germanic and Slavic territories, a powerful layer of free farmers existed for a long time.

Results

The collapse of Charlemagne's empire was a matter of time. Less than half a century had passed since its inception, when the descendants of the emperor divided it among themselves. From the ruins of the empire, the future France, Germany, and Italy are formed. But first, the kings of the East Frankish Kingdom (Germany) made another attempt to unite Europe.

The Holy Roman Empire, which emerged in 962 thanks to the efforts of Otto I, had a lot of problems. The Italian lands longed to break free from the emperor's rule, and for many decades, to the detriment of strengthening the German territories, the ruler concentrated his attention on their subjugation. The German princes tried in every possible way to be independent. The powerful influence of the emperor on the papacy and the church was in conflict with their interests. The principle of the imperial church, which, as under the Carolingians, was used by the Saxon dynasty, interfered with the claims of the papacy to exercise temporal power.

Using the Cluny movement as a support, the papacy achieved its goal. As a result of the measures of Pope Gregory VII and the further development of his policies in 1122 was concluded between the emperor and the pope Concordat of Worms , which meant the destruction of the principles of the imperial church. In addition, it led to strengthening the power of the German princes and weakening the power of the emperor.

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Socio-political changes in Russian lands in the XII-XIII centuries.

Feudal fragmentation is a period of political decentralization of power.

In Europe, royal power becomes elected by feudal lords (the rulers of France, the electors of Germany). The European king, like the Grand Duke of Rus', is only the first among equals. He is not a sovereign with full power, but a suzerain - the supreme lord of large vassals and dukes and counts.

In fact, vassal fiefs are a state within a state.

However, supreme power remains.

in Rus' period of feudal fragmentation begin with XII century. As reasons this phenomenon should be called:

1. Economic reasons:

A) economic independence from Kyiv princes and boyars as a result of the development of feudal estates (boyar villages), cities, individual lands;

b) weak economic ties under the dominance of subsistence farming.

2. Domestic political reason: relative political independence of local feudal lords(i.e. the ability to support one’s squad) as a result of economic independence. Thus, other lands also experienced processes similar to the formation of the state.

3. Foreign policy reason: disappearance of external danger on the part of the Polovtsians, the princes were relieved of the obligation to unite for a joint struggle under the leadership of the Kyiv prince.

The fragmentation of Rus' into principalities did not mean the collapse of the Russian land. Saved:

Kinship, contractual, allied and subject relations;

Unified law based on Russian truth;

United Church, headed by the Kyiv Metropolitan;

Close system of monetary account and weights and measures;

The commonality of culture and the feeling of belonging of all lands to the Russian land.

However, centrifugal forces were stronger at that time. The main content of the political history of the lands was the struggle for power – the struggle of princes among themselves (By "ladder" law the contenders for the throne were the brothers c. book by seniority, and then his sons and nephews according to the seniority of the reign of their fathers, they "walked along the tables") And the struggle of princes with boyars. In 2/2 XII century. there were 15 principalities in the 30s. XIII century ≈ 50, in the 14th century. – 250 principalities.

Most developed regions Rus' during the period of fragmentation were:

1. North-Eastern Rus'(Rostov-Suzdal land). This is the outskirts of the Old Russian state with dense forests, sparse settlements, and infertile soils (the exception was the Suzdal, Vladimir and Rostov fields, which produced a stable harvest).

Colonization of these lands began in the 11th-12th centuries. Thousands of farmers came there from Southern Rus' due to the invasion of the Cumans, extensive farming and overpopulation of the Kiev region. The cities of Yaroslavl, Suzdal, and Vladimir arose in North-Eastern Rus'.

Here the power of the youngest son of Vladimir Monomakh was established - Yuri Dolgoruky (1125-1157).

The peculiarity of North-Eastern Rus' was strong princely power, opposed to the boyars. Causes this:

a) the absence of opposition to the prince in the person of the boyars as large land owners due to the recent development of the territory and the presence of a large amount of land directly from the prince;

b) the reliance of princely power on the townspeople and princely servants (the transfer of the capital: by Yuri Dolgoruky - from Rostov to Suzdal, by Andrem Bogolyubsky - from Suzdal to Vladimir).

The political and economic rise of this land is associated with the sons of Yuri Dolgoruky Andrey Bogolyubsky(1157-1174) (fused cervical vertebrae, brutal murder by boyars) and Vsevolod the Big Nest (1176-1212).

After the death of Vsevolod the Big Nest, seven principalities emerged on the territory of North-Eastern Rus', and under his sons strife began. IN 1216 took place between them Battle of Lipitsa- the largest battle of the period of feudal fragmentation.

By the end of the XIII - beginning of the XIV centuries. The place of the Grand Duke of Kyiv became the Grand Duke of Vladimir.

2. Southwestern Rus'(Galicia-Volyn land). The principality was located on fertile soil in the Carpathian region and on the banks of the river. Bug.

The peculiarity of the Galicia-Volyn principality was equal power of boyars and princes. This explained:

a) the long stay of Galich under the rule of Kyiv and, consequently, the strong influence of the noble boyars;

b) economic independence of the local nobility (boyars) due to trade (crossing trade routes), fertile soils;

c) the proximity of Poland and Hungary, where rivals often turned for help.

The principality reached its greatest power under Roman Galitsky(1170-1205), which united the Galician and Volyn principalities. In his fight against the boyars, the prince relied on the service feudal lords and townspeople and managed to limit the rights of large secular and spiritual feudal lords and exterminated part of the boyars.

The most dramatic period was the reign Daniil Romanovich Galitsky(1221-1264), who managed to strengthen the princely power, weaken the influence of the boyars and annex the Kyiv lands to the Galicia-Volyn principality. The Principality of Roman Galitsky was one of the largest states in Europe.

3. Northwestern Rus'(Novgorod and Pskov lands). Novgorod owned lands from the Gulf of Finland to the Urals, from the Arctic Ocean to the upper reaches of the Volga. The city arose as a federation of tribes of Slavs, Finno-Ugric and Balts. The climate of Novgorod was more severe than in North-Eastern Rus', crops were unstable, which is why The main occupation of the Novgorodians were trades, crafts and trade(including with Western Europe - Sweden, Denmark, the German merchants' union - the Hansa).

The socio-political system of Novgorod was different from other Russian lands. The main role played in Novgorod played veche.

See diagram: Novgorod land XII-XV centuries.

8 Archbishop- chosen at the meeting head of the Novgorod church region. Functions:

▪ carried out church court,

▪ controlled foreign policy,

▪ stored treasury,

▪ was in charge state lands,

▪ controlled weights and measures.

9 Posadnik – head of Novgorod, elected at the assembly from among the boyars. Functions:

▪ judgment,

▪ monitoring the activities of the prince,

▪ implementation international negotiations,

▪ maintaining all lands,

▪ assignment and displacement officials,

▪ command of the army(together with the prince).

10 Tysyatsky- chosen at the meeting mayor's assistant. Functions:

▪ management urban population,

▪ commercial court,

▪ command of the people's militia,

▪ tax collection.

11 Prince- invited to the evening supreme judge(together with the mayor) and army commander. Functions:

▪ collecting taxes to support your own squad,

▪ had no right to interfere in the internal affairs of Novgorod and own lands.

12 Novgorod veche – people's meeting of city representatives(400-500 people), which resolved issues

▪ war and peace,

▪ calling and expulsion of the prince.

13 Konchansky evenings – public meetings of residents of the ends(districts) of Novgorod: Nerevsky, Lyudin and Zagorodsky (on the Sofia side), Slovensky and Plotnitsky (on the Trade side).

14 Ulichanskie evenings – public meetings of residents of the streets of Novgorod.

Since 1136, the prince was forbidden to interfere in the internal affairs of Novgorod and to own lands.

Thus, Novgorod was boyar aristocratic republic.

The period of feudal fragmentation cannot be clearly defined evaluate, because, on the one hand, at this time there is urban growth and cultural flourishing, and, on the other hand, reduction in the country's defense capability what did you use enemies from the east ( Mongol-Tatars) and from the west ("crusaders").

The Golden Horde stretched from the shores of the Pacific Ocean to the Adriatic and included China, Central Asia, Transcaucasia, and then most of the Russian principalities.

IN 1223 between those who came from the depths of Asia Mongols on the one hand, the Polovtsians and the Russian troops they invited, on the other hand, a battle took place on R. Kalke. The battle ended with the complete defeat of the Russian-Polovtsian army.

But the battle on Kalka did not lead to the unification of the princes in the face of the impending danger. IN 1237-1238 g. Mongols led by the grandson of Genghis Khan Batu began a campaign against Russian lands. North-Eastern Rus' was burned and looted. IN 1239-1240. - a new campaign took place Southern and Southwestern Rus', which ended with the complete subjugation of Russian lands to the Mongols. Rus' has become province (ulus) the huge Mongol empire - the Golden Horde.

The power of the Mongol-Tatar khans was established over Russia - Horde yoke, finally formed by the middle of the 13th century.

See diagram: Russian lands XIV-XV centuries.

15 Grand Duke – senior from the Rurik family, label holder(Khan's permission) for a great reign, tribute collector for the Golden Horde.

16 Appanage princes – rulers of appanage principalities.

17 Good boyars- boyars of the Grand Duke, in charge of various industries public administration.

18 Coffers- department of the Grand Duke. Functions:

▪ maintaining archive,

▪ storage print,

▪ management finances,

▪ control over foreign policy.

19 Volosteli – representatives of the prince in the countryside who exercised power:

▪ administrative,

▪ judicial,

▪ military.

Traveled through Russian lands Baskaki- the khan’s spies, and the Russian princes, the “servants” of the khans, were supposed to:

Receive in the Golden Horde label– the right to reign;

To pay tribute or exit(15 thousand rubles per year in silver and gold; a Russian gave 1 skin of a bear, beaver, sable, ferret, black fox, this is the cost of 3 rams or 1/10 of the harvest. Those who did not pay tribute became a slave) and emergency khan requests;

An exception was made for the Russian church, for which Orthodox priests and monks publicly prayed for the health of the khans and blessed them.

contemporaries about the Horde: Northwestern Rus' opposed the Horde. Strong, rich cities that were not devastated by the Mongols - Novgorod, Pskov, Polotsk - actively resisted the penetration of the Tatar Baskaks, the population census and the collection of tribute.

Southwestern Rus' opposed the Horde. To fight against the khan, Daniil Galitsky entered into an alliance with the head of the Western Christian Church - the Pope, who promised help in exchange for the spread of Catholicism in Rus'. But there was no real help from the West.

The Rostov and Vladimir princes, supported by the church, advocated peace with the Horde. Realizing that Rus' did not have the strength and means to fight, Alexander Nevsky (1252-1263), who became the Grand Duke of Vladimir, suppressed popular uprisings against the collection of tribute in the Novgorod land, Rostov, Suzdal, Yaroslavl and repeatedly traveled to the Horde.

Reasons for the defeat Russians were:

1. dispersion of forces due to the feudal fragmentation of Rus',

2. numerical superiority of the enemy and his training,

3. use of Chinese siege technology(battering machines, stone throwers, gunpowder, etc.)

Consequences of the Mongol invasion were:

1. population decline,

2. destruction of cities(out of 74 cities, 49 were destroyed, including 14 - completely, 15 - turned into villages), decline of craft,

3. moving the center of political life from Kyiv, which lost its significance due to the defeat, to Vladimir,

4. weakening of the power of the feudal nobility and prince due to the death of many warriors and boyars,

5. cessation of international trade relations.

The historian L.N. does not agree with this opinion. Gumilyov, who believed that Batu’s campaign was not a systematic conquest, but only a large raid, since the Mongols did not leave garrisons, did not impose constant taxes on the population, and did not conclude unequal treaties with the princes. Gumilev considered the crusaders to be a more serious danger for Rus'.

They decided to attack Rus', weakened as a result of the Mongol-Tatar invasion. Western European feudal lords, continuing "Onslaught on the East"- conquest of the eastern lands under the banner of the “crusades”. Their goal was spread of Catholicism.

IN 1240– took place Battle of Neva where is the Novgorod prince Alexander defeated the Swedish feudal lords who went on a reconnaissance campaign to Rus'. For his victory in the battle, Alexander received the nickname Nevsky.

The threat from the West, however, was not eliminated. IN 1242 Northwestern Rus' was attacked by the Germans, who captured Pskov and Izoborsk. Alexander Nevsky on ice Lake Peipsi defeated the crusaders. The "push to the east" was stopped.

So, despite the difficult conditions of the Horde yoke, the ruin of the economy, the death of people, Rus', nevertheless, retained its cultural and historical originality.

Feudal fragmentation in England

The process of feudal fragmentation in the X-XII centuries. began to develop in England. This was facilitated by the transfer by royal power to the nobility of the right to collect feudal duties from peasants and their lands. As a result of this, the feudal lord (secular or ecclesiastical) who received such a grant becomes the full owner of the land occupied by the peasants and their personal master. The feudal lords' private property grew, they became economically stronger and sought greater independence from the king.
The situation changed after England was conquered by the Norman Duke William the Conqueror in 1066. As a result, the country, which was heading towards feudal fragmentation, turned into a united state with a strong monarchical power. This is the only example on the European continent at this time.

The point was that the conquerors deprived many representatives of the former nobility of their possessions, carrying out a massive confiscation of land property. The actual owner of the land became the king, who transferred part of it as fiefs to his warriors and part of the local feudal lords who expressed their readiness to serve him. But these possessions were now located in different parts of England. The only exceptions were a few counties, which were located on the outskirts of the country and were intended for the defense of border areas. The scattered nature of feudal estates (130 large vassals had land in 2-5 counties, 29 in 6-10 counties, 12 in 10-21 counties), their private return to the king served as an obstacle to the transformation of barons into independent landowners, as it was, for example in France

Development of medieval Germany

The development of medieval Germany was characterized by a certain originality. Until the 13th century. it was one of the most powerful states in Europe. And then the process of internal political fragmentation begins to rapidly develop here, the country breaks up into a number of independent associations, while other Western European countries embarked on the path of state unity. The fact is that the German emperors, in order to maintain their power over their dependent countries, needed the military assistance of the princes and were forced to make concessions to them. Thus, if in other European countries the royal power deprived the feudal nobility of its political privileges, then in Germany the process of legislatively securing the highest state rights for the princes developed. As a result, imperial power gradually lost its position and became dependent on large secular and church feudal lords. .
Moreover, in Germany, despite the rapid development already in the 10th century. cities (the result of the separation of crafts from agriculture), an alliance between royal power and cities did not develop, as was the case in England, France and other countries. Therefore, German cities were unable to play an active role in the political centralization of the country. And finally, in Germany, like England or France, a single economic center that could become the core of a political unification was not formed. Each principality lived separately. As the princely power strengthened, the political and economic fragmentation of Germany intensified.

Growth of Byzantine cities

In Byzantium by the beginning of the 12th century. The formation of the main institutions of feudal society was completed, a feudal estate was formed, and the bulk of the peasants were already in land or personal dependence. The imperial power, granting broad privileges to secular and ecclesiastical feudal lords, contributed to their transformation into all-powerful patrimonial lords, who had an apparatus of judicial-administrative power and armed squads. This was the payment of the emperors to the feudal lords for their support and service.
The development of crafts and trade led to the beginning of the 12th century. to the fairly rapid growth of Byzantine cities. But unlike Western Europe, they did not belong to individual feudal lords, but were under the authority of the state, which did not seek an alliance with the townspeople. Byzantine cities did not achieve self-government, like Western European ones. The townspeople, subjected to cruel fiscal exploitation, were thus forced to fight not with the feudal lords, but with the state. Strengthening the positions of feudal lords in the cities, establishing their control over trade and sales of manufactured products, undermined the well-being of merchants and artisans. With the weakening of imperial power, feudal lords became absolute rulers in the cities. .
Increased tax oppression led to frequent uprisings that weakened the state. At the end of the 12th century. the empire began to fall apart. This process accelerated after the capture of Constantinople in 1204 by the Crusaders. The empire fell, and on its ruins the Latin Empire and several other states were formed. And although in 1261 the Byzantine state was restored again (this happened after the fall of the Latin Empire), its former power was no longer there. This continued until the fall of Byzantium under the attacks of the Ottoman Turks in 1453.