Formation of ancient Russian statehood. Political and social foundations of the Russian ethnic group

From 21 to 23 there are different strange things going on there!

The state of the Eastern Slavs developed as a result of socio-economic, political and cultural factors.

The development of arable farming led to the emergence of a surplus product, which created the conditions for the separation of the princely elite from the community (there was a separation of military-administrative labor from productive labor). Thanks to the fact that an individual large family could already provide for its existence, the clan community began to transform into an agricultural (neighborhood) community. This created conditions for property and social stratification.

Intertribal struggle led to the formation of tribal alliances led by the most powerful tribe and its leader. Over time, the power of the prince became hereditary and depended less and less on the will of veche meetings.

The Khazars and Normans sought to take control of the trade routes connecting the West with the East and South, this accelerated the formation of princely warrior groups drawn into foreign trade. They collected handicraft products from their fellow tribesmen and, exchanging them for products of prestigious consumption and silver from foreign merchants, selling them captured foreigners, the local nobility increasingly subjugated the tribal structures, enriched themselves and isolated themselves from ordinary community members.

At the first stage of the formation of the Old Russian state (7th-mid-9th centuries), the formation of intertribal unions and their centers took place. In the 9th century. appears polyudye – a tour of the prince with a squad of subordinate territories to collect tribute.

At the second stage (2nd half of the 9th - middle of the 10th century), the process of the formation of the state accelerated, largely due to the active intervention of external forces - the Khazars and Normans (Varangians). A kind of federation of tribal principalities emerged, headed by the Grand Duke of Kiev.

The third stage of the formation of the state begins with Princess Olga's reforms. She established it in the middle of the 10th century. a fixed rate of tribute, and to collect it he arranges “cemeteries”.

The third stage (911-1054) is the flourishing of the early feudal monarchy, due to the rise of productive forces, the successful fight against the Pechenegs, Byzantium, the Varangians and the development of feudal relations.

The fourth stage (1054-1093) - the reign of Vladimir Monomakh, his son Mstislav the Great - marked the beginning of the collapse of the state. At the same time, there is an increase in productive forces. The boyars were then a progressive element of the ruling class

The fifth stage (1093-1132) is characterized by a new strengthening of the feudal monarchy, because The princes, in connection with the onslaught of the Polovtsians, sought to unite Kievan Rus, which they ultimately succeeded in, however, after the victory over the Polovtsians, the need for a single state disappeared.

Thus, the state of the Eastern Slavs was formed as a result of a complex interaction of internal and external factors. One of the features of the Old Russian state was that from the very beginning it was multinational in composition. The formation of the state had important historical significance for the Eastern Slavs. It created favorable conditions for the development of agriculture, crafts, foreign trade, and influenced the formation of the social structure. Thanks to the formation of the state, ancient Russian culture is formed, and a unified ideological system of society is formed. .

1. Formation of ancient Russian statehood (Kievan Rus).

The geopolitical space of Ancient Rus' was at the junction of the Eastern and Western worlds. Therefore, the formation of the Russian ethnos took place under the powerful influence of multidirectional civilizational factors.

The ancestors of the Russian ethnic group are the Eastern Slavs - the Ants (Polyans). In the 7th century Eastern Slavs united into tribal unions, the names of which indicate their connection to a specific area: Polyans (south, Kiev region), Northerners (Novgorod Seversky, Seversky Donets), Krivich and Polotsk (Western Dvina river, Polot a), Dregovichi (from “dregva” swamp, Belarus), Radimichi (Sozh river, Desna river), Vyatichi (Oka river, Moscow region), etc. Each of these unions had its own reigns. Tribal leaders at this stage of social development were called princes.

In the VIII–IX centuries. In the East European Plain there is intensive economic development. Arable farming is replacing slash-and-burn farming, crafts are becoming more prominent, and close trade ties are being established with Byzantium, the East and Western Europe. In trade with the East, contacts with the Khazars are of great importance, as they open the Slavs a safe route to Asia.

The development of trade suggests a relatively early existence of cities among the Eastern Slavs. The chronicles do not give the time of their appearance. The most ancient cities are Novgorod, Polotsk, Rostov, Smolensk, Kiev. All these cities are located on river and trade routes. In the Scandinavian sagas of the 9th century. Ancient Rus' was called the country of cities.

At the beginning of the 9th century. There is a gradual process of formation of statehood. Historians note the existence in the 30s. 9th century two centers of statehood. The first is formed in the Dnieper region on the lands of the glades and their neighbors. The center of this state was Kyiv.

The second state is emerging in the North - the Northern Principality with its center in Ladoga, then Novgorod. The first chronicle information is associated with the appearance here in 862 of the Varangian ruler Rurik. "The Tale of Bygone Years" reports that the citizens of the Northern Principality, in order to protect themselves from foreign attacks and overcome internal strife, called on the Varangians.

In accordance with "The Tale of Bygone Years"- a representative of the Rus tribe with his family and squad was invited to rule in the already existing Slavic state. The method of calling a prince and his retinue was widespread in Europe in the early Middle Ages. The calling of a foreign prince in itself did not change the Slavic nature of the existing society.

The Old Russian nationality was formed on the basis of a wide interaction of several subethnic components. It is formed as an ethnic community based on the combination of three economic and technological regions - agricultural, pastoral and fishing, and therefore three ways of life - sedentary, nomadic, wandering, in a mixture of several ethnic streams: Slavic, Baltic, with a noticeable influence of Turkic. Spiritual culture plays a significant role in the formation of a particular ethnic group. The most important components of this culture are language and religion. The language of Ancient Rus' was of Slavic origin, although it was also influenced by the languages ​​of other peoples. Slavic origins also dominate in Old Russian religion. Religious beliefs and cult rituals of Ancient Russia are usually called paganism. Paganism is an early form of religious exploration of the world. Pagan religions are polytheism - polytheism.

The next stage in the development of the Russian ethnos and state in domestic historiography is usually called Kievan Rus, the formation of which began from the end of the 9th – beginning of the 10th centuries.

Kievan Rus, as a political unification, begins to take shape during the expansion of the Varangians from Novgorod to the south immediately after Rurik and his retinue came to reign. IN 882 g. Rurik's warriors Askold and Dir They freed the Polans from paying tribute to the Khazars and remained to rule Kiev. Prince Oleg (882–912) by cunning he lured Askold and Dir out of the city, killed them, and then united the Novgorod and Kiev principalities, making Kyiv the capital of the new state. The unification of Southern and Northern Rus' at the end of the 9th century. – the starting point of the formation of Kievan Rus as a new stage of the ancient Russian state. The activities of the Kyiv princes will be aimed at expanding the territory of the Kyiv principality. Oleg conquered the Drevlyans and imposed tribute on the northerners and Radimichi. Prince Igor (912–945) the Drevlyans will have to be re-annexed and the Uglich people will have to be pacified. Igor's wife Olga (945–964) by force of arms, as well as diplomacy, significantly strengthened the ancient Russian statehood. Their son Svyatoslav (964–972) annexed the Vyatichi and conquered Danube Bulgaria.

The formation of Kievan Rus as a political and cultural center under Vladimir I Svyatoslavovich (980–1015) the unification of the Eastern Slavs and the adoption of Christianity.

The most important milestone on the path to the formation of the Russian ethnic group is the adoption of Christianity in the form of Orthodoxy as the state religion of Kievan Rus. A specific act of acceptance of Orthodoxy was the famous baptism on the Dnieper of the population of the city of Kiev by Prince Vladimir in 988 g. The spread of Christianity in Rus' began long before the baptism on the Dnieper and continued for another century and a half.

The decisive factor in turning to the religious and ideological experience of Byzantium were the traditional political, economic, and cultural ties of Kievan Rus with Byzantium. In the Byzantine state system, spiritual power occupied a subordinate position to the emperor. This corresponded to the political aspirations of Prince Vladimir. Dynastic considerations played an important role. The adoption of Orthodoxy opened the way for Vladimir's marriage with the sister of the Byzantine emperor, Princess Anna - and thus further strengthened friendly relations with Byzantium. Friendship with Byzantium not only opened the way to the expansion of trade, economic and cultural ties, but also to some extent protected Rus' from the raids of numerous nomadic tribes inhabiting the Great Steppe north of the Black Sea, which Byzantium constantly used in the fight against its northern neighbor .

And one more point played a role in choosing Orthodoxy. In Catholicism, worship took place in Latin, the texts of the Bible and other liturgical books were in the same language. Orthodoxy did not bind itself to linguistic canons. Moreover, during this period, Orthodoxy was established in Slavic Bulgaria. Thus, the liturgical books and the entire ritual were linguistically related to the population of Kievan Rus. Through Bulgarian liturgical books and Bulgarian clergy, Orthodoxy began to establish itself in the spiritual life of Russian society.

Historians have always faced questions: what was the reason for the Christianization of Rus' and why did Prince Vladimir choose Orthodoxy? The answer to these questions should be sought both in the personality of Prince Vladimir and in the analysis of the socio-political and spiritual processes that took place at that time in Kievan Rus.

Prince Vladimir was a major statesman of his time. He realized that pagan polytheism did not correspond to the political and spiritual needs of the state. In 980, Vladimir undertook the first religious reform, the essence of which was an attempt to merge the heterogeneous gods of all the tribes of Kievan Rus into a single pantheon led by the princely god Perun. However, the attempt to spread the cult of Perun everywhere failed. The pagan god was opposed by other pagan gods, who were worshiped by the Slavic and non-Slavic tribes of Kievan Rus. Paganism did not ensure the ethnocultural unity of all tribes and lands of Kievan Rus. Historical practice has shown that this unity is best ensured by the so-called world religions: Christianity and Islam.

The monasteries that appeared on its territory in the middle of the 11th century played an important role in the Christianization of Rus'. They trained clergy personnel, comprehended religious doctrine, formed the spiritual and moral foundations of new rituals, Christian life, etc. Monasteries played a significant role in the spread of literacy and were guardians and transmitters of cultural heritage. From the monasteries, missionary activity was carried out in all cities and rural areas of the ancient Russian state. By the middle of the 13th century. There were about 80 monasteries in Rus'.

The adoption of Christianity was of great importance for the entire Russian society. Christianity created a broad basis for the unification of all the peoples of this society; it gradually began to displace pagan rituals and traditions, and on this basis the humanization of society took place. A significant cultural revolution was the introduction of a unified written language. The adoption of Christianity contributed to the formation of urban culture in a predominantly agricultural country. Temple construction, bookmaking, literature, history and philosophy developed under the influence of Christians.

On the basis of Christianization, a new type of statehood is emerging in Kievan Rus, which largely takes on a Byzantine form. A close relationship is established between secular and ecclesiastical authorities, with the primacy of the first over the second. In the first half of the 11th century. the establishment of ecclesiastical jurisdiction begins. Matters concerning marriage, divorce, family, and some inheritance matters are transferred to the jurisdiction of the church. By the end of the 12th century. The church began to supervise the service of weights and measures. The church plays a significant role in international affairs related to deepening relations with Christian states and churches.

In general, thanks to the adoption of Christianity, Kievan Rus was included in the European Christian world and became an equal element of the European civilizational process. However, the adoption of Christianity in the Orthodox version had its negative consequences. Orthodoxy contributed to the isolation of Rus' from Western European civilization. With the fall of Byzantium, the Russian state and the Russian Orthodox Church found themselves, in fact, isolated from the rest of the Christian world.

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION FEDERAL AGENCY FOR EDUCATION

State Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education Ural State Economic University

DISTANCE EDUCATION CENTER

TEST

on “National History” on the topic:

Formation of Old Russian statehood

Teacher: Borzikhina I. V.

Student: Anna Fedorovna Gerasimova, economist, EPBp-10Tour

Plan

Introduction 2

1. Prerequisites for the emergence of the state among the Eastern Slavs. 4

2. Concepts of the formation of the ancient Russian state. 7

5. Russia's adoption of Christianity: causes and consequences. 15

Conclusion 16

References 17

Introduction.

Studying the country's past is of great political importance. Historical and historical-legal sciences, by studying and generalizing the experience of the past, help to understand and use the patterns of social development and avoid repeating mistakes.

The history of the state and law of our multinational country is the history of statehood and law of many peoples at different stages of development. Historical destinies developed in such a way that they all united around the Russian people, who had the high mission of creating a great state. The creation of a huge state, spread over one sixth of the globe, is in itself a great merit of the Russian people. It ensured the mutual enrichment of cultures, created better conditions for their peaceful life, and ensured stability of existence.

Of course, the annexation of non-Russian peoples to Russia took place in those forms that were characteristic of feudalism throughout the world, although our country also had its own significant features. The multinational character of the Russian Empire and the historical type of state, as well as the different levels of development of its peoples, at the same time determined a certain inequality and even oppression, which gave rise to corresponding national liberation movements.

The moment of the emergence of the Old Russian state cannot be determined with sufficient accuracy. Obviously, there was a gradual development of those political formations that we talked about earlier into the feudal state of the Eastern Slavs - the Old Russian state. In the literature, this event is dated differently by different historians. However, most authors agree that the emergence of the Old Russian state should be attributed to the 9th century.

The question of how this state was formed is not entirely clear. And here we are faced with the so-called Norman theory.

The chronicle "The Tale of Bygone Years" makes it clear that in the 9th century. our ancestors lived in conditions of statelessness, although this is not directly stated in the Tale. We are only talking about the fact that the southern Slavic tribes paid tribute to the Khazars, and the northern ones to the Varangians, that the northern tribes once drove out the Varangians, but then changed their minds and called the Varangian princes to themselves. This decision was caused by the fact that the Slavs fought among themselves and decided to turn to foreign princes to establish order. It was then that the famous phrase was uttered: “Our land is great and abundant, but there is no decoration in it. May you come and reign over us.” The Varangian princes came to Rus' and in 862 sat on the thrones: Rurik - in Novgorod, Truvor - in Izborsk (not far from Pskov), Sineus - in Beloozero.

To achieve this goal, the following specific tasks are solved in the work:

1. Prerequisites for the emergence of the state among the Eastern Slavs.

4. Formation of early feudal relations.

5. Russia's adoption of Christianity: causes and consequences.

1. Prerequisites for the emergence of the state among the Eastern Slavs.

The Old Russian state emerged as a result of the complex interaction of a whole complex of both internal and external factors.

The following preconditions for the emergence of a state among the Eastern Slavs are identified.

Spiritual prerequisites.

His prestige grew from external enemies and he took upon himself the problem of resolving internal disputes, and at the same time alienation from free community members occurred. Thus, as a result of the prince’s alienation from the circle of affairs and concerns familiar to the community members, which often resulted in the creation of a fortified intertribal center - the residence of the prince and the squad of military successes, as well as as a result of his performing complex managerial functions, he was endowed with supernatural powers and abilities. They began to see the prince as the guarantee of the well-being of the entire tribe, and his personality was identified with the tribal totem. All of the above led to sacralization, that is, the deification of princely power, and also created spiritual prerequisites for the transition from communal relations to state relations. Foreign policy prerequisites.

the “pressure” that its neighbors, namely the Normans and Khazars, exerted on the Slavic world. On the one hand, their desire to take control of the trade routes that connected the West with the South and East accelerated the formation of princely squad groups that were drawn into foreign trade. Receiving agricultural and craft products from their fellow tribesmen, primarily furs, and also exchanging them for products of prestigious consumption and silver from foreign merchants, selling them captured foreigners, the local nobility increasingly subjugated tribal structures, became enriched and isolated from ordinary community members. Over time, she, having united with the Varangian warrior-traders, will begin to exercise control over trade routes and trade itself, which will lead to the consolidation of previously disparate tribal principalities located along these routes. On the other hand, interaction with more developed civilizations led to the borrowing of some socio-political forms of their life. The Byzantine Empire has long been considered the true standard of state and political structure. It is no coincidence that for a long time the great princes in Rus' were called, following the example of the powerful state formation of the Khazar Khaganate, - Khakans (khagans). It should also be noted that the existence of the Khazar Kaganate in the Lower Volga protected the Eastern Slavs from the raids of nomads, who in previous eras (Huns in the 4th - 5th centuries, Avars in the 7th century) slowed down their development, interfered with peaceful work and, ultimately , the emergence of the “embryo” of statehood.

Development of agriculture. First of all, it should be noted the changes that took place in the economy of the Eastern Slavs in the 7th - 9th centuries. For example, the development of agriculture, especially arable farming in the steppe and forest-steppe region of the Middle Dnieper, led to the emergence of excess product, and this created conditions for the separation of the princely-retinue group from the community (there was a separation of military-administrative labor from productive labor). In the north of Eastern Europe, where, due to harsh climatic conditions, agriculture could not become widespread, fisheries continued to play a large role, and the emergence of surplus products was the result of the development of exchange and foreign trade. In the area where arable farming spread, the evolution of the clan community began, which, thanks to the fact that now an individual large family could ensure its existence, began to transform into an agricultural or neighboring (territorial) one. As before, such a community consisted mainly of relatives, but unlike the clan community, the arable land, which was divided into plots, and the products of labor were here in the use of individual small families who owned tools, livestock and labor. This created some conditions for property differentiation. Social stratification did not occur in the community itself, since the productivity of agricultural labor remained too low. Archaeological excavations of East Slavic settlements of that period discovered almost identical semi-dugout family dwellings with the same set of objects and tools. In addition, in the vast forest territory of the East Slavic world, clearing was preserved, and because of its labor intensity, it required the efforts of the entire clan collective. Thus, unevenness emerged in the development of individual tribal unions.

Socio-political preconditions.

Intertribal clashes, as well as the complication of intra-tribal relations, accelerated the formation of princely power and increased the role of princes and squads, both defending the tribe from external enemies and acting as arbiters in various kinds of disputes. In addition, the struggle between tribes led to the formation of inter-tribal alliances led by the most powerful tribe and its prince. These unions took the form of tribal kingdoms. In the end, the power of the prince, who sought to turn it into hereditary power, depended less and less on the will of the veche meetings, became stronger, and his interests became increasingly alienated from the interests of his fellow tribesmen. In Soviet historical science, for a long time, priority in the formation of the state was given to internal socio-economic processes. Some modern historians believe that external factors played a decisive role. However, it is worth noting that only the interaction of both internal and external with the insufficient socio-economic maturity of the East Slavic society could lead to the historical breakthrough that occurred in the Slavic world in the 9-10 centuries.

2. Concepts of the formation of the ancient Russian state.

M. N. Pokrovsky, who defined history as “politics thrown back into the past.”

In historical science, passions have been running high on the issue of state formation among the Eastern Slavs since the 18th century. In 30-60 years. In the 18th century, German scientists Beyeri Miller, who worked at the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences, in their scientific works for the first time tried to prove that the Old Russian state was created by the Varangians (Normans). They laid the foundation for the Norman theory of the origin of the Russian state. An extreme manifestation of the concept is the assertion that the Slavs, due to their incomplete value, could not create a state, and then, without foreign leadership, they were not able to govern it.

At that time, M.V. Lomonosov, who was commissioned by Empress Elizabeth I to write the history of Russia, resolutely opposed this theory. Since then, the struggle between Normanists and anti-Normanists has not subsided.

The Normanists are unanimous on two fundamental issues. Firstly, they believe that the Normans achieved dominance over the Eastern Slavs through external military conquest or through peaceful conquest (an invitation to reign); secondly, they believe that the word “Rus” is of Norman origin.

Anti-Normanists believe that the term “Rus” is of pre-Varang origin and dates back to very ancient times. There are places in The Tale of Bygone Years that contradict the legend about the calling of three brothers to reign. For the year 852 there is an indication that during the reign of Michael in Byzantium there was already Russian land. The Larentiev and Ipatiev Chronicles say that all northern tribes, including Rus', invited the Varangians to reign. Soviet researchers M. N. Tikhomirov,

foreign origin of the dynasty. According to the research of A. A. Shakhmatov, the Varangian squads began to be called Russia after they moved to the south. And in Scandinavia, it is impossible to find out about any tribe of Rus' from any sources.

rapprochement is not at all evidence of the affirmation of truth. Both concepts turned out to be dead ends. In addition, there are other opinions. V. A. Mokshin proves the Greek origin of the name “Rus”. A. N. Nasonov, M. V. Levchenko, A. L. Mongait write about the existence of Rus' as the Tmutarakan principality in the 9th century. Archpriest Lev Lebedev writes: "... in the 4th-7th centuries the formation of the first Russian statehood, known to us, took place - the cultural and political unification of tribal unions of the Polans and northerners under the common leadership of the Rus tribe with the princely dynasty of the Krivichi." This conclusion is interesting because the root “kriv” corresponds to today’s name “Russian” among the Krivichi’s neighbors - the Latvians.

The scientific results of two centuries of discussions are that none of the schools can clearly explain what “Rus” is; if it is an ethnic group, then where it was localized, for what reasons it strengthened at a certain stage, and where it subsequently disappeared.

3. Political and social structure of the ancient Russian state.

Socio-political system. The question of the time of the emergence of feudal land tenure in Ancient Rus' remains controversial. Some

V. There were only individual princely villages, the economy of which was more of a cattle-breeding (perhaps even horse-breeding) nature, and already in the second half of the 11th - first half of the 12th century. a feudal estate is formed. In the 9th - first half of the 11th century. the princes collected tribute from free members of the community. The collection of tribute was carried out during polyudye, when the prince and his retinue came to a certain center, where they received tribute from the local population. The size of the tribute was initially not fixed, which led to a clash between Igor and the Drevlyans. According to the chronicle, Olga then established the exact amount of the tribute (“lessons”) and the places where it was collected (“pogosts” or “pogosts”). The prince divided the collected tribute among the warriors. The predominance of free community members among the direct producers of material goods, the significant role of slave labor and the absence of feudal land tenure served as the basis for the hypothesis that the Old Russian state was not feudal. I. Ya. Froyanov, who defends this point of view, believes that in ancient Russian society of the 9th-11th centuries. There were several socio-economic structures, none of which was dominant. He views the tribute collected from the local population not as a special type of feudal rent, but as a military indemnity imposed on the tribes conquered by the Kyiv princes.

However, most researchers consider the Old Russian state to be early feudal. Early feudal society is not identical to feudal society. The main characteristic features of the feudal formation have not yet developed to a mature state, and many phenomena inherent in previous formations exist. We are talking not so much about the predominance of one way or another at a given moment, but rather about the development trend, about which of the ways is developing and which are gradually fading away.

In the ancient Russian state, the future belonged precisely to the feudal structure. Of course, the tribute contained elements of both military indemnity and

national tax. But at the same time, tribute was collected from

the peasant population, who gave the prince and his warriors part of their product. This brings tribute closer to feudal rent. The absence of feudal estates could be compensated by the distribution of tribute among the warriors, the total ruling class. The concept of “state feudalism” put forward by L.V. Cherepnin, according to which the peasantry of Kievan Rus was subjected to exploitation by the feudal state, is based on the recognition of the state in the person of the prince as the supreme owner of all land in the country.

The political system of the Old Russian state combined the institutions

the new feudal formation and the old, primitive communal one. At the head

the state was a hereditary prince. They obeyed the Kyiv prince

sent “from Olga, the Grand Duke of Russia, and from everyone who is under his hand, the bright and great princes.” According to Igor’s agreement, ambassadors were sent from Igor and “from every prince,” and ambassadors were named from individual princes and princesses.

The prince was a legislator, military leader, supreme judge,

recipient of the tribute. The functions of the prince are precisely defined in the legend of the calling

Varangians: “to own and judge by right.” The prince was surrounded by a squad. Vigilantes

lived at the prince's court, feasted with the prince, took part in campaigns,

shared tribute and spoils of war. The relationship between the prince and the warriors was far from the relationship of citizenship. The prince consulted with his squad on all matters. Igor, having received from Byzantium to take tribute and abandon the campaign, “convened a squad and began to think.” Igor’s squad advised him to go on an unfortunate campaign against the Drevlyans. Vladimir “thought” with his squad “about the earthly system, and about the armies, and about the earthly regulations,” that is, about state and military affairs. Svyatoslav, when his mother Olga urged him to accept Christianity, refused, citing the fact that the squad would laugh at him. The warriors could not only advise the prince, but also argue with him and demand more generosity from him. The chronicler says that Vladimir’s warriors grumbled at the prince that they had to eat with wooden, not silver, spoons. In response, Vladimir “commanded to forge” the silver spoons, for “the imam cannot inflict silver and gold.”

(i.e., I won’t be able to find) the squad, but with the squad I’ll get gold and silver.” At the same time, the squad also needed the prince, but not only as a real military leader, but also as a kind of symbol of statehood.

spear... into the trees,” but his childhood strength was only enough for it to fly between the horse’s ears and hit his legs. However, the sign for the start of the battle was given, the main warriors Sveneld and Asmud exclaimed: “The prince has already begun; you will encroach, squad, on the prince.” The most respected, senior warriors who made up the permanent council, the “Duma” of the prince began to be called boyars. Some of them could have their own squad. To designate the junior squad, the terms “youths”, “chad”, “gridi” were used. If the boyars acted as governors, then the younger warriors performed the duties of administrative agents: swordsmen (bailiffs), virniks (collectors of fines), etc. The princely squad, separated from the community, dividing tribute among themselves, represented the emerging class of feudal lords. The emergence of the squad as a permanent military force was a step towards eliminating the general arming of the people characteristic of the period of the tribal system. However, the immaturity of feudal relations was manifested, in particular, in the fact that people's militias continued to play an important role. Along with the warriors, “voi” are constantly mentioned on the pages of the chronicle. Moreover, they sometimes took a more active part in hostilities than the warriors whom the prince protected. So, during the time of Mstislav and Yaroslav Vladimirovich, Mstislav placed northern warriors in the center of his troops, and a squad on the flanks. After the battle, he rejoiced that all the northerners died, and “his squad was intact.”

Princely power was also limited by the elements of preserved popular self-government. The People's Assembly - the veche - was active in the 9th-11th centuries. and later. The people's elders - the "city elders" - participated in the princely duma, and without their consent it was apparently difficult to make one decision or another. The chronicles reflected the decline in the role of the veche in political life: its mention is usually associated with extraordinary situations when the weakened princely administration either needed additional support or lost

However, there were exceptions: the popular people retained a strong position

meeting in Novgorod and a number of other cities. Brief summary. An analysis of socio-political structures allows us to speak of three centers of gravity that influenced social development: first of all, the princely power, the growing squad (boyars), and the people's veche. In the future, it is the relationship between these power elements that will determine one or another type of statehood that will prevail in

territories that were once part of the Rurik Empire.

4. Formation of early feudal relations.

According to historians, in the period of the 9th - early 12th centuries, Kievan Rus, in its socio-economic essence, was an early feudal state and was a set of territorial communities with elements of tribal relations. And from a political point of view, the Kiev state represented a federation of principalities and territories directly subordinate to the Grand Duke.

At this time, the formation of princely land ownership took place, primarily at the expense of lands that once belonged to the entire tribe. Now this territory comes under the authority of the princes, from which they received income, and part of which they transferred to their princely husbands (combatants) - the boyars - for management. With the development and expansion of the borders of the Old Russian state, more and more boyars-combatants became land owners, i.e., the class of feudal lords grew. This class included: the Grand Duke himself, the highest nobility of the state - boyars, warriors, local princes, zemstvo boyars (city elders) - descendants of the tribal nobility, and later the clergy. Large land estates arise (princely, boyar, church hereditary estates). The process of enslaving previously free peasants is underway. From among the ruined free community members (smerds), who are unable to pay tribute to the feudal lord, new categories of dependent population are formed: ryadovichi, who are obliged to perform a “row” for the benefit of the feudal lord, that is, some kind of work; purchases are debtors to the feudal lord; serfs are people in a position close to slavery. However, the bulk of the rural population continues to be free communal peasants.

the prince to collect tribute in the lands of the allied princes - "polyudye" once a year. Later, "Polyudye" was replaced by the creation of administrative and financial centers for collecting tribute - "cemeteries" - and a fixation of the amount of tribute was introduced - "lessons". Also, tribute was regularly collected from the population, the so-called rent for living on the land of a prince or feudal lord.

The number of Russian cities continues to grow. It is known that in the 10th century 24 cities were mentioned in chronicles, and in the 11th century - 88 cities. In the 12th century alone, 119 of them were built in Rus'.

The growth in the number of cities was facilitated by the development of crafts and trade. At this time, handicraft production included dozens of types of crafts, including weapons, jewelry, blacksmithing, foundry, pottery, leatherwork and weaving. The center of the city was a market where handicraft products were sold. Internal trade, due to subsistence farming, was much less developed than external trade. Kievan Rus traded with Byzantium, Western Europe, Central Asia, and Khazaria.

The end of the 10th and beginning of the 11th centuries saw the heyday of the early feudal monarchy of Kievan Rus, due to the development of the economy, the further development of feudal relations, and the successful solution to the problem of defense of the southern and southeastern borders of the state. During this period, Kievan Rus united almost all East Slavic tribes.

ensured the spiritual unity of Kievan Rus, ideologically strengthened the authority of the state, and raised the importance of princely power. The Christianization of Slavic society had a huge impact on its political and legal relations, contributed to its enlightenment and cultural development. Serious changes also occurred in the church organization. A tenth of the tribute collected by the prince was given to the needs of the church - church tithe. During this period, the first monasteries appeared in Rus', which became centers of education and culture. It was here that the first Russian chronicles were created. Literacy was relatively widespread among the people in Kievan Rus, as evidenced by birch bark letters and inscriptions on household items (on spindle whorls, barrels, vessels, etc.). There is information about the existence of schools in Rus' at this time.

In the second half of the 11th - early 12th centuries, the process of transition to a new political system began in Kievan Rus. The Old Russian state turned into a kind of federation of principalities, headed by the Kyiv prince, whose power became increasingly weaker and acquired a fictitious character. By the middle of the 12th century, the parallel process of strengthening individual principalities and the weakening of Kyiv led to the collapse of this formally unified state and the formation of a number of independent principalities and lands on the territory of Kievan Rus. The largest of them were the Vladimir-Suzdal, Chernigov, Smolensk, Galicia-Volyn, Polotsk-Minsk and Ryazan principalities. A special political system was established in the Novgorod land (Novgorod Feudal Republic)

5. Russia's adoption of Christianity: causes and consequences.

The pre-Christian religion among the Eastern Slavs was called paganism; they worshiped many gods and forces of nature. Avsen is the god of the change of seasons. Perun is the god of lightning and thunder, etc. Christianity was adopted in 998.

Goals of accepting Christianity:

1. Since the pagan religion slowed down the development of emerging feudal relations and did not contribute to the unification of Rus', Prince Vladimir decided to unite all Slavic tribes with the help of a single religion - Christianity.

3. Strengthen diplomatic and trade relations with Christian countries.

masters learn from them. Agriculture is changing. Vegetable gardening appears. The clergy who arrived from Byzantium prepare personnel for the church and, as a result, knowledge and literacy spread. Schools are being organized. Young people are sent to study abroad. A chronicle is introduced. Rus' begins to mint gold coins. Ancient Rus' is gradually becoming a state of a new, high culture. Trade relations with Christian countries are strengthened.

Conclusion.

The Old Russian state was a major milestone in the history of the peoples of our country and its neighbors in Europe and Asia. Ancient Rus' became the largest European state of its time. Its area was more than 1 million square meters. km, and the population is 4.5 million people. Naturally, it had a strong influence on the destinies of world history.

Ancient Rus' was a multi-ethnic state from the very beginning. The peoples that became part of it then continued their development as part of other Slavic states that became its successors. Some of them assimilated and voluntarily lost their ethnic independence, while others have survived to this day.

Objective historical processes of the development of feudalism entailed the withering away of the Old Russian state. The development of feudal relations, which gave birth to Ancient Rus', ultimately led to its collapse, the inevitable process of establishing feudal fragmentation in the 12th century.

The introduction of Christianity was of great importance for Kievan Rus. Monotheism contributed to the strengthening of the grand ducal power. The Baptism of Rus' contributed to the strengthening of the international position of the state. Rus' entered the family of European Christian nations and received wide access to the knowledge accumulated by humanity.

it is based on the history of the Old Russian state.

1. Danilevsky I. N. Ancient Rus' through the eyes of contemporaries and descendants (9-12 centuries). M., 2001. P. 340.

3. Kutyina G., Mulukaev R., Novitskaya T. History of the domestic state and law. Part 2. – M., 2003. – P. 544.

4. History of Russia from ancient times to the end of the 20th century. Moscow, 1996.

6. Kuleshov, S. V. Russia in the system of world civilizations / S. V. Kuleshov, A. N. Medushevsky. M., 2001.

8. Chistyakov O.I. Reader on the history of the national state and law. 1917-1991. – M., 2005. – P. 592.

9. Klyuchevsky V. O. Selected lectures of the “Course of Russian History”. - M., 2002. - P. 672.

Klyuchevsky V. O. Selected lectures from the “Course of Russian History”. - M.,

Tsechoev V.K., Vlasov V.I., Stepanov O.V. History of Russian

state and law. - M., 2003. - P. 26.

Lovmyansky H. Rus' and the Normans. M., 1985. p. 123

Froyanov I. Ya. Kievan Rus. Essays on socio-political history - L., 2006. P. 65

Gordienko N. S. “The Baptism of Rus'”: facts against legends and myths. L., 1986. P. 27.

No. 1. Describe the prerequisites and stages of education

Old Russian state.

The Old Russian state arises in a heterogeneous society and is a way of regulating relations between various social strata, classes, etc.

Statehood among the Slavs began to take shape in the 6th century, when there was a transition from the clan and tribal community to the neighboring community, and property inequality was formed. Prerequisites for the formation of the Old Russian state:

1. Social division of labor. The sources from which people drew their livelihood became more diverse; Thus, military spoils began to play a major role in the life of the clan. Over time, professional artisans and warriors appeared.

2. Economic development. Not only the changed individual and group identity and the established inter-tribal relations, but also economic activity encouraged people to search for more suitable forms of common existence. The bearers of the new, pre-state and state power (princes, warriors) were distinguished from society not on property, but on professional grounds. At the same time, the often coinciding professions of a warrior and a ruler (standing above the traditional, patriarchal power of clan elders) were almost unanimously recognized as socially useful.

3. Society's interest in the emergence of a state. The state arose because the overwhelming majority of members of society were interested in its emergence. It was convenient and beneficial for the community farmer to have the prince and warriors with weapons in their hands protect him and save him from burdensome and dangerous military affairs. From the very beginning, the state solved not only military, but also judicial problems, especially related to inter-tribal disputes.

In its development, the ancient Russian state went through a number of stages.

At the first stage of the formation of the ancient Russian state (VIII - mid-IX centuries) the maturation of prerequisites takes place, the formation of inter-tribal alliances and their centers - principalities, which are mentioned by eastern authors. By the 9th century dates back to the emergence of the polyudya system, that is, the collection of tribute from community members in favor of the prince, which in that era, most likely, was still voluntary in nature and was perceived as compensation for military and administrative services.

At the second stage (2nd half of the 9th century - mid-10th century) the process of the formation of the state accelerates largely due to the active intervention of external forces - the Khazars and the Normans (Varangians). The Tale of Bygone Years speaks of the raids of the warlike inhabitants of Northern Europe, which forced the Ilmen Slovenes, Krivichi and Finno-Ugric tribes Chud and Vesi to pay tribute. In the South, the Khazars collected tribute from the glades, northerners, Radimichi and Vyatichi.

During the reign of Oleg (879-912) power over the territory from Ladoga to the lower reaches of the Dnieper was concentrated in his hands. A kind of federation of tribal principalities emerged, headed by the Grand Duke of Kyiv. His power was manifested in the right to collect tribute from all members of this association of tribes. Oleg, relying on the power of the Slavic-Norman squads and “voi” (armed free community members), made a successful campaign against Byzantium in 907. As a result, an agreement beneficial for Rus' was signed, providing it with the right to duty-free trade. New concessions were made in the agreement of 911.

Igor (gg.) strived preserve the unity of the intertribal federation, and also defended its borders from the formidable nomads that appeared - the Pechenegs. In the 40s, he made two campaigns against Byzantium, which violated its agreements with Russia. As a result, having failed, he concluded a less favorable agreement in 944, and in 945, during the polyud in the Drevlyan land, he was killed for demanding tribute beyond the usual.

The third and final stage of the formation of the state begins with the reforms of Princess Olga. Having taken revenge on the Drevlyans for the death of her husband, she established a fixed rate of tribute, and to collect it she set up “graveyards”, which became the support of princely power in the localities. The policy of her son Svyatoslav (964-972), famous for his victory over Khazaria and campaigns on the Danube, which ended in failure, required the mobilization of significant forces for external conquests. This somewhat delayed the internal structure of the Russian land.

The complete elimination of tribal kingdoms is taking place during the reign of Vladimir the Saint (). So, in 981, continuing the policy of expanding the territory of the intertribal federation, he annexed the southwestern (Galicia, Volyn) and western (Polotsk, Turov) lands.

He is trying to strengthen the pagan faith, and therefore his power. For this purpose, a pantheon of five main gods was created, led by Perun, who was especially revered among the princely warriors. But this measure changed little, and then Vladimir launched a kind of “spiritual revolution” from above - he introduced Christianity in 988. This essentially monotheistic religion made it possible to displace local pagan cults and laid the spiritual foundation for the emerging unified Russian nation and ancient Russian state.

The next decisive step, completing the creation of the state, Vladimir replaced the tribal princes with his sons, called upon to defend the new faith and strengthen the power of the Kyiv prince locally. Thus, he turned the Russian land into the possession of the Rurik family. The consolidation of power gave him the opportunity to organize the population of the entire country to create powerful defensive lines on the southern borders and resettle here some of the Slovenes, Krivichi, Chud and Vyatichi. The Grand Duke himself begins to be perceived by the people's consciousness not as a warrior-defender, but as the head of state, organizing the protection of its borders.

By the end of the 10th century, the main features of the Old Russian state had developed: dynastic (tribal) princely power; the simplest state apparatus; tributary system; the territorial principle of settlement, displacing the tribal one; a monotheistic religion that enhances the process of sacralization of princely power.

No. 2. Reveal the features of the formation and development of statehood. Kievan Rus IX – XII centuries

Today there is no extreme confrontation between supporters and opponents of the Norman version of the origin of the Old Russian state. We are talking about the degree of Varangian (Norman) influence on the process of formation of statehood. The overwhelming majority of historians believe that this influence cannot be considered decisive, if only because the Varangians in their political, cultural and economic development were not at a higher stage of development compared to the Slavs. At the same time, one cannot help but admit that the Varangians brought to Slavic soil the special relationship between prince and squad, the birth of the Rurik dynasty, which ruled the Russian state until the end of the 16th century.

No less controversial remains the question of the nature of the ancient Russian state - Kievan Rus. After the reign of Rurik in Novgorod, the expansion of the Varangians to the south began. First, his warriors Askold and Dir freed the glades from paying tribute to the Khazars and remained to rule Kiev, and in 882 Rurik’s relative Oleg killed the warriors and united the Russian land from Novgorod to Kiev, making the latter his capital. This date is the starting point in the history of the Russian state. Subsequently, Oleg managed to unite all the Slavic tribes under his hand, imposing tribute on them. Over time, the local reign was liquidated and a representative of the Kyiv dynasty was appointed as prince-viceroy. Basically, this process ended at the end of the 10th century. The structure of the state took shape under Prince Vladimir, who installed his sons as rulers in the nine largest centers of Rus'.

System "Prince - squad - veche". The prince, as a rule, is Rurikovich, therefore the entire Russian land gradually began to be considered as the property of the Rurikovich dynasty. The first Kyiv princes sought to strengthen the Russian Land. Under Prince Svyatoslav Igorevich - the grandson of the legendary Rurik - Rus' freed itself from dependence on the Khazar Kaganate and began to be recognized as a military power. Vladimir Svyatoslavovich undertook a number of reforms, baptized Rus', Yaroslav Vladimirovich (the Wise) - granted the first set of ancient Russian laws ("Russian Truth") and made Rus' respected far beyond its borders.

As the economy developed, the political strengthening of individual territories - appanages and the strengthening of the position of local princes, their relations with the senior Kyiv prince became more complicated. The settlement of controversial issues between them took place in Europe at feudal congresses.

An indispensable attribute of ancient Russian statehood was the princely squad. It performed not only the function of the princely guard, its general staff, but also the function of the princely administration.

Historians recognize the important role of the veche in political life and public administration. The veche made a decision on the election or expulsion of the prince, the prince consulted with him on issues of domestic and foreign policy, the development of trade relations, etc.

An important area of ​​Russian foreign policy was relations with the Byzantine Empire, the most powerful state in the Eastern Mediterranean and Black Sea region. These relations were characterized by instability: prosperous trade relations were replaced by military conflicts. The victorious campaigns of the Russian princes increased the authority of the state and strengthened its power.

As it took shape towards the end of the 10th century. In the structure of a single state, a branched administrative apparatus is formed. Representatives of the druzhina nobility acted as officials of the state administration. Under the princes there was a council (duma), consisting of the top of the squad. From among the warriors, the prince appointed posadniks - governors in cities; voivode - leaders of various military units; thousand - senior officials; collectors of land taxes - tributaries; judicial officials - swordsmen, virniks, emtsev, doormen; collectors of trade duties - mytniks, minor officials - birichi, blizzard workers. The stewards of the princely patrimonial economy, the tiuns, also stand out from the squad (since the 12th century, they have been included in the system of public administration). Adoption of Christianity in Rus'. The final stage of the formation of Kievan Rus, its heyday, is associated with the reign of Vladimir the Saint and Yaroslav the Wise.

No. 3. Reveal the features of the adoption of Christianity and its influence on the socio-political and cultural life of Rus'.

Adoption of Christianity in Rus'. The final stage of the formation of Kievan Rus, its heyday, is associated with the reign of Vladimir the Saint and Yaroslav the Wise. Under Svyatoslav's son Vladimir, all the lands of the Eastern Slavs united as part of Kievan Rus. The wisdom of the Grand Duke was that he sought to strengthen the state with the help of a faith common to all. The religion of the Slavs was pagan. They worshiped gods, various natural phenomena and deeply revered the cult of their ancestors. Nature was considered animate. Under Vladimir, one of the greatest events in centuries-old history took place - Rus' adopted Christianity. The choice did not take place immediately. At first, Vladimir tried to use the paganism widespread in Rus' as a unifying force, creating a pantheon of six main pagan gods led by Perun. However, it soon became clear that the problem could not be solved this way. The states neighboring Kievan Rus professed religions based on monotheism, that is, belief in one God. Christianity dominated in Byzantium, Judaism in Khazaria, and Islam in Volga Bulgaria. Having studied the essence of each religion, Vladimir made a choice in favor of Orthodoxy, well known in Rus'. Thus, Byzantine sources report that baptisms of Russians took place already in the 60s and 70s. IX century (Princess Olga and part of the Russian nobility).

The very date of the baptism of Kiev residents remains controversial. Historians name different years. But still, traditionally the adoption of Christianity by Russia dates back to 988 (this is the date of the baptism of Vladimir himself). The process of introducing Christianity into Rus' was difficult (in Novgorod, for example, through bloody clashes) and lengthy (until the 16th century).

A Russian metropolitanate was established, which was subordinate to the Patriarchate of Constantinople. In the most important cities - Novgorod, Polotsk, Chernigov, Pereyaslavl, Belgorod, Rostov at the end of the 10th-11th centuries. bishoprics are created. At first, the Orthodox clergy was Greek; liturgical and other books came mainly from Bulgaria, which became a Christian country a century earlier. Having declared a new state religion in Rus', Vladimir spared no expense on the construction of churches. Having erected and decorated the first stone church in honor of the Mother of God in Kiev, the prince granted him for eternity a tenth of all his wealth and income collected into the treasury from Russian cities and lands - church tithes. Subsequently, the princes, asserting their greatness, competed in the beauty and monumentality of the cathedrals they built. Along with temples, monasteries were built in which religious communities of monks or nuns settled.

The adoption of Christianity opened up broad prospects for the development of contacts with Europe. The transfer of the heavenly and church hierarchy to earthly orders strengthened the power of the prince and feudal lords. The origin of princely power was firmly linked to God's will. “There is no power not from God,” the clergy taught. The Church demanded from the prince high responsibility for the rule, and from the people - unconditional obedience to him. Along with Orthodoxy, writing, schools, courts, and new laws came to Rus'. A new institution appeared in Russian society - the church, which cared for the poor, sick, and wretched, and also had a positive impact on the strength of family relationships among the Slavs and influenced their morality. A single religion strengthened the unification of the East Slavic and Finno-Ugric tribes into a powerful power. New creative directions poured into Russian culture: stone construction, icon painting, fresco painting. Through the mediation of Byzantium, Rus' came into contact with the traditions of the ancient world.

Despite the active, even forceful, introduction of Orthodoxy in Rus', opponents never managed to exterminate it. The new religion became the mainstay of state power in Rus'. In the most difficult times, a single faith saved the Russian state: it forced its fragmented lands to reach out to each other, uniting the people into a single powerful force to repel numerous enemies.

No. 4. Describe the political fragmentation of Rus': causes and consequences.

In 1097, princes from different lands of Kievan Rus came to the city of Lyubech and proclaimed a new principle of relations among themselves: “Let everyone maintain his fatherland.” Its adoption meant that the princes abandoned the laddered system of inheritance of princely thrones (it went to the eldest in the entire grand-ducal family) and moved to inheriting the throne from father to eldest son within individual lands. By the middle of the 12th century. the political fragmentation of the Old Russian state with its center in Kyiv was already a fait accompli.

Reasons for the fragmentation of Rus'. Throughout the 11th century. Russian lands developed along an ascending line: the population grew, the economy grew stronger, large princely and boyar land ownership strengthened, and the cities became richer. They became less and less dependent on Kyiv and were burdened by its tutelage. To maintain order within his “fatherland,” the prince had enough strength and power. Local boyars and cities supported their princes in their quest for independence: they were closer, more closely connected with them, and were better able to protect their interests. External reasons were added to internal reasons. The Polovtsian raids weakened the southern Russian lands, the population left the restless lands to the northeastern (Vladimir, Suzdal) and southwestern (Galich, Volyn) outskirts. The Kyiv princes weakened in a military and economic sense, their authority and influence in solving all-Russian affairs fell.

Negative consequences of the political fragmentation of Rus' concentrated in the military-strategic area: defense capability in the face of external threats weakened, inter-princely feuds intensified.

But fragmentation also had positive aspects. . The separation of lands contributed to their economic and cultural development. The collapse of a single state did not mean a complete loss of the principles that united the Russian lands. The seniority of the Grand Duke of Kyiv was formally recognized; Church and linguistic unity was preserved; The legislation of the appanages was based on the norms of Russian Pravda. In the popular consciousness until the XIII-XIV centuries. there were ideas about the unity of the lands that were part of Kievan Rus.

No. 5. Reveal the features of the Novgorod land,

Vladimir-Suzdal and Galicia-Volyn principality:

comparative analysis of structure and development.

At the end of the 12th century. 15 independent lands, essentially independent states, emerged. The largest were: in the southwest - the Galician-Volyn principality; in the northeast - the Vladimir-Suzdal Principality; in the north-west - the Novgorod Republic.

Galicia-Volyn Principality (formed in 1199 as a result of the subjugation of Galich to the Volyn princes) inherited the political system of Kievan Rus. The princes (the largest was Daniil Romanovich, mid-13th century) when resolving important issues had to take into account the opinion of the boyar-druzhina nobility and city assemblies (veche). This feature reflected the uniqueness of the socio-economic development of the Galicia-Volyn land: boyar estates and cities were traditionally strong here. From the middle of the 13th century. The principality weakened: internal unrest and constant wars with Hungary, Poland and Lithuania led to the fact that it was included in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Poland.

Vladimir-Suzdal Principality separated from Kyiv under Prince Yuri Dolgoruky (1125-1157). Its mass settlement took place in the 11th-12th centuries. Settlers from the southern regions of Rus' were attracted by the relative safety from raids (the region was covered with impenetrable forests), the fertile lands of the Russian opole, and navigable rivers along which dozens of cities grew (Pereslavl-Zalessky, Yuryev-Polsky, Dmitrov, Zvenigorod, Kostroma, Moscow, Nizhny Novgorod ). There were no ancient boyar estates and strong traditions of city government here. The Vladimir-Suzdal princes were much freer in their decisions and relied not so much on the boyars and cities, but on the princely servants personally devoted to them (militaries, i.e. people dependent on the mercy of the prince).

Decisive in the process of the rise of princely power was the reign of Yuri Dolgoruky's son Andrei Bogolyubsky (1157-1174). Under him, the capital of the principality was moved to Vladimir, and a new title for the ruler was established - “Tsar and Grand Duke”. Andrei Bogolyubsky pursued an active foreign policy, fought for influence in Kyiv and Novgorod, organizing all-Russian campaigns against them. In 1174 he was killed by conspiratorial boyars. Under his brother Vsevolod the Big Nest (1176-1212), the principality reached its peak, cut short by civil strife that began after his death and the invasion of the Mongolo-Tatars in 1237-1238.

The Vladimir-Suzdal principality became the cradle of the formation of the Great Russian nationality and, in the near future, the center for the unification of Russian lands into a single Russian state.

A different type of government system has emerged in Novgorod . One of the oldest Russian cities was at the same time one of the richest and most influential. The basis of its prosperity was not agriculture (Novgorod depended on the supply of grain from the neighboring Vladimir-Suzdal principality), but trade and craft. The local merchants were full participants in trade operations in the north-west of Europe, trading with the German Hansa (the representative of this powerful trade union of German cities was in Novgorod), Sweden, Denmark, and the countries of the East in cloth, salt, amber, weapons, jewelry, furs, wax. Power and influence were concentrated in the hands of the Novgorod veche. Historians argue about its composition. Some believe that the entire city population and even residents of nearby villages took part in it. Others claim that the full participants in the veche were the so-called “five hundred golden belts” - people from large boyar families. Be that as it may, the decisive role was played by influential boyar and merchant families, as well as the clergy. At the veche, officials were elected - posadnik (ruler of Novgorod), thousand (leaders of the militia), voivode (maintaining law and order), bishop (later archbishop, head of the Novgorod church), archimandrite (elder among the abbots of Novgorod monasteries). The veche decided on the issue of inviting the prince, who, under the supervision of the council of gentlemen and the mayor, performed the functions of a military leader. This order developed after 1136, when the Novgorodians expelled Prince Vsevolod from the city.

Novgorod, thus, was an aristocratic (boyar) republic, the keeper of the veche traditions of Ancient Rus'.

No. 6. Describe the Tatar-Mongol invasion

and its influence on the development of Rus'.

Mongolian tribes in the XII-XIII centuries. occupied the territory of modern Mongolia and Buryatia. After the name of one of the tribes that roamed near Lake Buirnur in Mongolia, these peoples were also called Tatars. Subsequently, all the nomadic peoples with whom Rus' fought began to be called Mongols - Tatars. The main occupation of the Mongols was nomadic cattle breeding, and in the north and in the taiga regions - hunting. In the 12th century. The Mongols experienced a collapse of primitive communal relations. At the beginning of the 13th century. Their unification took place under the rule of one of the khans - Temurchin. In 1206, at the kurultai under the name of Genghis Khan, he was proclaimed great khan. The Mongols had a well-organized army. The main striking force of the Mongols was mobile cavalry.

Being at the stage of state formation, the Mongols were distinguished by their strength and solidity, and showed interest in expanding pastures. Hence the predatory campaigns against neighboring agricultural peoples, who, although at a higher level of development, were experiencing a period of fragmentation.

1211 - the beginning of the conquest of the Mongols. Their direction was Northern China, the shores of the Caspian Sea, Armenia, the Caucasus and the Black Sea steppe, where they encountered the Cumans. The latter asked for help from the Kyiv, Chernigov and Galician princes. In 1223 on the river. Kalka a battle took place. The combined forces of the Russian princes and Polovtsians were defeated.

Only in 1235, at the kurultai, the issue of invading Russian lands was decided. The grandson of Genghis Khan, Batu, was appointed commander-in-chief. In 1237, the Mongols, led by Khan Batu, invaded the Ryazan principality. Following Ryazan, Kolomna, Moscow, and Vladimir were defeated. The Mongols passed through all of North-Eastern Rus', did not reach Novgorod and, fearing the spring thaw, returned to the steppes.

In 1240, Batu undertook a new campaign in Southern Rus', as a result of which Kyiv and the Galician-Volyn principality were defeated. It is generally accepted that since 1240 the Mongol-Tatar yoke was established in Rus'.

Having won a number of victories in Europe (Poland, Hungary, Czech Republic), the Mongols lost their offensive power and returned back, founding in the Lower Volga region in the years. his state - the Golden Horde. Rus' became a vassal and tributary of the Golden Horde.

Batu's invasion shocked all of Rus', but did not destroy it. After several decades, the map of the country presented a motley mosaic of lands and principalities. Their eastern part was able to preserve its identity, being part of the Golden Horde. The Western one was divided between recent neighbors - Poland and Lithuania.

To control the Russian lands, the institution of Baskaq governors was created - leaders of military detachments of the Mongol-Tatars, who monitored the activities of the Russian princes and controlled the payment of tribute. The Baska system existed until the beginning of the 14th century. After a wave of uprisings in Russian cities (Rostov, Yaroslavl, Vladimir, Tver) in the second half of the 13th century - the beginning. XIV centuries the collection of tribute was transferred to the hands of the Russian princes.

The invasion had an extremely destructive impact on the state of the Russian lands: they were thrown back centuries. According to archaeologists in the XII - XIII centuries. There were 74 cities in Rus'. 49 of them were destroyed by Batu. Arable lands were abandoned, many crafts disappeared. The population of Rus' has decreased. People died, many were captured and turned into slaves. In addition, the process of fragmentation of Russian principalities continued. At the turn of the XIII-XIV centuries. On the lands of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality, 14 appanage principalities were formed, which in turn were divided into even smaller possessions. Rivalry for the grand prince's table fueled enmity between the princes, who often resorted to the help of the Horde to resolve disputes. The Mongol conquest significantly weakened ties between different parts of the state. Traditional political and trade ties with other countries were disrupted.

In general, the question of the role of foreign invasion and yoke in the destinies of Rus' has long been debatable. Two extreme positions oppose each other.

Firstly, some researchers (S. Solovyov, V. Klyuchevsky, S. Platonov) argued that the Mongol-Tatar yoke delayed the development of Russian lands, but did not significantly affect the life and way of life of Russians and their statehood.

Secondly, the Mongol-Tatars, on the contrary, had a great influence on the public and social organization of Russians, on the formation and development of the Moscow state. This idea was first expressed by N. Karamzin, and then by N. Kostomarov, N. Zagoskin and others. In the twentieth century. these ideas were developed by the Eurasians. Moreover, he believed that “autocracy and serfdom were the price that the Russian people paid for national survival.”

The points of view expressed have the right to life. Both destructive trends slowing down the development of Russian lands and the Mongol-Tatar influence on the process of formation of the Russian people and the Moscow state are obvious. The fact of domination over the Russian land and the atmosphere of violence for more than two centuries led to the fact that, in an effort to regain independence and create their own state, the Russians adopted a lot from the social organization of the enemy.

No. 7. Characterize the premises and alternatives

reunification of Russian lands.

The reasons and process of the rise of Moscow

( XIV - first half XV cc).

Rus', fragmented into independent principalities, could not achieve independence from the Horde. She needed to strengthen statehood. Therefore, neither the Mongol yoke nor internal contradictions could stop the growth of unifying tendencies. As a result, parallel processes of unification of Russian lands around Moscow begin and, as a result, centralization of power. The rise of Moscow, one of the many appanage principalities of the Vladimir-Suzdal land, was facilitated by:

favorable geographical location(the city was located at the crossroads of important trade routes and was isolated from external enemies by other principalities);

purposeful policy of the Moscow princes(far from impeccable from a moral point of view, but indicating the ability to take advantage of circumstances). Being clever and flexible politicians, they realized that it was much more profitable to act on the Horde with money than with weapons, and they diligently courted the khan, making him an instrument of their politics;

support of the Russian Orthodox Church, the political ideal of which corresponded to the gathering of lands around Moscow.

The rise of Moscow led to the subsequent unification of Russian lands around it, aware of their cultural and religious community, but most importantly, bound by common foreign policy interests and, first of all, the desire to gain independence.

If in the West the process of centralization was based on the commonality of economic interests of individual territories, then in Rus' the socio-economic prerequisites for the formation of a centralized state were not decisive. The joint struggle of all principalities with the Golden Horde came to the fore here.

The beginning of the unification of Russian lands around Moscow was preceded by a fierce struggle for leadership between the Moscow and Tver appanage principalities, from which Moscow emerged victorious. Moscow Prince Ivan Kalita (1325 - 1340) together with the Tatar army suppressed the anti-Horde uprising in Tver in 1327 and received a label for the great reign from the Khan of the Golden Horde. Subsequently, the Moscow princes managed to retain the grand-ducal throne for themselves. Collecting tribute from all Russian lands becomes their prerogative. The assessment of the activities of Ivan Kalita in historical literature is ambiguous and ranges from recognition of its objective necessity in the interests of centralization of the state, to accusing the Moscow prince of betraying the people's interests and strengthening personal power at any cost. Be that as it may, the defeat of its rival ensured Moscow political supremacy and allowed it to move on to organizing a nationwide struggle against the Horde yoke.

In the mid-70s. 14th century Moscow prince, Kalita's grandson, Dmitry Donskoy (1359 - 1389) began an open fight against the Golden Horde and in 1380 won a brilliant victory over the Mongol-Tatar army on the Kulikovo Field. This victory strengthened the authority and importance of Moscow as a center of unification and turned Moscow into the de facto capital of North-Eastern Rus'. for the first time he transferred the great reign to his son, without coordinating this issue with the khan of the Golden Horde.

By the middle of the 15th century. After the end of the feudal war between the grandson of Dmitry Donskoy Vasily II (Dark) and his uncle Yuri Dmitrievich and cousins ​​Vasily Kosy and Dmitry Shemyaka, conditions were created for the completion of the unification of Russian lands and the creation of a single state.

No. 8. Reveal the features of completing the unification of lands around Moscow. Ivan's domestic policy III and Vasily III .

The unification process was completed at the end of the 15th – beginning of the 16th centuries. and is associated primarily with the name of Ivan III (1462 - 1505).

During the years of the great reign of IvanIIIThe Grand Duchy of Yaroslavl (1463), the Perm Territory (1472), the Rostov Principality (1474), Novgorod and its lands (1478), the Tver Principality (1485), and the Vyatka Land (1489) were annexed to Moscow.

Tsar Ivan III also demonstrated his independence in relation to the Tatars. In 1476, he refused to pay them an annual tribute and entered into an alliance with the Crimean Khan, an enemy of the Golden Horde. “Standing on the Ugra” (1480) put an end to the Mongol-Tatar yoke.

In 1472, Ivan III married the last emperor’s niece Zoya (Sophia) Poleolog, who raised the importance of monarchical power in Russia. At the Moscow court, a strict ceremony was established according to the Byzantine model. From the end of the 15th century. The seals of Ivan III depicted not only the Moscow coat of arms with St. George the Victorious, but also the coat of arms of the state with a double-headed eagle, by analogy with the coat of arms of Byzantium.

Changes in the socio-political status of the Grand Duke of Moscow were reflected in his title; now he was called “John, by the grace of God, sovereign of all Rus'...”. The new title expressed not only the idea of ​​the Moscow prince as the national ruler of the entire Russian land, but also the idea of ​​​​the divine origin of his power.

The power of the Grand Duke increasingly acquired the features of autocracy. The Boyar Duma, an advisory body under the Grand Duke, was losing its former significance.

The central state apparatus had not yet taken shape, but its two highest bodies - the Palace and the Treasury - already existed. The first was in charge of the grand-ducal lands and litigation over land ownership. The treasury was the main financial repository, state archive and foreign policy department.

Administratively, the country was divided into counties, camps and volosts, headed by governors and volostels.. They received territories “for feeding”, that is, they took part of the taxes collected in this territory. Feeding was a reward not for administrative activities, but for previous service in the army.

In 1497 The Code of Laws was adopted - the first code of laws of a unified state. It allowed dependent peasants to leave their masters for others for 15 days a year (the week before and the week after St. George's Day).

With Ivan's sonIII- Vasily included Pskov (1510), Smolensk (1514) and Ryazan land (1521) into the Russian state. During these years, the unification of Russian lands was completed. From the end of the 15th century. The term “Russia” began to be used, which meant one of the largest states in Europe.

The state united around Moscow represented a qualitatively new stage in the development of statehood. In area it was almost six times larger than the former Principality of Moscow.

The creation of a unified state had a serious impact on the development of the country's economy and social system. The nature of land ownership of princes is changing. It is becoming increasingly closer to boyar land ownership. The main forms of land ownership were fiefdoms and estates. The estates were owned by princes, boyars and the church. Service people - nobles, being the support of the Grand Duke, received estates from him, which were assigned to the nobles only for the duration of their service. Serious changes have occurred in the army. Its main strength now consisted not of squads, but of militias of nobles, noble cavalry, and foot regiments.

From the end of the 15th century. Estates began to take shape in Rus' - the feudal aristocracy (boyars), nobility, clergy, townspeople and peasantry.

Thus, at the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th centuries. An autocratic monarchy was established in Russia, in which the Grand Duke held political power. However, a ramified state apparatus had not yet developed, which in fact limited the capabilities of the central government.

No. 9. Reveal the features of the reign of Ivan the Terrible.

Reforms from the time of the “Chosen Rada”.

In 1533, Vasily III died, leaving three-year-old Ivan IV as his heir, who went down in history under the name Ivan the Terrible. In 1547, Ivan IV was the first of the Moscow princes to be officially crowned king. The title of Tsar put Ivan IV on equal footing with Western European emperors. He received the royal crown from the hands of the head of the church, Metropolitan Macarius, and heard parting words from him. All this emphasized the special position of the church in the state, which acted as a guarantor of autocratic power.

The core of Ivan IV's policy was the strengthening of autocratic power, although the path to despotic power was not easy. The reign of Ivan the Terrible can be divided into two stages. First stage, 1533 – 1560 was associated with the tsar’s attempt to implement the ideas of European absolutism in Russia, to present his power as an exponent of public interests.

By the end of the 40s. 16th century A circle of statesmen, called the “Chosen Rada,” formed around the tsar. It included Metropolitan Macarius, the head of the Russian Church, a nobleman, the head of the Petition Order (which examined complaints to the Tsar), Sylvester, a priest of the Annunciation Cathedral in the Kremlin, and others. The elected Rada was not an official government institution, but for more than 10 years it was actually the government and governed the state on behalf of the Tsar. According to a number of historians, the reign of the Chosen Rada was the most democratic period of the reign of Ivan Vasilyevich for those times.

The main stages of the formation of the Old Russian state

In the process of formation of the Old Russian state, three main stages can be distinguished:

Stage I (VIII-mid-IX centuries). Happening maturation of the prerequisites for statehood in the East Slavic tribes. In this process, internal factors played a decisive role:

Ethnic community,

A certain similarity of economic interests,

Proximity of the territory,

The need for protection from external enemies (neighboring tribes and states),

The need to expand territory through military campaigns.

Since the 6th century. the Eastern Slavs are separating and strengthening their power family aristocracy, first of all military leaders relying directly on real armed force - squad. This type of social structure is called "military democracy".

Against this background there are intertribal alliances and their centers are highlighted. By the 8th century. the Eastern Slavs developed certain pre-state forms. Historical sources indicate the existence of alliances of East Slavic tribes:

· - Valinana (among the Volynians in the upper reaches of the Bug River),

· - Kuyavia (identified with Kiev),

· - Slavia (connected with Novgorod),

· - Artania (location unknown, possibly in the area of ​​modern Ryazan).

Appears polyudya system(collection of tribute from community members in favor of the leader-prince, while voluntary, perceived as compensation for military expenses and administrative activities).

Stage II (II half of the 9th - mid-10th centuries). The process of state formation accelerated largely due to the active intervention of external forces - the Khazars and Normans (Varangians), who forced the Slavic and Finno-Ugric tribes to pay tribute.

But we can speak about the actual beginnings of ancient Russian statehood first of all when prince's power began to be perceived as special state power(second half of the 9th - first half of the 10th centuries). Its character can be judged, first of all, by the organization of the collection of tribute and people, by its active foreign policy, especially in relation to Byzantium.

Vocation Rurik Novgorodians (862) and unification by his successor Oleg (879-912) Northern and Southern Rus' under the rule of Kyiv in the 9th century. allowed to concentrate the power of the Kyiv princes over the territory from Ladoga to the lower reaches of the Dnieper.

A kind of federation of tribal principalities emerged, headed by Prince of Kyiv. His power was manifested in law collecting tribute from all tribes included in this association.

Oleg, relying on the power of the Slavic-Norman squad and the “voi” (armed free community members), commits successful campaigns against Byzantium in 907 and 911. As a result, they signed contracts beneficial for Rus', providing it with the right to duty-free trade on the territory of the empire and a number of other privileges.

Igor(912-945)

and also defended its borders from the formidable nomads that appeared - Pechenegs.

In 944-945 he committed two campaigns against Byzantium, which violated its agreements with Russia, but, having suffered defeat, was forced to conclude a less favorable agreement with the empire.

In the treaty with Byzantium in 945 the term itself appears "Russian land" In the same year, during Polyudye, he was killed by the Drevlyans for demanding tribute beyond the usual.

Stage III (II half of the 10th – early 11th centuries). It begins with the princess's reforms Olga (945-964). Having taken revenge on the Drevlyans for the death of her husband, in order to prevent what happened to Igor in the future, she established a fixed rate of tribute collection (“lessons”), and for its collection I installed special places (“cemeteries”), where the boyar and his small retinue “sat” (i.e., monitored the collection of tribute).

“Polyudye” turned into “an occasion».

Churchyards become support of princely power in the localities.

Politics of Olga's son, Prince Svyatoslav (964-972) was aimed mainly at fight against an external enemy. Defeat of Khazaria and campaigns on the Danube required a lot of effort, money and time. In connection with this, the warrior prince (as Svyatoslav was called both among the people and in the chronicles) practically did not deal with issues of the internal structure of the state.

New steps in the development of the Russian state is associated with the activities of the illegitimate son of Svyatoslav - Vladimir I (980-1015), who came to power as a result of a cruel, bloody struggle with his brothers for the Kiev throne.

1. He expanded the territory of Kyiv state, annexing to it the southwestern (Galicia, Volyn) and western (Polotsk, Turov) Slavic lands.

In addition, feeling the danger to the strength of his power associated with the inferiority of his origin (the son of the slave Malusha - the housekeeper of Princess Olga), Vladimir sought strengthen princely power basically -

· introduction monotheistic religion (monotheism) .

· introduction institute of governors

First it does this by creating pantheon of 5 gods headed by Perun, who was especially revered by the warriors. But this reform did not take root, and he made radical changes - he introduced monotheism, accepting himself and forcing all of Rus' to accept Christianity.

The introduction of Christianity not only created the basis for the spiritual unity of the Russian people, but also strengthened the supreme power in the state (“one god in heaven, one prince on earth”), and increased the international authority of Kievan Rus, which had ceased to be a barbaric country. In addition, Christian morality called for humility, which justified the feudal exploitation of ordinary community members by the prince, his entourage and the landowner boyars, who were the support of the princely power.

The next decisive step, completing the creation of the state, was the replacement by Vladimir of the tribal princes governors (they were 12 sons of Vladimir and close boyars), appointed by the Kyiv prince. The governors had to

· defend the new faith

· and strengthen the power of the prince locally, being the “eye of the sovereign.”

The consolidation of power gave Vladimir the opportunity to organize the country's population for creating powerful defensive lines on the southern borders state and resettle here part of the population from the more northern territories (Krivichi, Slovenes, Chudi, Vyatichi). This allowed successful fight with raids Pechenegs . As a result, the prince, as epics testify, began to be perceived in the popular consciousness not just as a warrior-defender, but as the head of state, organizing the protection of its borders.

The final step in the formation of Russian statehood was taken by the son of Vladimir I, Yaroslav the Wise (1019-1054), which laid the foundation for Russian written legislation. He created the first part of the first written code of laws - "Russian Truth" (“Yaroslav’s Truth”). It was written back in 1015, when he was governor of Novgorod, and was intended for Novgorodians. Having ascended the Kiev throne in 1019, Yaroslav extended it to the territory of the entire state. Subsequently, over the course of a century and a half, “The Truth of Yaroslav” was supplemented by his sons (“The Yaroslavich Truth”), Vladimir Monomakh (“The Charter of Vladimir Monomakh”) and subsequent rulers of the Russian state and existed as a legislative basis until the adoption of the first Code of Law in 1497.

The appearance of a written code of laws at the beginning of the 9th century. became necessary because disintegration of the tribal community many ordinary people lost their status and suffered insults, not being able to turn to clan groups. The only protection for community members and ordinary townspeople was the prince and his squad. This further increased the power of the prince.

“Russian Truth” as a developing monument gives an idea of ​​the increasing complexity social structure, categories of free and dependent population, i.e. the actual objects and subjects of public administration.

Being predominantly a procedural collection, "Russian Truth" said little about the judicial organization (the prince and judges are mentioned as the organs of the court, and the prince's court is mentioned as the place of the court). The fact is that many disputes were resolved outside of court, by the interested parties themselves.

The significance of “Russian Truth” is that it influenced the development of local legislation and subsequently national legislation.

In addition, it promoted the idea of ​​the responsibility of the authorities in judicial matters, primarily before God, and self-interested court in the interests of the authorities themselves was qualified as wrong.

In general, the first written legislative code of Rus' represents an important evidence of the maturity of the state.

Thus, by the beginning of the 11th century. Kievan Rus had main features of the established statehood:

A single territory covering the place of residence of all Eastern Slavs;