Year of reign of Catherine 2. The Great

On May 2 (April 21, O.S.), 1729, Sophia Augusta Frederica of Anhalt-Zerbst, who became famous as Catherine II the Great, Russian Empress, was born in the Prussian city of Stettin (now Poland). The period of her reign, which brought Russia onto the world stage as a world power, is called the “golden age of Catherine.”

The future empress's father, the Duke of Zerbst, served the Prussian king, but her mother, Johanna Elisabeth, had a very rich pedigree; she was the future Peter III's cousin. Despite the nobility, the family did not live very richly; Sophia grew up as an ordinary girl who received her education at home, enjoyed playing with her peers, was active, lively, brave, and loved to play mischief.

A new milestone in her biography was opened in 1744 - when the Russian Empress Elizaveta Petrovna invited her and her mother to Russia. There Sofia was to marry Grand Duke Peter Fedorovich, heir to the throne, who was her second cousin. Upon arrival in a foreign country, which was to become her second home, she began to actively learn the language, history, and customs. Young Sophia converted to Orthodoxy on July 9 (June 28, O.S.), 1744, and at baptism received the name Ekaterina Alekseevna. The next day she was betrothed to Pyotr Fedorovich, and on September 1 (August 21, O.S.), 1745 they were married.

Seventeen-year-old Peter had little interest in his young wife; each of them lived his own life. Catherine not only had fun with horse riding, hunting, and masquerades, but also read a lot and was actively engaged in self-education. In 1754, her son Pavel (the future Emperor Paul I) was born, whom Elizaveta Petrovna immediately took from her mother. Catherine's husband was extremely dissatisfied when in 1758 she gave birth to a daughter, Anna, being unsure of her paternity.

Catherine had been thinking about how to prevent her husband from sitting on the throne of the emperor since 1756, counting on the support of the guard, Chancellor Bestuzhev and the commander-in-chief of the army Apraksin. Only the timely destruction of Bestuzhev’s correspondence with Ekaterina saved the latter from being exposed by Elizaveta Petrovna. On January 5, 1762 (December 25, 1761, O.S.), the Russian Empress died, and her place was taken by her son, who became Peter III. This event made the gap between the spouses even deeper. The emperor began to live openly with his mistress. In turn, his wife, evicted to the other end of the Winter Palace, became pregnant and secretly gave birth to a son from Count Orlov.

Taking advantage of the fact that her husband-emperor was taking unpopular measures, in particular, he was moving towards rapprochement with Prussia, did not have the best reputation, and had turned the officers against himself, Catherine carried out a coup with the support of the latter: July 9 (June 28, O.S.) 1762 In St. Petersburg, guards units gave her an oath of allegiance. The next day, Peter III, who saw no point in resistance, abdicated the throne, and then died under circumstances that remained unclear. On October 3 (September 22, O.S.), 1762, the coronation of Catherine II took place in Moscow.

The period of her reign was marked by a large number of reforms, in particular in the system of government and the structure of the empire. Under her tutelage, a whole galaxy of famous “Catherine’s eagles” emerged - Suvorov, Potemkin, Ushakov, Orlov, Kutuzov, etc. The increased power of the army and navy made it possible to successfully pursue the imperial foreign policy of annexing new lands, in particular, the Crimea, the Black Sea region, the Kuban region, and part of the Rech Pospolita, etc. A new era began in the cultural and scientific life of the country. The implementation of the principles of the enlightened monarchy contributed to the opening of a large number of libraries, printing houses, and various educational institutions. Catherine II corresponded with Voltaire and encyclopedists, collected artistic canvases, and left behind a rich literary heritage, including on the topics of history, philosophy, economics, and pedagogy.

On the other hand, its internal policy was characterized by an increased privileged position of the noble class, an even greater restriction of the freedom and rights of the peasantry, and a harsh suppression of dissent, especially after the Pugachev uprising (1773-1775).

Catherine was in the Winter Palace when she had a stroke. The next day, November 17 (November 6, O.S.), 1796, the Great Empress passed away. Her last refuge was the Peter and Paul Cathedral in St. Petersburg.

Ekaterina Alekseevna Romanova (Catherine II the Great)
Sophia Augusta Frederica, Princess, Duchess of Anhalt-Zerb.
Years of life: 04/21/1729 - 11/6/1796
Russian Empress (1762 – 1796)

Daughter of Prince Christian August of Anhalt-Zerbst and Princess Johanna Elisabeth.

Catherine II - biography

Born April 21 (May 2), 1729 in Schettin. Her father, Prince Christian Augustus of Anhalt-Zerb, served the Prussian king, but his family was considered impoverished. Sophia Augusta's mother was the sister of King Adolf Frederick of Sweden. Other relatives of the mother of the future Empress Catherine ruled Prussia and England. Sofia Augusta, (family nickname - Fike) was the eldest daughter in the family. She was educated at home.

In 1739, 10-year-old Princess Fike was introduced to her future husband, heir to the Russian throne Karl Peter Ulrich, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp, who was the nephew of Empress Elizabeth Petrovna, Grand Duke Peter Fedorovich Romanov. The heir to the Russian throne made a negative impression on high Prussian society, showing himself to be ill-mannered and narcissistic.

In 1744, Fike arrived in St. Petersburg secretly, under the name of Countess Reinbeck, at the invitation of Empress Elizabeth Petrovna. The bride of the future emperor accepted the Orthodox faith and received the name Ekaterina Alekseevna.

Marriage of Catherine the Great

On August 21, 1745, the wedding of Ekaterina Alekseevna and Pyotr Fedorovich took place. A brilliant political marriage turned out to be unsuccessful in terms of relationships. He was more formal. Her husband Peter was interested in playing the violin, military maneuvers and mistresses. During this time, the spouses not only did not become close, but also became complete strangers to each other.
Ekaterina Alekseevna read works on history, jurisprudence, works of various educators, learned the Russian language well, traditions and customs of her new homeland. Surrounded by enemies, not loved by her husband or his relatives, Ekaterina Alekseevna gave birth to a son (the future Emperor Paul I) in 1754, constantly fearing that she might be expelled from Russia. “I had good teachers - a misfortune with solitude,” she would write later. Sincere interest and love for Russia did not go unnoticed and everyone began to respect the wife of the heir to the throne. At the same time, Catherine amazed everyone with her hard work; she could personally brew her own coffee, light the fireplace, and even do her laundry.

Novels of Catherine the Great

Unhappy in her family life, in the early 1750s Ekaterina Alekseevna began an affair with guards officer Sergei Saltykov.

His royal aunt did not like the behavior of Peter III while still in the status of Grand Duke; he actively expressed his Prussian sentiments against Russia. The courtiers notice that Elizabeth favors his son Pavel Petrovich and Catherine more.

The second half of the 1750s was marked for Catherine by an affair with the Polish envoy Stanislav Poniatowski (who later became King Stanislav Augustus).
In 1758, Catherine gave birth to a daughter, Anna, who died before she was even two years old.
In the early 1760s, a dizzying, famous romance arose with Prince Orlov, which lasted more than 10 years.

In 1761, Catherine's husband Peter III ascended the Russian throne, and relations between the spouses became hostile. Peter threatens to marry his mistress and send Catherine to a monastery. And Ekaterina Alekseevna decides to carry out a coup with the help of the guard, the Orlov brothers, K. Razumovsky and her other supporters on June 28, 1762. She is proclaimed empress and sworn allegiance to her. The spouse's attempts to find a compromise fail. As a result, he signs an act of abdication from the throne.

Reforms of Catherine the Great

On September 22, 1762, the coronation of Catherine II took place. And in the same year, the empress gave birth to a son, Alexei, whose father was Grigory Orlov. For obvious reasons, the boy was given the surname Bobrinsky.

The time of her reign was marked by many significant events: in 1762 she supported the idea of ​​I.I. Betsky to create the first Orphanage in Russia. She reorganized the Senate (1763), secularized the lands (1763-64), abolished the hetmanate in Ukraine (1764) and founded the first women's educational institution in the capital at the Smolny Monastery. She headed the Statutory Commission 1767-1769. During her reign, the Peasants' War of 1773-1775 took place. (rebellion of E.I. Pugachev). Issued the Institution for governing the province in 1775, the Charter to the nobility in 1785 and the Charter to the cities in 1785.
Famous historians (M.M. Shcherbatov, I.N. Boltin), writers and poets (G.R. Derzhavin, N.M. Karamzin, D.I. Fonvizin), painters (D.G. Levitsky, F.S. Rokotov), ​​sculptors (F.I. Shubin, E. Falcone). She founded the Academy of Arts, became the founder of the State Hermitage collection, and initiated the creation of the Academy of Russian Literature, of which she made her friend E.R. Dashkova the president.

Under Catherine II Alekseevna as a result of the Russian-Turkish wars of 1768-1774, 1787-1791. Russia finally gained a foothold in the Black Sea; the Northern Black Sea region, the Kuban region, and Crimea were also annexed. In 1783, she accepted Eastern Georgia under Russian citizenship. Partitions of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth were carried out (1772, 1793, 1795).

She corresponded with Voltaire and other figures of the French Enlightenment. She is the author of many fictional, journalistic, dramatic, and popular science works, and “Notes.”

External politics of Catherine 2 was aimed at strengthening Russia's prestige on the world stage. She achieved her goal, and even Frederick the Great spoke of Russia as a “terrible power” from which, in half a century, “all of Europe will tremble.”

In the last years of her life, the empress lived with concerns about her grandson Alexander, was personally involved in his upbringing and education, and seriously thought about transferring the throne to him, bypassing her son.

Reign of Catherine II

The era of Catherine II is considered the heyday of favoritism. Separated in the early 1770s. with G.G. Orlov, in subsequent years, Empress Catherine replaced a number of favorites (about 15 favorites, among them the talented princes P.A. Rumyantsev, G.A. Potemkin, A.A. Bezborodko). She did not allow them to participate in solving political issues. Catherine lived with her favorites for several years, but parted for a variety of reasons (due to the death of the favorite, his betrayal or unworthy behavior), but no one was disgraced. Everyone was generously awarded ranks, titles, and money.

There is an assumption that Catherine II secretly married Potemkin, with whom she maintained friendly relations until his death.

“Tartuffe in a Skirt and Crown,” nicknamed A.S. Pushkin, Catherine knew how to win people over. She was smart, had political talent, and had a great understanding of people. Outwardly, the ruler was attractive and majestic. She wrote about herself: “Many people say that I work a lot, but it still seems to me that I have done little when I look at what remains to be done.” Such enormous dedication to work was not in vain.

The life of the 67-year-old empress was cut short by a stroke on November 6 (17), 1796 in Tsarskoe Selo. She was buried in the Peter and Paul Cathedral in St. Petersburg.

In 1778, she composed the following epitaph for herself:

Having ascended to the Russian throne, she wished well
And she strongly wanted to give her subjects Happiness, Freedom and Prosperity.
She easily forgave and did not deprive anyone of their freedom.
She was lenient, didn't make life difficult for herself, and had a cheerful disposition.
She had a republican soul and a kind heart. She had friends.
Work was easy for her, friendship and the arts brought her joy.

Catherine's spouses:

• Peter III
• Grigory Aleksandrovich Potemkin (according to some sources)

• Pavel I Petrovich
• Anna Petrovna
• Alexey Grigorievich Bobrinsky
• Elizaveta Grigorievna Tyomkina

At the end of the 19th century, the collected works of Catherine II the Great were published in 12 volumes, which included children's moral tales written by the empress, pedagogical teachings, dramatic plays, articles, autobiographical notes, and translations.

In cinema, her image is reflected in the films: “Evenings on a farm near Dikanka”, 1961; "Royal Hunt", 1990; “Vivat, midshipmen!”, 1991; “Young Catherine”, 1991; "Russian Revolt", 2000; "Golden Age", 2003; “Catherine the Great”, 2005. Famous actresses played the role of Catherine (Marlene Dietrich, Julia Ormond, Via Artmane, etc.).

Many artists captured the appearance of Catherine II. And works of art clearly reflect the character of the empress herself and the era of her reign (A. S. Pushkin “The Captain’s Daughter”; B. Shaw “The Great Catherine”; V. N. Ivanov “Empress Fike”; V. S. Pikul “The Favorite”, “Pen and Sword”; Boris Akunin “Extracurricular Reading”).

In 1873 monument Catherine II The Great was opened on Alexandrinskaya Square in St. Petersburg. On September 8, 2006, a monument to Catherine II was opened in Krasnodar, on October 27, 2007, monuments to Catherine II Alekseevna were opened in Odessa and Tiraspol. In Sevastopol - May 15, 2008

The reign of Ekaterina Alekseevna is often considered the “golden age” of the Russian Empire. Thanks to her reform activities, she is the only Russian ruler who, like Peter I, was awarded the epithet “Great” in the historical memory of her compatriots.

Sophia Frederika Augusta of Anhalt-Zerbst was born on April 21 (May 2), 1729 in the German Pomeranian city of Stettin (now Szczecin in Poland). My father came from the Zerbst-Dornburg line of the Anhalt house and was in the service of the Prussian king, was a regimental commander, commandant, then governor of the city of Stettin, ran for the Duke of Courland, but unsuccessfully, and ended his service as a Prussian field marshal. The mother was from the Holstein-Gottorp family and was a cousin of the future Peter III. Maternal uncle Adolf Friedrich (Adolf Fredrik) was the king of Sweden from 1751 (elected heir in the city). Catherine II's mother's ancestry goes back to Christian I, King of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, first Duke of Schleswig-Holstein and founder of the Oldenburg dynasty.

Childhood, education and upbringing

The Duke of Zerbst's family was not rich; Catherine was educated at home. She studied German and French, dance, music, the basics of history, geography, and theology. She was brought up in strictness. She grew up inquisitive, prone to active games, and persistent.

Ekaterina continues to educate herself. She reads books on history, philosophy, jurisprudence, works by Voltaire, Montesquieu, Tacitus, Bayle, and a large amount of other literature. The main entertainment for her was hunting, horse riding, dancing and masquerades. The absence of marital relations with the Grand Duke contributed to the appearance of lovers for Catherine. Meanwhile, Empress Elizabeth expressed dissatisfaction with the lack of children of the spouses.

Finally, after two unsuccessful pregnancies, on September 20 (October 1), 1754, Catherine gave birth to a son, whom she was immediately taken away from, named Paul (the future Emperor Paul I) and deprived of the opportunity to raise, and only allowed to see occasionally. A number of sources claim that Pavel’s true father was Catherine’s lover S.V. Saltykov. Others say that such rumors are unfounded, and that Peter underwent an operation that eliminated a defect that made conception impossible. The question of paternity also aroused interest among society.

After the birth of Pavel, relations with Peter and Elizaveta Petrovna completely deteriorated. Peter openly took mistresses, however, without preventing Catherine from doing the same, who during this period developed a relationship with Stanislav Poniatowski, the future king of Poland. On December 9 (20), 1758, Catherine gave birth to her daughter Anna, which caused strong dissatisfaction with Peter, who said at the news of a new pregnancy: “God knows where my wife gets pregnant; I don’t know for sure whether this child is mine and whether I should recognize him as mine.” At this time, Elizaveta Petrovna’s condition worsened. All this made the prospect of Catherine’s expulsion from Russia or her imprisonment in a monastery realistic. The situation was aggravated by the fact that Catherine’s secret correspondence with the disgraced Field Marshal Apraksin and the British Ambassador Williams, dedicated to political issues, was revealed. Her previous favorites were removed, but a circle of new ones began to form: Grigory Orlov, Dashkova and others.

The death of Elizabeth Petrovna (December 25, 1761 (January 5, 1762)) and the accession to the throne of Peter Fedorovich under the name of Peter III further alienated the spouses. Peter III began to live openly with his mistress Elizaveta Vorontsova, settling his wife at the other end of the Winter Palace. When Catherine became pregnant from Orlov, this could no longer be explained by an accidental conception from her husband, since communication between the spouses had stopped completely by that time. Catherine hid her pregnancy, and when the time came to give birth, her devoted valet Vasily Grigorievich Shkurin set fire to his house. A lover of such spectacles, Peter and his court left the palace to look at the fire; At this time, Catherine gave birth safely. This is how the first Count Bobrinsky in Rus', the founder of a famous family, was born.

Coup of June 28, 1762

1. The nation that is to be governed must be enlightened.
2. It is necessary to introduce good order in the state, support society and force it to comply with the laws.
3. It is necessary to establish a good and accurate police force in the state.
4. It is necessary to promote the flourishing of the state and make it abundant.
5. It is necessary to make the state formidable in itself and inspiring respect among its neighbors.

The policy of Catherine II was characterized by progressive development, without sharp fluctuations. Upon her accession to the throne, she carried out a number of reforms (judicial, administrative, etc.). The territory of the Russian state increased significantly due to the annexation of fertile southern lands - Crimea, the Black Sea region, as well as the eastern part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, etc. The population increased from 23.2 million (in 1763) to 37.4 million (in 1796), Russia became the most populous European country (it accounted for 20% of the European population). As Klyuchevsky wrote, “The army with 162 thousand people was strengthened to 312 thousand, the fleet, which in 1757 consisted of 21 battleships and 6 frigates, in 1790 included 67 battleships and 40 frigates, the amount of state revenue from 16 million rubles. rose to 69 million, that is, it more than quadrupled, the success of foreign trade: Baltic; in the increase in import and export, from 9 million to 44 million rubles, the Black Sea, Catherine and created - from 390 thousand in 1776 to 1900 thousand rubles. in 1796, the growth of internal circulation was indicated by the issue of coins worth 148 million rubles in the 34 years of his reign, while in the previous 62 years only 97 million were issued.”

The Russian economy continued to remain agricultural. The share of the urban population in 1796 was 6.3%. At the same time, a number of cities were founded (Tiraspol, Grigoriopol, etc.), iron smelting more than doubled (for which Russia took 1st place in the world), and the number of sailing and linen manufactories increased. In total, by the end of the 18th century. there were 1,200 large enterprises in the country (in 1767 there were 663). The export of Russian goods to European countries has increased significantly, including through the established Black Sea ports.

Domestic policy

Catherine’s commitment to the ideas of the Enlightenment determined the nature of her domestic policy and the direction of reforming various institutions of the Russian state. The term “enlightened absolutism” is often used to characterize the domestic policy of Catherine’s time. According to Catherine, based on the works of the French philosopher Montesquieu, the vast Russian spaces and the severity of the climate determine the pattern and necessity of autocracy in Russia. Based on this, under Catherine, the autocracy was strengthened, the bureaucratic apparatus was strengthened, the country was centralized and the management system was unified.

Stacked commission

An attempt was made to convene the Statutory Commission, which would systematize the laws. The main goal is to clarify the people's needs to carry out comprehensive reforms.

More than 600 deputies took part in the commission, 33% of them were elected from the nobility, 36% from the townspeople, which also included nobles, 20% from the rural population (state peasants). The interests of the Orthodox clergy were represented by a deputy from the Synod.

As a guiding document for the 1767 Commission, the Empress prepared the “Nakaz” - a theoretical justification for enlightened absolutism.

The first meeting was held in the Faceted Chamber in Moscow

Due to the conservatism of the deputies, the Commission had to be dissolved.

Soon after the coup, statesman N.I. Panin proposed creating an Imperial Council: 6 or 8 senior dignitaries rule together with the monarch (as was the case in 1730). Catherine rejected this project.

According to another Panin project, the Senate was transformed - December 15. 1763 It was divided into 6 departments, headed by chief prosecutors, and the prosecutor general became its head. Each department had certain powers. The general powers of the Senate were reduced; in particular, it lost legislative initiative and became a body for monitoring the activities of the state apparatus and the highest court. The center of legislative activity moved directly to Catherine and her office with secretaries of state.

Provincial reform

7 Nov In 1775, the “Institution for the management of the provinces of the All-Russian Empire” was adopted. Instead of a three-tier administrative division - province, province, district, a two-tier administrative division began to operate - province, district (which was based on the principle of the size of the tax-paying population). From the previous 23 provinces, 50 were formed, each of which was home to 300-400 thousand people. The provinces were divided into 10-12 districts, each with 20-30 thousand d.m.p.

Thus, there was no further need to maintain the presence of Zaporozhye Cossacks in their historical homeland to protect the southern Russian borders. At the same time, their traditional way of life often led to conflicts with the Russian authorities. After repeated pogroms of Serbian settlers, as well as in connection with the Cossacks’ support for the Pugachev uprising, Catherine II ordered the disbandment of the Zaporozhye Sich, which was carried out by order of Grigory Potemkin to pacify the Zaporozhye Cossacks by General Peter Tekeli in June 1775.

The Sich was bloodlessly disbanded, and then the fortress itself was destroyed. Most of the Cossacks were disbanded, but after 15 years they were remembered and the Army of the Faithful Cossacks was created, later the Black Sea Cossack Army, and in 1792 Catherine signed a manifesto that gave them Kuban for eternal use, where the Cossacks moved, founding the city of Yekaterinodar.

Reforms on the Don created a military civil government modeled on the provincial administrations of central Russia.

Beginning of the annexation of the Kalmyk Khanate

As a result of general administrative reforms of the 70s aimed at strengthening the state, it was decided to annex the Kalmyk Khanate to the Russian Empire.

By her decree of 1771, Catherine abolished the Kalmyk Khanate, thereby beginning the process of annexing the Kalmyk state, which previously had vassalage relations with the Russian state, to Russia. The affairs of the Kalmyks began to be supervised by a special Expedition of Kalmyk Affairs, established under the office of the Astrakhan governor. Under the rulers of the uluses, bailiffs were appointed from among Russian officials. In 1772, during the Expedition of Kalmyk Affairs, a Kalmyk court was established - Zargo, consisting of three members - one representative each from the three main uluses: Torgouts, Derbets and Khoshouts.

This decision of Catherine was preceded by the empress’s consistent policy of limiting the khan’s power in the Kalmyk Khanate. Thus, in the 60s, crisis phenomena intensified in the Khanate associated with the colonization of Kalmyk lands by Russian landowners and peasants, the reduction of pasture lands, the infringement of the rights of the local feudal elite, and the intervention of tsarist officials in Kalmyk affairs. After the construction of the fortified Tsaritsyn Line, thousands of families of Don Cossacks began to settle in the area of ​​​​the main Kalmyk nomads, and cities and fortresses began to be built throughout the Lower Volga. The best pasture lands were allocated for arable land and hayfields. The nomadic area was constantly narrowing, in turn this aggravated internal relations in the Khanate. The local feudal elite was also dissatisfied with the missionary activities of the Russian Orthodox Church in Christianizing nomads, as well as with the outflow of people from the uluses to the cities and villages to earn money. Under these conditions, among the Kalmyk noyons and zaisangs, with the support of the Buddhist church, a conspiracy matured with the aim of leaving the people to their historical homeland - Dzungaria.

On January 5, 1771, the Kalmyk feudal lords, dissatisfied with the policy of the empress, raised the uluses, which were roaming along the left bank of the Volga, and set off on a dangerous journey to Central Asia. Back in November 1770, an army was gathered on the left bank under the pretext of repelling the raids of the Kazakhs of the Younger Zhuz. The bulk of the Kalmyk population lived at that time on the meadow side of the Volga. Many Noyons and Zaisangs, realizing the disastrous nature of the campaign, wanted to stay with their uluses, but the army coming from behind drove everyone forward. This tragic campaign turned into a terrible disaster for the people. The small Kalmyk ethnic group lost about 100,000 people along the way, killed in battles, from wounds, cold, hunger, disease, as well as prisoners, and lost almost all their livestock - the main wealth of the people. . . .

These tragic events in the history of the Kalmyk people are reflected in Sergei Yesenin’s poem “Pugachev”.

Regional reform in Estland and Livonia

The Baltic states as a result of the regional reform in 1782-1783. was divided into 2 provinces - Riga and Revel - with institutions that already existed in other provinces of Russia. In Estland and Livonia, the special Baltic order was eliminated, which provided for more extensive rights of local nobles to work and the personality of the peasant than those of Russian landowners.

Provincial reform in Siberia and the Middle Volga region

Under the new protectionist tariff of 1767, the import of those goods that were or could be produced inside Russia was completely prohibited. Duties of 100 to 200% were imposed on luxury goods, wine, grain, toys... Export duties amounted to 10-23% of the cost of imported goods.

In 1773, Russia exported goods worth 12 million rubles, which was 2.7 million rubles more than imports. In 1781, exports already amounted to 23.7 million rubles against 17.9 million rubles of imports. Russian merchant ships began to sail in the Mediterranean Sea. Thanks to the policy of protectionism in 1786, the country's exports amounted to 67.7 million rubles, and imports - 41.9 million rubles.

At the same time, Russia under Catherine experienced a series of financial crises and was forced to make external loans, the size of which by the end of the Empress’s reign exceeded 200 million silver rubles.

Social politics

Moscow Orphanage

In the provinces there were orders for public charity. In Moscow and St. Petersburg there are educational homes for street children (currently the building of the Moscow Orphanage is occupied by the Peter the Great Military Academy), where they received education and upbringing. To help widows, the Widow's Treasury was created.

Compulsory smallpox vaccination was introduced, and Catherine was the first to receive such a vaccination. Under Catherine II, the fight against epidemics in Russia began to acquire the character of state measures that were directly included in the responsibilities of the Imperial Council and the Senate. By decree of Catherine, outposts were created, located not only on the borders, but also on the roads leading to the center of Russia. The “Charter of Border and Port Quarantines” was created.

New areas of medicine for Russia developed: hospitals for the treatment of syphilis, psychiatric hospitals and shelters were opened. A number of fundamental works on medical issues have been published.

National politics

After the annexation of lands that had previously been part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth to the Russian Empire, about a million Jews ended up in Russia - a people with a different religion, culture, way of life and way of life. To prevent their resettlement in the central regions of Russia and attachment to their communities for the convenience of collecting state taxes, Catherine II in 1791 established the Pale of Settlement, beyond which Jews had no right to live. The Pale of Settlement was established in the same place where Jews lived before - on the lands annexed as a result of the three partitions of Poland, as well as in the steppe regions near the Black Sea and sparsely populated areas east of the Dnieper. The conversion of Jews to Orthodoxy lifted all restrictions on residence. It is noted that the Pale of Settlement contributed to the preservation of Jewish national identity and the formation of a special Jewish identity within the Russian Empire.

Having ascended the throne, Catherine canceled the decree of Peter III on the secularization of lands from the church. But already in February. In 1764 she again issued a decree depriving the Church of land property. Monastic peasants numbering about 2 million people. of both sexes were removed from the jurisdiction of the clergy and transferred to the management of the College of Economy. The state came under the jurisdiction of the estates of churches, monasteries and bishops.

In Ukraine, the secularization of monastic properties was carried out in 1786.

Thus, the clergy became dependent on secular authorities, since they could not carry out independent economic activities.

Catherine obtained from the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth government equalization of the rights of religious minorities - Orthodox and Protestants.

Under Catherine II, persecution stopped Old Believers. The Empress initiated the return of Old Believers, an economically active population, from abroad. They were specially allocated a place in Irgiz (modern Saratov and Samara regions). They were allowed to have priests.

The free resettlement of Germans to Russia led to a significant increase in the number Protestants(mostly Lutherans) in Russia. They were also allowed to build churches, schools, and freely perform religious services. At the end of the 18th century, there were more than 20 thousand Lutherans in St. Petersburg alone.

Expansion of the Russian Empire

Partitions of Poland

The federal state of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth included Poland, Lithuania, Ukraine and Belarus.

The reason for intervention in the affairs of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was the question of the position of dissidents (that is, the non-Catholic minority - Orthodox and Protestants), so that they were equalized with the rights of Catholics. Catherine put strong pressure on the gentry to elect her protégé Stanisław August Poniatowski to the Polish throne, who was elected. Part of the Polish gentry opposed these decisions and organized an uprising, raised in the Bar Confederation. It was suppressed by Russian troops in alliance with the Polish king. In 1772, Prussia and Austria, fearing the strengthening of Russian influence in Poland and its successes in the war with the Ottoman Empire (Turkey), offered Catherine a division of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in exchange for ending the war, otherwise threatening war against Russia. Russia, Austria and Prussia sent in their troops.

In 1772 it took place 1st section of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Austria received all of Galicia with its districts, Prussia - Western Prussia (Pomerania), Russia - the eastern part of Belarus to Minsk (Vitebsk and Mogilev provinces) and part of the Latvian lands that were previously part of Livonia.

The Polish Sejm was forced to agree to the division and give up claims to the lost territories: it lost 3,800 km² with a population of 4 million people.

Polish nobles and industrialists contributed to the adoption of the Constitution of 1791. The conservative part of the population of the Targowica Confederation turned to Russia for help.

In 1793 it took place 2nd section of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, approved at the Grodno Seim. Prussia received Gdansk, Torun, Poznan (part of the lands along the Warta and Vistula rivers), Russia - Central Belarus with Minsk and Right Bank Ukraine.

The wars with Turkey were marked by major military victories of Rumyantsev, Suvorov, Potemkin, Kutuzov, Ushakov, and the establishment of Russia in the Black Sea. As a result, the Northern Black Sea region, Crimea, and the Kuban region went to Russia, its political positions in the Caucasus and Balkans strengthened, and Russia’s authority on the world stage was strengthened.

Relations with Georgia. Treaty of Georgievsk

Treaty of Georgievsk 1783

Catherine II and the Georgian king Irakli II concluded the Treaty of Georgievsk in 1783, according to which Russia established a protectorate over the Kartli-Kakheti kingdom. The treaty was concluded in order to protect Orthodox Georgians, since Muslim Iran and Turkey threatened the national existence of Georgia. The Russian government took Eastern Georgia under its protection, guaranteed its autonomy and protection in the event of war, and during peace negotiations it pledged to insist on the return to the Kartli-Kakheti kingdom of possessions that had long belonged to it and were illegally seized by Turkey.

The result of the Georgian policy of Catherine II was a sharp weakening of the positions of Iran and Turkey, which formally destroyed their claims to Eastern Georgia.

Relations with Sweden

Taking advantage of the fact that Russia entered into a war with Turkey, Sweden, supported by Prussia, England and Holland, started a war with it for the return of previously lost territories. The troops that entered Russian territory were stopped by General-in-Chief V.P. Musin-Pushkin. After a series of naval battles that did not have a decisive outcome, Russia defeated the Swedish battle fleet in the battle of Vyborg, but due to a storm it suffered a heavy defeat in the battle of the rowing fleets at Rochensalm. The parties signed the Treaty of Verel in 1790, according to which the border between the countries did not change.

Relations with other countries

After the French Revolution, Catherine was one of the initiators of the anti-French coalition and the establishment of the principle of legitimism. She said: “The weakening of monarchical power in France endangers all other monarchies. For my part, I am ready to resist with all my might. It's time to act and take up arms." However, in reality, she avoided participating in hostilities against France. According to popular belief, one of the real reasons for the creation of the anti-French coalition was to divert the attention of Prussia and Austria from Polish affairs. At the same time, Catherine abandoned all treaties concluded with France, ordered the expulsion of all those suspected of sympathizing with the French Revolution from Russia, and in 1790 she issued a decree on the return of all Russians from France.

During the reign of Catherine, the Russian Empire acquired the status of a “great power”. As a result of two successful Russian-Turkish wars for Russia, 1768-1774 and 1787-1791. The Crimean Peninsula and the entire territory of the Northern Black Sea region were annexed to Russia. In 1772-1795 Russia took part in three sections of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, as a result of which it annexed the territories of present-day Belarus, Western Ukraine, Lithuania and Courland. The Russian Empire also included Russian America - Alaska and the West Coast of the North American continent (the current state of California).

Catherine II as a figure of the Age of Enlightenment

Ekaterina - writer and publisher

Catherine belonged to a small number of monarchs who communicated so intensively and directly with their subjects through the drafting of manifestos, instructions, laws, polemical articles and indirectly in the form of satirical works, historical dramas and pedagogical opuses. In her memoirs, she admitted: “I cannot see a clean pen without feeling the desire to immediately dip it in ink.”

She had an extraordinary talent as a writer, leaving behind a large collection of works - notes, translations, librettos, fables, fairy tales, comedies “Oh, time!”, “Mrs. Vorchalkina’s Name Day,” “The Hall of a Noble Boyar,” “Mrs. Vestnikova with her Family,” “The Invisible Bride” (-), essay, etc., participated in the weekly satirical magazine “All sorts of things”, published since the Empress turned to journalism in order to influence public opinion, so the main idea of ​​the magazine was criticism of human vices and weaknesses . Other subjects of irony were the superstitions of the population. Catherine herself called the magazine: “Satire in a smiling spirit.”

Ekaterina - philanthropist and collector

Development of culture and art

Catherine considered herself a “philosopher on the throne” and had a favorable attitude toward the European Enlightenment, and corresponded with Voltaire, Diderot, and d’Alembert.

Under her, the Hermitage and the Public Library appeared in St. Petersburg. She patronized various fields of art - architecture, music, painting.

It is impossible not to mention the mass settlement of German families in various regions of modern Russia, Ukraine, as well as the Baltic countries, initiated by Catherine. The goal was to “infect” Russian science and culture with European ones.

Courtyard from the time of Catherine II

Features of personal life

Ekaterina was a brunette of average height. She combined high intelligence, education, statesmanship and a commitment to “free love.”

Catherine is known for her connections with numerous lovers, the number of which (according to the list of the authoritative Catherine scholar P. I. Bartenev) reaches 23. The most famous of them were Sergei Saltykov, G. G. Orlov (later count), horse guard lieutenant Vasilchikov, G. A Potemkin (later prince), hussar Zorich, Lanskoy, the last favorite was the cornet Platon Zubov, who became a count of the Russian Empire and a general. According to some sources, Catherine was secretly married to Potemkin (). Afterwards, she planned a marriage with Orlov, but on the advice of those close to her, she abandoned this idea.

It is worth noting that Catherine’s “debauchery” was not such a scandalous phenomenon against the backdrop of the general debauchery of morals in the 18th century. Most kings (with the possible exception of Frederick the Great, Louis XVI and Charles XII) had numerous mistresses. Catherine's favorites (with the exception of Potemkin, who had state abilities) did not influence politics. Nevertheless, the institution of favoritism had a negative effect on the higher nobility, who sought benefits through flattery to the new favorite, tried to make “their own man” become lovers of the empress, etc.

Catherine had two sons: Pavel Petrovich () (they suspect that his father was Sergei Saltykov) and Alexey Bobrinsky (son of Grigory Orlov) and two daughters: Grand Duchess Anna Petrovna (1757-1759, possibly the daughter of the future king), who died in infancy Poland Stanislav Poniatovsky) and Elizaveta Grigorievna Tyomkina (daughter of Potemkin).

Famous figures of Catherine's era

The reign of Catherine II was characterized by the fruitful activities of outstanding Russian scientists, diplomats, military men, statesmen, cultural and artistic figures. In 1873, in St. Petersburg, in the park in front of the Alexandrinsky Theater (now Ostrovsky Square), an impressive multi-figure monument to Catherine was erected, designed by M. O. Mikeshin, sculptors A. M. Opekushin and M. A. Chizhov and architects V. A. Schröter and D.I. Grimm. The foot of the monument consists of a sculptural composition, the characters of which are outstanding personalities of Catherine’s era and associates of the Empress:

The events of the last years of the reign of Alexander II - in particular, the Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878 - prevented the implementation of the plan to expand the memorial of the Catherine era. D. I. Grimm developed a project for the construction in the park next to the monument to Catherine II of bronze statues and busts depicting figures of the glorious reign. According to the final list, approved a year before the death of Alexander II, six bronze sculptures and twenty-three busts on granite pedestals were to be placed next to the monument to Catherine.

The following should have been depicted full-length: Count N.I. Panin, Admiral G.A. Spiridov, writer D.I. Fonvizin, Prosecutor General of the Senate Prince A.A. Vyazemsky, Field Marshal Prince N.V. Repnin and General A. I. Bibikov, former chairman of the Code Commission. The busts include publisher and journalist N. I. Novikov, traveler P. S. Pallas, playwright A. P. Sumarokov, historians I. N. Boltin and Prince M. M. Shcherbatov, artists D. G. Levitsky and V. L Borovikovsky, architect A. F. Kokorinov, favorite of Catherine II Count G. G. Orlov, admirals F. F. Ushakov, S. K. Greig, A. I. Cruz, military leaders: Count Z. G. Chernyshev, Prince V M. Dolgorukov-Krymsky, Count I. E. Ferzen, Count V. A. Zubov; Moscow Governor General Prince M. N. Volkonsky, Novgorod Governor Count Y. E. Sivers, diplomat Ya. I. Bulgakov, pacifier of the “plague riot” of 1771 in Moscow

Russian Empress Catherine II the Great was born on May 2 (April 21, old style), 1729 in the city of Stettin in Prussia (now the city of Szczecin in Poland), died on November 17 (November 6, old style), 1796 in St. Petersburg (Russia). The reign of Catherine II lasted more than three and a half decades, from 1762 to 1796. It was filled with many events in internal and external affairs, the implementation of plans that continued what was done under. The period of her reign is often called the “golden age” of the Russian Empire.

By Catherine II's own admission, she did not have a creative mind, but she was good at catching every sensible thought and using it for her own purposes. She skillfully selected her assistants, not being afraid of bright and talented people. That is why Catherine’s time was marked by the appearance of a whole galaxy of outstanding statesmen, generals, writers, artists, and musicians. Among them are the great Russian commander, Field Marshal Pyotr Rumyantsev-Zadunaisky, satirist Denis Fonvizin, outstanding Russian poet, Pushkin's predecessor Gabriel Derzhavin, Russian historian-historiographer, writer, creator of "History of the Russian State" Nikolai Karamzin, writer, philosopher, poet Alexander Radishchev , outstanding Russian violinist and composer, founder of Russian violin culture Ivan Khandoshkin, conductor, teacher, violinist, singer, one of the creators of Russian national opera Vasily Pashkevich, composer of secular and church music, conductor, teacher Dmitry Bortyansky.

In her memoirs, Catherine II characterized the state of Russia at the beginning of her reign:

Finances were depleted. The army did not receive pay for 3 months. Trade was in decline, because many of its branches were given over to monopoly. There was no correct system in the state economy. The War Department was plunged into debt; the sea barely held on, being in extreme neglect. The clergy was dissatisfied with the taking of lands from him. Justice was sold at auction, and laws were followed only in cases where they favored the powerful.

The Empress formulated the tasks facing the Russian monarch as follows:

“We need to educate the nation that is to be governed.”

— It is necessary to introduce good order in the state, support society and force it to comply with the laws.

— It is necessary to establish a good and accurate police force in the state.

— It is necessary to promote the flourishing of the state and make it abundant.

“We need to make the state formidable in itself and inspiring respect among its neighbors.”

Based on the assigned tasks, Catherine II carried out active reform activities. Her reforms affected almost all areas of life.

Convinced of the unsuitable management system, Catherine II carried out a Senate reform in 1763. The Senate was divided into 6 departments, losing its significance as the body that manages the state apparatus, and became the highest administrative and judicial institution.

Faced with financial difficulties, Catherine II in 1763-1764 carried out secularization (turning into secular property) church lands. 500 monasteries were abolished, and 1 million peasant souls were transferred to the treasury. Due to this, the state treasury was significantly replenished. This made it possible to ease the financial crisis in the country and pay off the army, which had not received a salary for a long time. The influence of the Church on the life of society has decreased significantly.

From the very beginning of her reign, Catherine II began to strive to achieve the internal structure of the state. She believed that injustices in the state could be eradicated with the help of good laws. And she decided to adopt new legislation instead of the Council Code of Alexei Mikhailovich of 1649, which would take into account the interests of all classes. For this purpose, the Statutory Commission was convened in 1767. 572 deputies represented the nobility, merchants, and Cossacks. Catherine tried to incorporate the ideas of Western European thinkers about a fair society into the new legislation. Having revised their works, she compiled the famous “Order of Empress Catherine” for the Commission. The "Mandate" consisted of 20 chapters, divided into 526 articles. It is about the need for strong autocratic power in Russia and the class structure of Russian society, about the rule of law, about the relationship between law and morality, about the dangers of torture and corporal punishment. The commission worked for more than two years, but its work was not crowned with success, since the nobility and the deputies themselves from other classes stood guard only for their rights and privileges.

In 1775, Catherine II made a clearer territorial division of the empire. The territory began to be divided into administrative units with a certain number of taxable (who paid taxes) population. The country was divided into 50 provinces with a population of 300-400 thousand each, the provinces into districts of 20-30 thousand inhabitants. The city was an independent administrative unit. Elective courts and “trial chambers” were introduced to deal with criminal and civil cases. Finally, “conscientious” courts for minors and the sick.

In 1785, the “Charter of Grant to Cities” was published. It determined the rights and responsibilities of the urban population and the management system in cities. Residents of the city elected a self-government body every 3 years - the General City Duma, the mayor and judges.

Since the time of Peter the Great, when all the nobility owed lifelong service to the state, and the peasantry the same service to the nobility, gradual changes have occurred. Catherine the Great, among other reforms, also wanted to bring harmony to the life of the classes. In 1785, the “Charter of Grant to the Nobility” was published, which was a code, a collection of noble privileges formalized by law. From now on, the nobility was sharply separated from other classes. The freedom of the nobility from paying taxes and from compulsory service was confirmed. Nobles could only be tried by a noble court. Only nobles had the right to own land and serfs. Catherine forbade the subjecting of nobles to corporal punishment. She believed that this would help the Russian nobility get rid of the servile mentality and acquire personal dignity.

These charters streamlined the social structure of Russian society, divided into five classes: nobility, clergy, merchants, petty bourgeoisie (“middle class of people”) and serfs.

As a result of the educational reform in Russia during the reign of Catherine II, a secondary education system was created. In Russia, closed schools, educational homes, institutes for girls, nobles, and townspeople were created, in which experienced teachers were involved in the education and upbringing of boys and girls. In the province, a network of people's non-class two-class schools was created in counties and four-class schools in provincial cities. A classroom lesson system was introduced in schools (uniform start and end dates for classes), teaching methods and educational literature were developed, and unified curricula were created. By the end of the 18th century, there were 550 educational institutions in Russia with a total number of 60-70 thousand people.

Under Catherine, the systematic development of women's education began; in 1764, the Smolny Institute of Noble Maidens and the Educational Society of Noble Maidens were opened. The Academy of Sciences has become one of the leading scientific bases in Europe. An observatory, a physics laboratory, an anatomical theater, a botanical garden, instrumental workshops, a printing house, a library, and an archive were founded. The Russian Academy was founded in 1783.

Under Catherine II, Russia's population increased significantly, hundreds of new cities were built, the treasury quadrupled, industry and agriculture rapidly developed - Russia began to export grain for the first time.

Under her, paper money was introduced for the first time in Russia. On her initiative, the first smallpox vaccination was carried out in Russia (she herself set an example and became the first to be vaccinated).

Under Catherine II, as a result of the Russian-Turkish wars (1768-1774, 1787-1791), Russia finally gained a foothold in the Black Sea, and the lands called Novorossiya were annexed: the Northern Black Sea region, Crimea, and the Kuban region. Accepted Eastern Georgia under Russian citizenship (1783). During the reign of Catherine II, as a result of the so-called partitions of Poland (1772, 1793, 1795), Russia returned the Western Russian lands seized by the Poles.

The material was prepared on the basis of information from open sources

Empress Catherine II the Great (1729-1796) ruled the Russian Empire from 1762-1796. She ascended the throne as a result of a palace coup. With the support of the guards, she overthrew her unloved and unpopular husband Peter III in the country and marked the beginning of Catherine's era, which is also called the “golden age” of the empire.

Portrait of Empress Catherine II
Artist A. Roslin

Before accession to the throne

The All-Russian autocrat belonged to the noble German princely family of Askania, known since the 11th century. She was born on April 21, 1729 in the German city of Stettin, in the family of the Prince of Anhalt-Dornburg. At that time he was the commandant of Stettin Castle, and soon received the rank of lieutenant general. Mother - Johanna Elisabeth belonged to the German Oldenburg ducal dynasty. The full name of the born baby sounded like the Anhalt-Zerbst Sophia of Frederick Augustus.

The family did not have much money, so Sofia Frederica Augusta received her education at home. The girl was taught theology, music, dancing, history, geography, and was also taught French, English and Italian.

The future empress grew up as a playful girl. She spent a lot of time on the city streets, playing with the boys. She was even called "the boy in a skirt." The mother lovingly called her poor daughter “Fricken.”

Alexey Starikov