Characteristics of the psychological mechanism of projection. Projective methods, their classification

Neurotic defenses of the psyche.

- Defense mechanisms of the psyche. Characteristics of basic defenses (repression, projection, sublimation, etc.)

- Resistance - as a factor of personal growth.

Let us briefly consider the defense mechanisms common in the human psyche. These defenses are: repression, projection, identification, introjection, reactive formation, self-restraint, rationalization, annulment, splitting, denial, displacement, isolation, sublimation, regression and resistance.

crowding out

Repression is the process of eliminating from the sphere of consciousness thoughts, feelings, desires and drives that cause pain, shame or guilt. The action of this mechanism can explain many cases of a person forgetting to perform some duties, which, as it turns out upon closer examination, are unpleasant for him. Memories of unpleasant incidents are often suppressed. If any segment of a person’s life path is filled with particularly difficult experiences, amnesia can cover such segments of a person’s past life.

Projection

With projection, a person attributes his own undesirable traits to others, and in this way protects himself from awareness of these traits in himself. The projection mechanism allows you to justify your own actions. For example, unfair criticism and cruelty towards others. In this case, such a person unconsciously attributes cruelty and dishonesty to those around him, and since those around him are like that, then in his mind his similar attitude towards them becomes justified. By type - they deserve it.

Identification

Identification is defined as identifying oneself with someone else. In the process of identification, one person unconsciously becomes like another (the object of identification). Both people and groups can act as objects of identification. Identification leads to imitation of the actions and experiences of another person.

Introjection

Traits and motives of persons towards whom a certain person forms various attitudes can be introjected. Often the object that is lost is introjected: this loss is replaced by the introjection of the object into one’s self. Z. Freud (2003) gave an example when a child, feeling unhappy due to the loss of a kitten, explained that he was now a kitten himself.

Reactive education

In the case of this defensive reaction, a person unconsciously translates the transformation of one mental state into another (for example, hatred into love, and vice versa). In our opinion, this fact is very important in assessing the personality of a particular person, because it indicates that real human actions, because they can only be the result of a veiled distortion of his true desires.

For example, excessive anger in other cases is only an unconscious attempt to veil interest and good nature, and ostentatious hatred is a consequence of love that frightened a person who unconsciously decided to hide it behind an attempt to openly splash out negativity.

Self-restraint as an adaptation mechanism

The essence of the self-restraint mechanism is this: when a person realizes that his achievements are less significant compared to the achievements of other people working in the same field, then his self-esteem drops. In such a situation, many simply stop working. This is a kind of departure, a retreat in the face of difficulties. Anna Freud called this mechanism “limitation of the ego.” She drew attention to the fact that such a process is characteristic of mental life throughout the entire development of personality.

Rationalization

Rationalization as a defensive process is when a person unconsciously invents logical judgments and conclusions to explain his failures. This is necessary to maintain your own positive self-image.

Cancellation

Nullification is a mental mechanism that is designed to destroy thoughts or actions that are unacceptable to a person. When a person asks for forgiveness and accepts punishment, then the unacceptable act for him is annulled, and he can continue to live in peace.

Split

In the case of splitting, a person divides his life into the imperatives of “good” and “bad,” unconsciously removing everything uncertain, which may subsequently complicate his analysis of the problem (a critical situation that causes mental discomfort as a result of the development of, for example, anxiety). Splitting is a kind of distortion of reality, like, in fact, other defense mechanisms, through the action of which a person seeks to escape from reality, replacing the true world with a false one.

Negation

In the case of this protective reaction of the psyche, when any negative information for him appears in the person’s perception zone, he unconsciously denies its existence. The presence of the fact of denial of any events, etc., makes it possible to find out about the true intentions and causes of concern of a given person, since often he unconsciously denies not something that does not exist in reality, but something important for him, but which, according to a number of things known to him reasons are unacceptable to such a person. Those. a person denies what he is trying to hide in the first place.

Bias

Such a protective function is expressed in a person’s unconscious desire to switch attention from an object of real interest to another, extraneous object.

Insulation

In this case, there is an unconscious abstraction from any problem, excessive immersion in which can lead to the development of symptoms of neurosis (for example, increased anxiety, restlessness, guilt, etc.) Also, if, when performing any work (activity), one is excessively immersed in the nature of such activity, then this may lead to a failure in the implementation of this activity. (If a boxer constantly thinks that the enemy’s blows can cause pain and various types of injuries, and even lead to death as a result of a strong blow, then such a boxer will initially lose due to the inability to fight due to fear, etc.)

Sublimation

Sublimation is the unconscious switching of negative mental energy to socially useful work. Sublimation is expressed in the fact that a person experiencing some kind of neurotic conflict finds replacing internal anxiety by switching to another activity (creativity, chopping wood, cleaning the apartment, etc.)

Regression

Such a defensive reaction of the psyche as regression manifests itself in the fact that a person, in order to avoid a neurotic conflict, unconsciously returns to that period of the past when everything was fine for him.

Resistance

Such a mechanism for protecting the psyche as resistance is very important both for understanding the specifics of defensive reactions in general, and serves as an opportunity to move to a new stage in the development of an individual as a person, which, in favorable circumstances, helps him rise to the next step in the hierarchical ladder of social relations.

First of all, let us remember that the human psyche is divided into such components as consciousness (the left hemisphere of the brain; approximately 10% of the volume), the subconscious (the unconscious, approximately 90% of the volume, the right hemisphere), and censorship of the psyche (Super-I, Alter-ego). The censorship of the psyche is between consciousness and the unconscious; censorship of the psyche is a barrier of criticality in the way of information from the outside world and the psyche (brain) of a person, i.e. censorship of the psyche is assigned the role of critical analysis in assessing information coming from the outside world. Censorship passes some of this information into consciousness (which means a person is able to be aware of this information), and some - encountering obstacles in the psyche, the Super-Ego (Alter-Ego, censorship of the psyche) passes into the subconscious. In order from there to subsequently influence consciousness through emerging thoughts and the implementation of actions (actions - as a consequence of thoughts or unconscious, reflexive, desires, instincts). Resistance, being one of the protective functions (censorship) of the psyche, prevents information that is undesirable for consciousness from entering consciousness, being repressed into the unconscious. This becomes possible in cases where the nature of the new information, its semantic part, does not find a response in the soul of the individual, that is, at the initial level of perception it becomes impossible to correlate this information with information that already exists in the unconscious of a particular person, information that, being in memory of the individual - begins to clearly resist the receipt of new information. To the question: how is information received from the outside world consolidated in the psyche, one should answer that most likely there is some kind of coincidence of encodings (newly received and previously existing) information, i.e. new information becomes correlated with earlier information of similar content and direction, which by the time the new information arrived was already in the unconscious of the psyche (having formed in patterns of behavior after preliminary dominant consolidation in attitudes).

When information influences the brain, it should be said that any kind of influence becomes possible thanks to the suggestibility of the psyche. Suggestion in this case is a conscious change in a person’s existing psychological attitudes through the activation of archetypes of the unconscious psyche. Archetypes, in turn, involve previously formed patterns of behavior. If we consider this from the perspective of neurophysiology, then the corresponding dominant is activated in the human brain (focal excitation of the cerebral cortex), which means that the part of the brain that is responsible for consciousness slows down its work. In this case, the censorship of the psyche (as a structural unit of the psyche) is temporarily blocked or semi-blocked, which means information from the outside world freely enters the preconscious, or even immediately into consciousness. Sometimes, bypassing consciousness, it passes into the subconscious. The personal unconscious of the psyche (subconscious) is also formed in the process of repressing information by censorship of the psyche. At the same time, not all information coming from the outside world is displaced unconsciously into the subconscious. Some of it goes into the subconscious on purpose. For example, to feed the information already available in the unconscious and further shape archetypes, or specifically for the purpose of forming new archetypes, patterns of future behavior of the individual. And this, in our opinion, must be correctly understood and distinguished. If we talk about how this or that information is forced out by the censorship of the psyche, going into the subconscious, then we should say that such information has not been verified, i.e. did not receive the proper “response” in the soul of the person whose psyche evaluates such information. As S. Freud (2003) pointed out, any situations or life circumstances that are painful for the individual’s psyche are repressed, i.e. everything that he unconsciously does not want to let into consciousness. In this case, unwanted moments of life are forgotten, that is, deliberately repressed. Moreover, let us recall that both resistance and repression are the psyche’s ability to get rid of neurosis. At the same time, new information, finding a “response in the soul,” will strengthen information of similar content that previously existed in the brain (unconscious psyche, right hemisphere of the brain). As a result, it is quite possible that for some time a kind of information vacuum will arise, during which the brain will assimilate any information received from the outside world. This also occurs if special techniques manage to break a person’s will to perceive information by overcoming resistance. Then any information received is directly deposited in the subconscious, and subsequently affects consciousness. Psychotechnologies of hypnotic influence in the waking state of consciousness of a person (object of influence) are built on this principle. In other words, if we manage to break the resistance of another person in the way of him receiving new information, then this new information will not only be deposited in his subconscious, but the person will also have the opportunity to perceive it in a cognitive (conscious) way. Moreover, in terms of the strength of its own influence, such information can have an incomparably greater impact in comparison with the modality of previously existing information in the psyche. If the modality coincides, then in this case the state of rapport occurs more easily, i.e. a reliable connection is established, whereby a person becomes receptive to receiving information from another person.

Attention should be paid to the fact that the psyche almost always protests to everything new and unknown. And this happens because, as it were, initially (when new information arrives), as we have already noticed, individual components of such information look for “certain family connections” with information that existed in the subconscious before (“coincidence of encoding”, as we define it). That is, when new information begins to be evaluated by the brain, the brain looks for something familiar in this information, through which it will either consolidate such information in consciousness or repress it into the subconscious. If the codes of new and previously existing information coincide, an associative connection arises between the new and existing information, which means a certain contact is established, as a result of which the new information seems to fall on fertile soil, and having some basis under it, it serves as an opportunity adaptation of new information, enriching it with symbolic, emotional and other components of already existing information, and then through transformation (without this there is no way, human memory cannot help but be updated) some new information is born, which already passes into consciousness, and therefore through the emerging in the unconscious of the psyche, thoughts are projected onto actions, which, although in most cases (in the absence of altered states of consciousness) are a consequence of the activity of consciousness, taking their basis in the unconscious of the psyche, forming there. At the same time, we must say that resistance allows us to identify a person’s unconscious impulses, his unconscious desires, attitudes that were early laid (by society, environment or another person) in the psyche of a given individual, and have already in one way or another begun to influence his real or future activities. In this case, it should be said that the subjugation of the psyche of another person occurs by programming his psyche by introducing into his subconscious various attitudes that can later be demanded by the manipulator (and then he activates them using code signals of an auditory-visual-kinesthetic nature); Moreover, the role of such a manipulator can be played by both specific individuals and society, the social environment, any natural factors, etc. Thus, we must say that any kind of information that is involved in any representative or signaling system of a person - either immediately deposited in the unconscious of the psyche or finds confirmation in existing earlier information, thereby being enriched due to this and amplified - is capable of influencing consciousness, i.e. on the process of human life.

Note that overcoming resistance, a person opens the psyche for the perception of new information. Moreover, there is a high probability of obtaining completely new information. After all, if earlier, as we said, some information was already present in the memory, then when new information is received, the censorship of the psyche unconsciously seeks confirmation of the newly received information in the storehouses of memory. Probably the psyche in this case should react in a certain way, and it reacts. Visually, this is noticeable by external changes that occur with a person in the “here and now” parallel (reddening or blanching of the skin of the face, dilated pupils, variants of catalepsy (stiffness of the body), etc.). At the same time, such changes can occur and not necessarily so noticeable, but still be caught by the eye of an experienced observer. Such changes indicate the onset, the possibility, of rapport (information contact) with the object of manipulation. And the probability that in this state the object will accept the information supplied to it without cuts is up to one hundred percent. Another question is that there may be individuals who cannot be brought into a state of rapport in the “here and now” transcription, but something similar, for example, can be done later. All the same, everyone has states when he is maximally susceptible to informational and psychological influence, to manipulation of his psyche, invasion of his psyche and control of the psyche of a given person. Moreover, it is also possible to fully trace the choice of the right moment, but for this you need to have experience, knowledge, and a predisposition to realize this kind of opportunities. Those. at least relative, but abilities, and even better - talent. In this case, the likelihood of achieving the programming result increases significantly.

As a result of the fact that the barrier of criticality is broken, the psyche begins to perceive new information with unprecedented force. Such information is deposited in the subconscious and is reflected in the preconscious and consciousness. That is, in this case we can say that the attack is being carried out on several “fronts” at once. As a result, unusually strong programming of the psyche is observed, the emergence of powerful, stable mechanisms (patterns of behavior) in the unconscious. In addition, after the creation of something like this, there is an initiation of the emergence of more and more new mechanisms of a similar orientation in the unconscious of the psyche. However, now they find constant reinforcement in both consciousness and preconsciousness. This means that not only is the process of consolidating information once received in the subconscious possible (not just any information, but precisely that which caused such a process, information that, as a result of the receipt of which, patterns began to form in the unconscious), but also such information begins to become active , soon subordinating the thoughts and desires of the individual in a manner indicated by the semantic load of this kind of information. At the same time, a very important factor in the processing of such information is the characteristics of the individual’s psyche. It is known that the same information may have no effect on one individual, but cause another to almost radically change their life.

The right hemisphere of the brain, as we have already noted, extends into the spectrum of activity of the unconscious psyche. Whereas the left one forms a conscious personality. The right hemisphere thinks in images, feelings, grasping a picture, the left hemisphere analyzes information received from the outside world, the prerogative of logical thinking is the left hemisphere. The right hemisphere realizes emotions, the left - thoughts and signs (speech, writing, etc.) There are individuals who, in a completely new environment, have the impression of “already seen.” This is a typical example of right hemisphere activity. As a result, we can say that the activity of the brain is provided by two hemispheres, the right (sensual) and the left (sign, i.e. integrates objects of the external world with the help of signs: words, speech, etc.). The complementarity of the activities of the two hemispheres is often manifested by the simultaneous presence in the psyche of the individual of the rational and intuitive, reasonable and sensual. Hence the high efficiency of directive instructions to the brain in the form of such mechanisms of suggestive influence as orders, self-hypnosis, etc. This is due to the specifics of mental activity, when, while pronouncing or hearing a speech, a person’s imagination also turns on, which in this case noticeably enhances this kind of impact. In this case, you should once again pay attention to the need to break resistance. It is known that resistance is activated when new information enters the brain (psyche), information that initially does not find a response in the human soul, does not find something similar to the information already in memory. Such information does not pass the criticality barrier and is repressed into the subconscious. However, if through an effort of will (i.e., using consciousness; will is the prerogative of the activity of consciousness) we can prevent repression, and force the brain to analyze the incoming information (the part of such information that we need), then we will be able to overcome resistance, and therefore after some At that time it will be possible to experience that state that we called early satori, or insight. Moreover, the effect of this will be incomparably higher than information that methodically and over a long period of time penetrated the subconscious, later influencing consciousness. In our case, if the barrier of criticality, and therefore resistance, is broken, we will achieve incomparably more, because in this case the so-called state will be observed for some time. “green corridor”, when incoming information passes almost entirely, bypassing the criticality barrier. Moreover, in this case, the transition into consciousness of both their preconscious and from the unconscious occurs just as quickly. This means that we will no longer have to wait long, as in the case of the natural transition of information from the subconscious to consciousness, when such information begins its transition only when it finds a “response in the soul,” i.e. only when, clinging to similar information currently available in consciousness (temporary information, because any information in consciousness does not last long, and after time, from operative memory it enters long-term memory) it enters there. In the case of overcoming resistance, such information arrives immediately, changing the person’s worldview, because in this case consciousness is actively involved, and if something is realized by a person, it is accepted as a guide to action.

So, we have considered a far from complete list of existing defense mechanisms, but listing the main defenses, in our opinion, can bring us closer to understanding the possible features of interpersonal interactions. At the same time, the very fact of the existence of protective mechanisms in the psyche brings us closer to understanding the mechanisms of influence of one person on another. When considering the inclusion of neurotic defenses (and any defense of the psyche is a defense against developing neurosis), we must pay attention to the fact that, according to O. Fenichel (1945, 2005), anxiety and anger are a consequence of not receiving an outlet for mental energy as a result of traumatic events in the psyche circumstances, and represent a discharge of mental excitation. It should be noted that the protective mechanisms of the psyche restrain an excess of psychic energy, but in the event of a predominance or repetition of a situation traumatic to a person’s psyche, a release of energy is possible, which results in the development of neuropsychic symptoms. At the same time, someone who is predisposed to neurosis due to constitution and infantile fixation will react with the development of neurosis even in response to minimal activation of infantile conflicts. And for some, this will become possible only as a result of difficult life circumstances. By and large, we are dealing with psychoneuroses, i.e. with the reaction of the psyche to any conflict involving the consciousness, subconscious and the surrounding world. The basis of psychoneuroses is a neurotic conflict. Neurotic conflict is a consequence of the conflict between the tendency to discharge and the tendency to prevent it. (O. Fenichel, 2005). The severity of the desire for discharge depends both on the nature of the stimuli and, for the most part, on the physicochemical reactions of the body. Tracing the psychoanalytic structure of the psyche, it should be noted that a neurotic conflict is a conflict between the I (Id) and the Id (Ego). At the same time, it already becomes clear that the motive for protecting the psyche is anxiety. It is with the help of defense mechanisms that the individual's psyche unconsciously escapes from the danger of external influence, i.e. from the impact of information from the external world on the internal world of the individual. Moreover, a number of people in this case really have a conflict, because the incoming information has a negative impact, replacing the personality of the individual, and forcing him to commit actions that were not characteristic of him early. A person is saved from such an impact just by switching on the mechanisms of mental protection, which we briefly considered above. In some cases, anxiety is replaced by a feeling of guilt. The feeling of guilt in this case acts as one of the defenses of the psyche. In itself, the feeling of guilt is a sure sign of neurosis, characterized by a long state of stable anxiety, and actually replaces the true "I" - a false image with which the personality of this person is forced to reckon. Such a neurotic simply has no choice but to actually adjust his life to the feeling of guilt that exists in his psyche. And the situation in most cases has quite serious consequences, because. forces the neurotic individual to perform actions, if controlled by consciousness, then at best partially; because unconscious desires take up, contributing to the "silencing" of guilt, causing the strongest provocations of neurosis in the psyche of a person who is forced to perform actions aimed at fulfilling someone else's will and thereby eliminating anxiety. Guilt is a person's conscience. And in this case, there is a very significant conflict, rooted in the understanding of the issue, because the constant satisfaction of the urges of conscience in a neurotic ultimately leads to negative consequences, the consequence of which is difficult adaptation in society, i.e. such a neurotic individual has broken contacts with the outside world, because his inner world is forced all the time to come into conflict between what needs to be done in order to survive in this world, and the dictates of the inner state of the soul. At the same time, the negative aspects of the existence of a feeling of guilt for a neurotic person can manifest themselves in internal destructive impulses of a sadistic-masochistic nature, which consists in deliberate (unconscious, for the most part) causing implicit harm to one’s health (smoking, drinking alcohol, dangerous driving, parachute jumping, etc.) other extreme sports). Experiencing internal suffering from feelings of guilt, neurotics sometimes use some specific options for defense against feelings of guilt, manifested in the following: feelings of guilt can be repressed, projected (when someone else is accused of committing an undesirable act), or, for example, there is blaming , reproach to others for what they themselves could do; A fairly typical example is with excessive intrusiveness, sociability, and sudden talkativeness. In this case, we should talk about a certain neurotic reaction, manifested in the neurotic’s desire to drown out his own feelings of guilt by obtaining approval for what is internally experienced as forbidden. Isolation of the feeling of guilt occurs when, for example, a neurotic person commits some offense with quite noticeable emotional indifference, while he sincerely repents for a completely harmless act.

It should be remembered that the protective mechanisms of the psyche for the psyche itself are a way to avoid neurosis. To establish contact and further influence on a person, it becomes possible to initially identify the protective mechanisms of his psyche (i.e., correctly interpret certain reactions of the body), so that in the future it becomes possible to establish rapport with a similar individual, and therefore after introducing him into a trance or a semi-trance state (depending on the individual characteristics of a particular psyche) to control such a person. It is also necessary to remember that rarely anyone is able to honestly and sincerely express their own feelings, thoughts, emotions, fantasies, desires, etc. Modern man, being a child of society, has learned to hide his feelings in the process of education, necessary for adaptation to the world around him. Therefore, the task is to influence a person, his psyche, to identify such concealment mechanisms, and to treat people as patients. And this is true, you just have to pay attention and observe the specifics of people’s behavior. Human nature itself forces him to be secretive. Moreover, this happens on an unconscious level and does not depend on the person himself. True, those individuals who, due to the geography of their residence (villages very remote from places of civilization, etc.) and their own moral preferences, have limited contact with the media, can still be as honest as possible, although civilization and culture exert their pressure on them , and over time, in order to survive, they must make a choice: either be like everyone else, i.e. lie, deceive, dodge, and in this case survive, become a full member of society, or remain completely honest and open, which means becoming an outcast of society, and a follower of marginal positions, and as a consequence of this - being deprived of the benefits of civilization. The choice is truly difficult, despite the fact that the majority simply do not realize it, since from birth their psyche is programmed by the media of mass communication and information, which means such people immediately begin to “play by the rules”, i.e. live in accordance with the laws of society.

Resistance is a factor in personal growth.

Having overcome such a protective mechanism of the psyche as resistance, an individual is able to move to a new level of his own perception of life, and therefore rise to the next step in the social ladder. This becomes possible in the following way. It is known that the individual’s psyche is divided into three important components: consciousness, subconscious (unconscious), and the so-called. mental censorship. The latter is assigned the role of critical analysis in assessing information coming from the outside world. Censorship passes some of this information into consciousness (which means a person has the ability to be aware of this information), and some of it, encountering barriers in the psyche in the form of the Super-I (censorship of the psyche), passes into the subconscious. In order to still subsequently influence conscious actions through the preliminary emergence of thoughts of an unconscious and conscious orientation.

Resistance, as we have noticed, is one of the defenses of the psyche. Without going into too detailed an analysis of resistance, let's consider resistance - in the concept of an individual's life growth, increasing his social status, his intellectual abilities, life adaptation, and so on. And even then, we need to highlight the role of resistance - as a feature of the psyche that affects the memorization of new information. At the same time, for the most part we will not consider any new information, but only that which causes a certain “protest” in the psyche after it encounters a barrier of criticality, and in some cases, initiating it. This becomes possible if the nature of the new information, its semantic part, does not find a response in the soul of the individual; that is, at the initial level of its perception, it becomes impossible to correlate this information with information that already existed earlier in the individual’s unconscious, information that, being in the individual’s memory, begins to clearly resist the arrival of new information. Moreover, this kind of resistance manifests itself especially strongly if either the general information-target orientation of the new and previous information coincides, or if the new information is generally something new, perhaps even to some extent presented for the first time in the psyche of such an individual; which means that in assessing such information, the individual - unconsciously - will not refer only to that general idea of a particular problem (issue), which, as is known, exists in the soul of almost every person, and characterizes life experience, the amount of knowledge, etc. P..

At the same time, it is necessary to pay attention that the information received from the outside world (through any types of contacts: interpersonal, through the media, etc.) does not all and does not completely resonate in the soul of the individual. First of all, the influence is exerted by the information that seems to have hit a special wavelength, to which the individual’s psyche is tuned at the moment of receiving such information. At the same time, we must also say that at the next moment the same information may no longer be perceived. Even in general, invisible barriers of criticality may stand in its way, resulting from the activities of mental censorship. But if we say that information affecting the individual’s psyche was involved in the “here and now” mode, if this information was not, like other information, repressed into the subconscious, but almost unhindered, or without losing its basic essence, after which it is subsequently possible to restore its components, having assembled into a single whole, and so, if we say that such information has now penetrated into consciousness, then we should admit that this is quite possible. And this happens as a result of the fact that part of such information (its vanguard) not only entered with its codes (any information, as is known, can be presented in a system of codes) into a correlate with information already available in the individual’s psyche, but also as a result of such censorship The psyche weakened for a while and opened up (metaphorically speaking, the psyche opened a barrier to the entry of new information). This means that other information supplied with the information that penetrated through the coincidence of codes can also penetrate into consciousness. Except that in this case such information (information that entered consciousness fraudulently) does not linger for long, and soon turns out to be repressed into the subconscious. But if, as a result of censorship, information passes into the subconscious from the outside world, then in this case, this kind of information is forced out of consciousness. Although in both cases it ends up in the subconscious.

If we return to the issue of the receipt of information that, through the unconscious selection of codes, turned out to be in demand in consciousness, then in this case it should be noted that such a mental mechanism, which is capable of letting through, almost bypassing censorship, some information, is well known to specialists in mental manipulation. Moreover, the word “manipulation”, which has received a somewhat negative aspect, as we have already noted earlier, can be replaced with the more neutral word “management”. Control, or, for example, programming of the psyche. Rearranging words does not change the semantic effect. And, probably, the word “management” does not cause too obvious provocation of the psyche, an explosion of emotions, etc. barriers of the psyche, which, depending on the circumstances, can carry both positive and negative aspects as a result of voicing the word “manipulation”, and which involve one or another layer of the unconscious psyche, in the depths of which such deposits of sometimes priceless material are hidden that the one who knows how to extract from the subconscious at least an insignificant part of the information hidden there, and is able to significantly outstrip other individuals in information power. After all, it is quite clear that it is important not only to receive any information from the outside world, but also to remember it. Moreover, the memorization process is tested quite simply, and as one of the options, it includes such a component of the individual’s psyche as memory. The process of remembering is similar to the process of extracting information from the subconscious and bringing such information into consciousness. Despite the rather limited volume of consciousness (compared to the subconscious), it is impossible to live without consciousness. Because if a person were in an unconscious state all the time, this would mean that primary instincts would take precedence, the desires of a savage - to kill, eat, rape. And they would be implemented everywhere. Which would lead to the actual destruction of civilization.

How does information entering the psyche from the outside world “response in the soul” of an individual? As we have already noted, in this case we should say that we have before us a kind of coincidence of the encoding of new information with information that was previously already in the unconscious of the psyche of such an individual. In this case, attitudes and patterns of behavior are involved, as a result of which new information, practically bypassing the censorship of the psyche (which retreats, recognizing “its own” after receiving certain “password feedback”), immediately enters consciousness, and therefore has a direct impact on thoughts and human actions. At the same time, even if for some reason such information (or part of it) turns out to be displaced into the subconscious, most likely it will either not penetrate further than the preconscious (there is also such a structure of the psyche, which, according to Freud's metaphorical expression, means "hallway", that is something located between the front door (censorship of the psyche) and the living room (consciousness), or it will be in the unconscious, but with some positive mark. , which means we can talk (immediately or after some time) about the formation of full-fledged attitudes and patterns of behavior.

Answering the question of how this or that information is suppressed by the censorship of the psyche, going into the subconscious, we assume that such information has not received the proper “response” in the soul of the individual evaluating such information. After all, it is known that almost any information from the outside world is assessed by the psyche of the “receiving party”. And it depends on this what information the individual’s psyche will allow into consciousness and immediately begin to work with such information, and will displace some information. As Prof. pointed out. Freud (2003), any situations or life circumstances that are painful for the individual’s psyche are repressed, i.e. everything that he unconsciously does not want to let into consciousness. In this case, it is also appropriate to say that as a result of this, mental resistance is activated, as a result of which undesirable moments of life are forgotten, that is, deliberately repressed. Or, for example, in the way of information trying to penetrate consciousness, there is censorship of the psyche, which has various methods of defense, one of which is resistance, and as a consequence of the work of resistance - repression. Moreover, all this (both resistance and repression) is also nothing more than the ability of the psyche to get rid of neurosis, because any flows of information undesirable for the psyche can, after some time, lead to the appearance of symptoms of neurosis, and as a consequence - mental illnesses, disorders psyche. “...the prerequisite for the existence of a symptom,” wrote S. Freud, “is that some mental process did not occur completely in a normal way, so that it could not become conscious. The symptom is a substitute for what has not been realized... Strong resistance had to be directed against... the mental process penetrating into consciousness; so he remained unconscious. As unconscious, he has the capacity to form a symptom. ...The pathogenic process, manifested in the form of resistance, deserves the name of repression.” Thus, we trace the emergence of repression through the resistance of the censorship of the psyche, which resists allowing unwanted, painful information for the psyche to pass into consciousness, and therefore subjugate the thoughts, desires, and actions of the individual. While the fact that after sometimes a very short period of time, these same pathogenic microbes, which have settled in the unconscious of the psyche, will begin to wander in search of “supporters” (information codes), and having found the latter, they will still be able to break through the defense and find themselves in consciousness, about In this case, the psyche, which through the barrier of criticality initiated obstacles to the flow of information from the outside world, does not seem to think. Nor do all those who mistakenly believe that nothing exists except consciousness, denying the subconscious under far-fetched pretexts, and thereby falling by their actions under the systematics of defense mechanisms described at one time by the Freud family (father and daughter Anna, professor psychology), and continued in the developments of modern scientists.

Before considering in more detail the role of resistance in the life of an individual, we note that prof. R. Greenson distinguished psychoanalysis from all other psychotherapeutic techniques precisely by the fact that it considered the issue of resistance. According to R. Greenson (2003), resistance can be conscious, preconscious, subconscious, and can be expressed in the form of emotions, thoughts, ideas, attitudes, fantasies, and so on. In addition, one of the forms of resistance is silence. “Silence is the most transparent and frequent form of resistance encountered in psychoanalytic practice,” writes Prof. R. Greenson. - This means that the patient is consciously or unconsciously unwilling to communicate his thoughts or feelings to the analyst. ...our task is to analyze the reasons for silence. …Sometimes, despite silence, the patient may involuntarily reveal the motive or content of the silence by his posture, movements or facial expression.”

Making a small digression, we would like to draw attention to the methodology of applied psychoanalysis, which, in our opinion, is one of the most effective systems for controlling the psyche of humans and the masses; Moreover, our use of such a technique is supported (enriched) by some other approaches to influencing the psyche, which, in our opinion, are also effective. We should also talk about a number of differences between classical psychoanalysis and the so-called. therapeutic aspect, and applied psychoanalysis, where theories of influence on the conscious-subconscious are developed not for a psychotherapeutic effect (in terms of treating a specific individual or group of patients), but for the purpose of controlling a person, modeling his thoughts, desires, actions, etc., etc. their effectiveness are applicable both to the individual in particular and to society as a whole. In this case, we can already talk about the art of crowd control. About the preliminary modeling of the behavior of the masses by programming their psyches to carry out the necessary settings. Those who give such instructions are called manipulators. But they, as we have already noted, can also be called managers, managers, or anyone, if we approach such a question in the context of management, the power of some people over others. And this, in our opinion, is an important feature of the general approach to the possibility of controlling the psyche. Yes, this is justified, especially considering the fact that the enemy is not asleep, developing more and more new ways of manipulating the psychic consciousness and discovering new methods of influencing the subconscious in order to manipulate the individual. Therefore, the one who will win will not only be able to identify the enemy’s attempts, but will also be able to defeat the enemy using his own methods, at best forcing him to follow his lead, and at least avoiding his psychological attacks.

Returning to the issue of resistance, we should pay attention to the fact that the psyche almost always protests to everything new and unknown. And this happens because, as if initially (when new information arrives), the individual components of such information look for some kind of related connections (similar encoding in the process of afferent connections between neurons of the brain), that is, something similar that could be “clung on to.” " That is, when new information begins to be evaluated by the brain, it looks for something familiar in this information, through which it could gain a foothold. When the codes of new information and information already existing in the unconscious psyche coincide, in this case a certain associative connection between the new and existing information becomes possible, which means a certain contact is established, as a result of which the new information seems to fall on fertile soil, and having a basis some kind of basis - serves as the possibility of adapting new information, enriching it with existing information, and through some transformation, new information is born, which already passes into consciousness, which means, through thoughts that arise in the unconscious psyche, it is projected onto actions, which, although they are in the majority cases, a consequence of the activity of consciousness, nevertheless take their basis in the unconscious of the psyche, and it is there that they are born (formed). At the same time, we must say that resistance allows us to identify the unconscious impulses of the individual, his unconscious desires, attitudes that were previously embedded in the psyche of such an individual, and already in one way or another influence his current or future life. It can even be said that just the programming of the individual occurs partly by introducing various settings into his subconscious, which can later be demanded by the manipulator (and then he activates them through code signals of an auditory-visual-kinesthetic nature); Moreover, the role of such a manipulator can be played by both specific individuals and society, the social environment, any natural factors, etc. Thus, we must say that any kind of information that is involved in any representational or signaling system of a person is either immediately deposited in the unconscious of the psyche, or finds confirmation from the existing early information, thereby enriching and strengthening due to this, turns out to be able to influence on the life activity of the individual we are considering (i.e., either immediately forming full-fledged dominants in the cerebral cortex, or attitudes in the subconscious, or preliminarily forming semi-dominants and semi-attitudes, and then, upon receipt of new information of a similar encoding, forming full-fledged attitudes and patterns of behavior).

R. Greenson (2003), considering the role of resistance, drew attention to the fact that resistance can be explicit or implicit, but it almost always exists and manifests itself in different ways. For example, when receiving any information, a person may not outwardly show any emotions, but this is where resistance can be seen, because the absence of affect is observed precisely when actions that “should be extremely laden with emotions” are being considered. But at the same time, the person’s comments are “dry, boring, monotonous and inexpressive.” Thus, we have an erroneous idea that the person himself is not interested, and the information received does not touch him. Absolutely not, he is actively experiencing, for example, but strives not to show his attitude to this or that situation precisely by unconsciously turning on resistance. “In general, inconsistency of affect is the most striking sign of resistance,” notes R. Greenson. - the patient’s statements seem strange when the content of the statement and the emotion do not correspond to each other.” In addition, R. Greenson draws attention to postures that can serve as a sure non-verbal sign of resistance. “When the patient is rigid, motionless, curled up in a ball, as if protecting himself, this may indicate protection. In addition, any postures that are adopted by the patient and sometimes do not change during the session and from session to session are always a sign of resistance. If the patient is relatively free from resistance, his posture will somehow change during the session. Excessive movement also shows that something is being discharged in movement rather than in words. Contradiction between posture and verbal content is also a sign of resistance. A patient who talks calmly about an event while he himself writhes and squirms is telling only part of the story. His movements retell another part of her. Clenched fists, arms tightly crossed over the chest, ankles pressed together indicate concealment... Yawning during a session is a sign of resistance. The way the patient enters the office without looking at the analyst or makes small talk that does not continue on the couch, or the way he leaves without looking at the analyst are all indicators of resistance." R. Greenson also pointed out resistance if a person always tells something consistently about the present, without diving into the past, or about the past, without jumping into the present. “Attachment to a specific time period is avoidance, analogous to rigidity, fixation of emotional tone, posture, etc. ". Resistance is also indicated by the fact that a person, when telling something, talks about superficial and unimportant events for a long time, as if unconsciously avoiding what may be truly important for him. “When there is repetition of content without development or affect, or without deepening understanding, we are forced to assume that some kind of resistance is at work. If talking about little things does not seem superfluous to the patient himself, we are dealing with “escape.” Lack of introspection and completeness of thought is an indicator of resistance. In general, verbalization that may be abundant but does not lead to new memories or new insights or greater emotional awareness is an indicator of defensive behavior."

Avoidance of any - painful for the psyche of this person - topics should also be attributed to resistance. Or a story in general phrases about what actually caused a storm of emotions in the soul of a given individual at one time. In addition, any unconscious unwillingness to change any established order in the conduct of conversations, meetings, forms of communication, and so on, should be guessed in resistance. At the same time, we can also say that the performance of the same type and established actions is, among other things, one of the forms of protection against neurotic addiction. At one time, O. Fenichel (2004) drew attention to the fact that in all psychoneuroses the control of the Ego is weakened, but during obsessions and compulsions, the Ego continues to control the motor sphere, but does not completely dominate it, and only in accordance with the circumstances. In this case, there may be a clear transition of a phobia into an obsession. “First, a certain situation is avoided, then, in order to ensure the necessary avoidance, attention is constantly strained. Later, this attention becomes obsessive or another "positive" obsessive attitude develops, so incompatible with the initially frightening situation that its avoidance is guaranteed. The taboos of touch are replaced by rituals of touch, fears of contamination by washing compulsions; social fears - social rituals, fears of falling asleep - ceremonies of preparing for sleep, inhibition of walking - mannered walking, animal phobias - compulsions when dealing with animals. An indicator of resistance according to R. Greenson is also “the use of clichés, technical terms or sterile language,” which indicates that such a person, in order to avoid personal self-disclosure, avoids the figurativeness of his speech. For example, he says “I felt hostility,” when in fact he was furious, thereby “avoiding the image and feeling of fury, preferring to it the sterility of “hostility.” “From my clinical experience working with patients in such situations, I concluded,” writes R. Greenson, “that “in fact” and “honestly” usually mean that the patient feels ambivalent, aware of the contradictory nature of his feelings. He wants what he said to be the whole truth. “I really think so” means that he really wants to think so. “I'm sincerely sorry” means that he would like to be sincerely sorry, but he is also aware that he has opposing feelings. “I think I was angry” means: I am sure that I was angry, but I am reluctant to admit it. “I don’t know where to start” means: I know where to start, but I’m hesitant to start. A patient who says to the analyst several times, “I'm sure you really remember my sister...” usually means: I'm not at all sure, idiot, whether you really remember her, so I'm reminding you of it. All this is very subtle, but usually repetitions indicate the presence of resistances and should be seen as such. The most frequently repeated clichés are manifestations of character resistance and are difficult to deal with before the analysis is in full swing. Isolated clichés can be easily accessed at an early stage of analysis.”

Various types of manifestations of resistance should also include tardiness, omissions, forgetting, boredom, acting out (this can manifest itself in the fact that a person tells about the same facts to different people; in this case, by the way, unconscious evidence is also manifested, confirming the importance of such information for a person), deliberate gaiety or sadness. "...great enthusiasm or prolonged elation shows that there is something that is being averted - usually something of the opposite nature, some form of depression."

Speaking about resistance, we must also say that if we manage to break such a defensive reaction of the psyche on the way to obtaining new information, then in this case, by weakening the censorship of the psyche, we will be able to achieve an effect incomparably greater than if new information , through associative connections and the appearance of empathic attachment, would pass through the barrier of the psyche and would remain conscious. And a greater effect is achieved precisely due to the fact that the psyche, as if wanting to “justify itself” for its previous inaccessibility, opens up almost to its maximum on the path of new information. Moreover, such information can fill the depths of the psyche and be projected (later) onto consciousness in at least two directions. In the first, she can - even if she initially finds herself in the unconscious - create there those stable formations on which she can subsequently rely if she wants to take power into her own hands while introjecting information stored in the unconscious into consciousness. Such a period can be, depending on the time, short-term and intense; or noticeably distributed over time, and how to prepare for a performance, i.e. to the transfer of information from the unconscious to consciousness. Whereas in the second option, we can say that for some time such information (newly received information) will not only be inactive, but there will also be an assumption that it lies exclusively in those depths of the psyche from which it is not so it will be easy to take it out when the time is right. Moreover, such a time (such a suspicion may arise) may not come.

Actually this is not true. And it is in the second case, more often than in the first, that we witness that such information, information that had previously entered the subconscious, is activated in such a strong way that it will literally pull with it other information stored in the unconscious, if it is found in such information any similarity. Moreover, the newly formed stream of such information, information to some extent not having a personal historical unconscious experience associated with the psyche of a particular individual, will not only fill the void that has formed, but will also obviously lead to the fact that it will pull this entire stream along with it, and as a result for a long time he will be able to subordinate to his perception almost any other information that will then enter the psyche, and thus it will really turn out that in terms of its effectiveness it is much higher. Moreover, in our opinion, this is closely related to the specifics of upbringing and education. For if in this way we manage to break the resistance of another individual on the way of receiving new information, then it is quite likely that such information will not only be deposited in the subconscious, but the individual will also be able to perceive it in a cognitive (conscious) way. Moreover, we repeat once again that by the strength of its own impact on the psyche of an individual, such information can have an incomparably greater impact in comparison with the modality of information that existed earlier in the psyche. Yes, if the modality coincides, then in this case the state of rapport comes easier, i.e. a reliable connection is established, whereby one individual (or group) becomes receptive to receiving information from another individual (group). The state of rapport also turns out to be very effective during manipulative influence, i.e. when controlling one person, the psyche of another. At the same time, for such an impact, for its effectiveness, it is necessary to find something in the supplied information that will find confirmation with the information that already exists in the psyche. A.M. Svyadoshch (1982) noted that processes of probabilistic forecasting occur in the brain, accompanied by processes of verification of all incoming information, i.e. there is an unconscious determination of its reliability and significance. In this connection, if you need to suggest something to another person, then it is necessary to ensure the introduction of information that is accepted by the person without critical evaluation and has an impact on neuropsychic processes. At the same time, not all information has an irresistible persuasive effect. Depending on the form of presentation, the source of receipt and the individual characteristics of the individual, the same information may or may not have a suggestive effect on the individual. The state of rapport is generally considered invaluable in using all the possibilities of trance influence. We do not need to put the object into a sleep state for this. More precisely, he falls into sleep, but this will be the so-called. a dream in reality. And just such a state, in our opinion, turns out to be the most effective and unusually effective in realizing the possibilities of informational and psychological influence on an individual, on an object, with the aim of inspiring the latter to perform certain actions necessary for us.

Returning to the topic of resistance, let us once again highlight the important function of such a defensive reaction of the psyche. And then we note that by overcoming resistance, we open our psyche in the most amazing way to perceive new information. Moreover, there is a high probability of obtaining completely new information. After all, if earlier, as we said, some information was already present in the memory, then when new information is received, the censorship of the psyche unconsciously seeks confirmation of the newly received information in the storehouses of memory. Probably the psyche in this case should react in a certain way, and it reacts. Visually, this is noticeable by external changes that occur with a person in the “here and now” parallel (reddening or blanching of the skin of the face, dilated pupils, variants of catalepsy (stiffness of the body), etc.). At the same time, such changes can occur and not necessarily so noticeable, but still be caught by the eye of an experienced observer. Such changes indicate the onset, the possibility, of rapport (information contact) with the object of manipulation. And the probability that in this state the object will accept the information supplied to it without cuts is up to one hundred percent. Another question is that there may be individuals who cannot be brought into a state of rapport in the “here and now” transcription, but something similar, for example, can be done later. All the same, everyone has states when he is maximally susceptible to informational and psychological influence, to manipulation of his psyche, invasion of his psyche and control of the psyche of a given person. Moreover, it is also possible to fully trace the choice of the right moment, but for this you need to have experience, knowledge, and a predisposition to realize this kind of opportunities. Those. at least relative, but abilities, and even better - talent. In this case, the likelihood of achieving the programming result increases significantly.

Let's return to resistance. So, as a result of the fact that the barrier of criticality is broken, the psyche begins to perceive new information with unprecedented force. Such information is deposited in the subconscious and is reflected in the preconscious and consciousness. That is, in this case we can say that the attack is being carried out on several fronts at once. As a result, unusually strong programming of the psyche is observed, the emergence of powerful, stable mechanisms (patterns of behavior) in the unconscious. In addition, after the creation of something like this, there is an initiation of the emergence of more and more new mechanisms of a similar orientation in the unconscious of the psyche. However, now they find constant reinforcement in both consciousness and preconsciousness. This means that not only is the process of consolidating information once received in the subconscious possible (not just any information, but precisely that which caused such a process, information that, as a result of the receipt of which, patterns began to form in the unconscious), but also such information begins to become active , soon subordinating the thoughts and desires of the individual in a manner indicated by the semantic load of this kind of information. At the same time, a very important factor in the processing of such information is the characteristics of the individual’s psyche. It is known that the same information may have no effect on one individual, but cause another to almost radically change their life.

Considering the impact of information on the psyche, let's pay attention to the role of resistance in assessing information coming from outside, both from the directly surrounding world (buildings, architectural monuments, landscape, infrastructure, etc.), and from other individuals (as a result of interpersonal contacts) , as well as the transportation of information over long distances using the means of mass communication and information (QMS and the media). As we have already noted, the same information can either have or not have an impact on the individual. In the first case, we should talk about the establishment of rapport (contact), as a result of which the barrier of criticality of the psyche weakens (censorship of the psyche according to Freud), which means that such information is able to penetrate into consciousness, or from the subconscious (where all information is deposited) to have an impact on consciousness, i.e. in the process of initial encoding of the psyche, control of it is achieved, because it has long been proven by various scientists (Z. Freud, K. Jung, V. M. Bekhterev, I. P. Pavlov, V. Reich, G. Lebon, Moscovici, C. Horney , V.A. Medvedev, S.G. Kara-Murza, I.S. Kon, L.M. Shcheglov, A. Shchegolev, N. Blagoveshchensky, and many others) that it is the subconscious mind that controls the thoughts and actions of the individual , unconscious. But we must pay attention that if attempts are made to break the barrier of criticality, then it becomes possible to achieve as a result of this step (we note that it is very dangerous, and necessary to be carried out under the guidance of specialists of the appropriate profile) something like “enlightenment”, satori. Just such states were the goal of martial arts and meditative practice in martial arts and Eastern philosophy (religion), or the state of enlightened consciousness in Russian pagan practices, or similar states in other systems of the world. Moreover, it should be noted that the state of satori is a temporary state that passes over time (lasts from several seconds to several minutes, for someone a little more or less); moreover, it is not an eternal state, i.e. not a state in the “once and for all” paradigm, therefore, after some time, it is necessary to plunge again into the depths of consciousness or overcome resistance - in order to achieve a similar effect. Unless in this case we can notice that most likely for the majority after the first achievement of such a state, the subsequent invocation of the state of "enlightenment" will be easier. Although in this case it is also necessary to take into account the greater predictability of achieving this for “artists” (in the context of the division of the psyche proposed at the time by Academician I. P. Pavlov, who divided the psyche of individuals into “thinkers” and “artists”). Pavlov classified the former as those who remember logical information well, and the latter (“artists”) as visual. According to academician I.P. Pavlov (1958), the input of the left hemisphere includes speech, reading, writing, counting, solving problems requiring logic (rational, analytical, verbal thinking). In the introduction of the right - intuition and spatial-imaginative thinking (i.e. visual and auditory figurative memory). Let us add that the input of the left hemisphere includes consciousness (10% of the brain), and the right hemisphere includes the subconscious, or unconscious (90% of the brain). Moreover, the mechanisms of brain functioning are the result of the functioning of the individual’s psyche, and therefore the methods of subsequent influence on the psyche of the object of manipulation, so let us dwell in a little more detail on the activity of the brain hemispheres.

The developed left hemisphere of the brain predisposes a person to speech, logical thinking, abstract inferences, has external and internal verbal speech, as well as the ability to perceive, verify, remember and reproduce information and the individual life experience of a particular individual. In addition, there is an interrelation between the work of the left and right hemispheres of the brain, since the left hemisphere perceives reality through the corresponding mechanisms (images, instincts, feelings, emotions) of the right hemisphere of the brain. As, indeed, through one’s analytical and verification psychophysiological mechanisms (life experience, knowledge, goals, attitudes). The right hemisphere of the brain, as we have already noted, extends into the spectrum of activity of the unconscious psyche. Whereas the left one forms a conscious personality. The right hemisphere thinks in images, feelings, grasping a picture, the left hemisphere analyzes information received from the outside world, the prerogative of logical thinking is the left hemisphere. The right hemisphere realizes emotions, the left - thoughts and signs (speech, writing, etc.) There are individuals who, in a completely new environment, have the impression of “already seen.” This is a typical example of right hemisphere activity. As a result, we can say that the activity of the brain is provided by two hemispheres, the right (sensual) and the left (sign, i.e. integrates objects of the external world with the help of signs: words, speech, etc.). The complementarity of the activities of the two hemispheres is often manifested by the simultaneous presence in the psyche of the individual of the rational and intuitive, reasonable and sensual. Hence the high efficiency of directive instructions to the brain in the form of such mechanisms of suggestive influence as orders, self-hypnosis, etc. This is due to the specifics of mental activity, when, while pronouncing or hearing a speech, a person’s imagination also turns on, which in this case noticeably enhances this kind of impact. We consider in more detail the specifics of brain activity when processing information coming from the outside world separately, therefore, without dwelling on the mechanisms of the brain, we will return once again to the state of enlightenment, satori, insight, insight, etc. numerous names denoting the essence of the same thing - the establishment from now on (from the beginning of the activation of such a mechanism) of a stable connection between the manipulator and the object at which the manipulative influence is directed.

Any kind of manipulation is suggestion, i.e. conscious change of the object’s existing attitudes through the involvement (activation) of archetypes of the unconscious psyche; archetypes, in turn, involve previously formed patterns of behavior. If we consider this from the perspective of neurophysiology, then the corresponding dominant is activated in the subject’s brain (focal excitation of the cerebral cortex), which means that the part of the brain that is responsible for consciousness slows down its work. In this case, the censorship of the psyche (as a structural unit of the psyche) is temporarily blocked or semi-blocked, which means information from the outside world freely enters the preconscious, or even immediately into consciousness. Sometimes, bypassing consciousness, it passes into the subconscious. The personal unconscious of the psyche (subconscious) is also formed in the process of repressing information by censorship of the psyche. But not all information coming from the outside world is repressed unconsciously into the unconscious. A part still seems to pass into the subconscious intentionally (for example, to feed the information already available in the unconscious and to further form archetypes, or specifically and exclusively for the purpose of forming new archetypes, patterns of future behavior of the individual). And this, in our opinion, must be correctly understood and distinguished. At the same time, attention should once again be paid to the need to overcome resistance. It is known that resistance is activated when new information enters the brain (psyche), information that initially does not find a response in the human soul, does not find something similar to the information already in memory. Such information does not pass the criticality barrier and is repressed into the subconscious. However, if through an effort of will (i.e., using consciousness; will is the prerogative of the activity of consciousness) we can prevent repression, and force the brain to analyze the incoming information (the part of such information that we need), then we will be able to overcome resistance, and therefore after some At that time it will be possible to experience that state that we called early satori, or insight. Moreover, the effect of this will be incomparably higher than information that methodically and over a long period of time penetrated the subconscious, later influencing consciousness. In our case, if the barrier of criticality, and therefore resistance, is broken, we will achieve incomparably more, because in this case the so-called state will be observed for some time. “green corridor”, when incoming information passes almost entirely, bypassing the criticality barrier. Moreover, in this case, the transition into consciousness of both their preconscious and from the unconscious occurs just as quickly. This means that we will no longer have to wait long, as in the case of the natural transition of information from the subconscious to consciousness, when such information begins its transition only when it finds a “response in the soul,” i.e. only when, clinging to similar information currently available in consciousness (temporary information, because any information in consciousness does not last long, and after time, from operative memory it enters long-term memory) it enters there. In the case of overcoming resistance, such information arrives immediately, changing the person’s worldview, because in this case consciousness is actively involved, and if something is realized by a person, it is accepted as a guide to action.

It is also necessary to say that any kind of information passing by the consciousness and subconscious of the individual, i.e. falling under the spectrum of action of its representational system (auditory, visual, and kinesthetic) and two signaling systems (feelings and speech) is invariably deposited in the subconscious. This means that ultimately it begins to influence the individual’s consciousness, because everything that is in the subconscious affects consciousness, the emergence of corresponding thoughts, desires, and actions in the individual. That is, in this case we can talk about modeling a person’s actions through the initial formation of the unconscious of his psyche. And this is a truly serious issue, attention to which would allow us to avoid many problems, including and in raising children and adults. Moreover, in a situation with a child, it becomes possible to calculate his adult behavior, and in the case of an adult, it should be said that such an influence can begin to have an impact, incl. and in a fairly short period of time. The presence of the object among other people especially enhances the schemes originally embedded in the subconscious, i.e. when we talk about mass behavior. In the case of the latter, the mechanisms of mass and crowd are activated (in this case we do not separate these concepts), which means the effect is much more effective than in the case of preliminary influence on one individual. At the same time, as a result of our influence on the object, we should achieve a state of empathy, when the internal world of the object is perceived by us as our own. Professor Carl Rogers wrote about empathy: “To be in a state of empathy means to perceive the inner world of another accurately, with the preservation of emotional and semantic nuances. It’s as if you become that other person, but without losing the “as if” feeling. Thus, you feel the joy or pain of another as he feels them, and you perceive their causes as he perceives them. But there must definitely remain a shade of “as if”: as if it were me who was happy or sad. If this shade disappears, then a state of identification arises... The empathic way of communicating with another person has several facets. It implies entering the personal world of another and staying in it “at home.” It involves constant sensitivity to the changing experiences of another - to fear, or anger, or emotion, or embarrassment, in a word, to everything that he or she experiences. This means temporarily living another life, delicately staying in it without evaluation and condemnation. This means grasping what the other is barely aware of himself. But at the same time, there are no attempts to reveal completely unconscious feelings, since they can be traumatic. This involves communicating your impressions of another's inner world by looking with fresh and calm eyes at those elements that excite or frighten your interlocutor. This involves asking the other person frequently to check your impressions and listening carefully to the answers you receive. You are a confidant for another. By pointing out possible meanings to another's experiences, you help them experience more fully and constructively. To be with another in this way means to put aside one's own points of view and values for a while in order to enter the other's world without prejudice. In a sense, this means that you are leaving your Self. This can only be accomplished by people who feel safe enough in a certain sense: they know that they will not lose themselves in the sometimes strange or bizarre world of another and that they can successfully return to their world whenever they want.

Psychoanalysis understands resistance as everything that prevents the penetration into the consciousness of an individual’s secret (deep, unconscious) thoughts. E. Glover singled out explicit and implicit forms of resistance. By the first in psychoanalytic work, he understood lateness, missed sessions, excessive talkativeness or complete silence, automatic denial or misunderstanding of all statements of the psychotherapist, playing at naivety, constant absent-mindedness, interruption of therapy. He attributed everything else to the second (implicit forms), for example, when the patient formally fulfills all the working conditions, but at the same time his indifference is clearly noticeable. The classification of types of resistance (according to Freud) includes: repression resistance, transference resistance, id and superego resistance, and resistance based on secondary benefit from the disease. Resistance occurs when the individual’s psyche resists the penetration into consciousness of any painful information from the subconscious. At the same time, according to J. Sandler, Dare et al., this type of resistance can be considered a reflection of the so-called. "primary benefit" from the disease of neurosis. As a result of the method of free associations, information previously hidden in the unconscious can come out (pass into consciousness), therefore the psyche resists this - by engaging (activating) resistance mechanisms. Moreover, the closer the material previously repressed from consciousness (and transferred to the subconscious) approaches consciousness, the more resistance increases. Transference resistance characterizes infantile impulses and the fight against them. Infantile impulses are understood as impulses caused by the personality of the analyst and arising in direct or modified form: the analytical situation in the form of a distortion of reality at a certain moment contributes to the recall of previously repressed material (material that, once in the unconscious, caused a neurotic symptom). Transference resistance varies depending on which transference relations (positive or negative) underlie it. Patients with an erotic transference (for example, with a hysterical type of personality organization) may strive for a sexual relationship with the therapist or demonstrate resistance in order to avoid awareness of a strong sexual desire in such a transference. Patients with a negative transference (for example, with a narcissistic type of personality organization) are filled with aggressive feelings towards the therapist and may strive through resistance to humiliate him, make him suffer, or in the same way avoid the transference awareness of these feelings. Resistance to "It" is characteristic of cases where negative and eroticized forms of transference become an insoluble obstacle to continuing therapy. At the same time, Freud considered the resistance of the Super-Ego (“Super-I”) to be the strongest, since it is difficult to identify and overcome it. It comes from an unconscious sense of guilt and masks impulses that seem unacceptable to the patient (for example, sexual or aggressive). One of the manifestations of superego resistance is a negative therapeutic reaction. Those. the patient, despite the clearly successful result of the treatment, has a very negative attitude both to the therapist and to the manipulations performed on him. At the same time, just from the awareness of such nonsense, their mental health worsens, because it is known that for our psyche it is virtually indifferent whether an event actually happens, in reality, or whether it scrolls only in a person’s thoughts. The brain will receive impulses from such an impact that are identical and almost equivalent in terms of involvement and activation of neurons. As a result of psychotherapy, resistance may be observed based on the so-called. “secondary” benefit, i.e. when the patient benefits from his “disease”. In this case, we see a clear trace of the masochistic accents of the psyche of a neurotic individual, because the patient likes it when people feel sorry for him, and he does not want to get rid of the support provided to him “as a patient.”

The conditional scheme for working with resistance is as follows:

1) recognition (it is necessary for resistance to be noticed not only by the therapist, but also by the patient);

2) demonstration (any type of resistance noticed in the patient is verbally demonstrated in order to draw the patient’s attention to it);

3) clarifying resistance (which involves confronting what the patient is avoiding, why he is doing it and how).

After clarifying the cause of resistance, its form is analyzed. The result of this stage is the discovery of an instinctive urge, the attempt to satisfy which led to conflict. After this, the history of the experience is revealed through the method of interpretation. At this stage, it becomes clear how the conflict arose, how it manifested itself and is manifesting itself throughout the patient’s life, what patterns of behavior and emotional response it gave rise to, etc. The history of the experience allows us to include the identified conflict in the broader context of obstacles at this stage of psychodynamic therapy. At the same time, the therapist must remember that criticism or disagreement with something by the patient does not always mean a manifestation of resistance. At the conclusion of therapy for working with resistance, resistance is worked through, which is a tracing of the influence of an already realized conflict on various life events in order to repeat, deepen, and expand the analysis of resistance. Elaboration allows you to enhance your understanding of the client by increasing the amount of material involved. This is also where the interpretation of new resistances that arise occurs, which further clarifies the basic issues and leads to more sustainable results. This stage is not limited in time; its duration depends on the individual characteristics of the patient, the form and content of resistance, the stage of psychotherapy, the state of the working alliance and many other factors.

And finally, I would like to once again draw attention to the fact that the activity of resistance is an unconscious act, and thus it is quite logical that if we want to unravel the nature of man, the nature of his psyche, to unravel the mechanisms of mental control, we will certainly first in turn, we must pay attention to his unconscious reactions, by analyzing and comparing various facts, reveal what a person is hiding, and therefore, in the future, such methods can bring us even closer to the path of understanding the human psyche, help reveal the mechanisms of the psyche, how to trace certain other human reactions, and to identify the mechanisms of impulses that result in these reactions. That is, we are saying that analysis, carrying out analytical work, paying attention to every little detail is absolutely important, because it is they who will ultimately allow us to collect the most complete picture about the psyche of this or that individual, and therefore, subsequently, to find out (develop, identify, etc.) mechanisms of influence both on such an individual and on society as a whole, for society consists precisely of various individuals who, uniting in masses, collectives, meetings, congresses, processes, symposiums, crowds, etc. . forms of association of people are part of the environment. For the environment is precisely represented incl. and the constant unification and separation of people, this process is fluid like mercury, the mass is changeable and fickle not only in its desires and interests, but also in the composition of participants, etc. Thus, the solution to the psyche of each individual person can bring us closer to the secrets and clues of society, and therefore to the development of a methodology for managing a person, modeling his thoughts and projecting such thoughts into actions.

“Projection is a kind of repression (analogous to conversion, etc.) in which the representation becomes conscious in the form of perception, and the affect associated with it, undergoing an inversion into displeasure, is separated and returned to the ego.”
This is the definition of projection that Freud gives to Jung in April 1907 in one of his letters, where he expresses a number of theoretical ideas about paranoia.

Seeking to explain projection, Freud adds in the same letter: “What is the condition for an internal process invested by affect to be projected outward? Let us turn to the norm: initially our consciousness perceives only two types of objects. Turning outward, it deals with perceptions (Wahrnehmung), which in themselves are not invested by affect and have their own qualities; and inside it (consciousness) has the experience of “sensations” (Empfindung), which are the exteriorization of drives that use certain organs as support, and to a very small extent have such a property as quality, but, on the contrary, are capable of significant quantitative investment. That which is this very quantity is located inside, and that which is qualitative and devoid of affect is located outside” (p. 86).

Arguing in this way, Freud sets himself the goal of a metapsychological understanding of projection. Projection appears as a kind of defense mechanism, which Freud characterizes in a letter as “a kind of repression.” However, considering the case of Schreber, Freud (1911) contrasts two defense mechanisms: repression, even rejection, which acts in the direction of removing the investment of certain ideas until the possibility of withdrawing the object arises, and projection, which is even further along the path of “failure of repression, a break in surface, the return of the repressed,” which allows us to again find the way for object reinvestment, to consider delirium as an “attempt at cure.” This means that we are talking about two economically different defense mechanisms, despite the fact that their tasks may be interrelated, in particular within the framework of neurotic functioning.

In addition, if Freud in his writings often mentions pathological projection, a defense mechanism characteristic, for example, of paranoia or phobia, then just as often he mentions normal projection, a process that is not protective and constitutive of the psyche. In a letter to Jung, he refers to his own concept of mental functioning, insisting on the need to combine the work of drive, which refers to the realm of the quantitative and economic, and perception, which opens access to the qualitative in the Freudian perspective, allowing something to “become conscious.” From this point of view, projection plays a leading role in the process of differentiation between internal and external, outside and inside.

A defense and/or process, projection is a complex concept that Freud could have written an entire article on, as Jones claims, during the period when he was thinking about metapsychology. But as we know, such a work has never reached us, despite the fact that Freud, considering the case of Schreber (1911), announced his project for “an in-depth study of the process of projection” (p. 315). After Freud, numerous works were devoted to this topic. In addition, there is the concept of projective identification, which was developed by M. Klein and post-Kleinians and which in the analytical community could manifest itself more as a heuristic than as a projection. We
We can count on the participants in our colloquium as part of ongoing psychoanalytic education in Moscow to help shed light on these concepts and formulate a judgment about their relevance in the analytical process.

Projection: function of non-recognition and/or knowledge

Thus projection, in its defensive function, aims to throw out something that is not recognized in oneself. Freud often emphasized that it is easier to defend against external danger than internal danger. In his work “Totem and Taboo” (1913), he notes that primitive people did not recognize their own unconscious hostility towards the dead, attributing this very hostility to them, and considered the deceased to be dangerous spirits. Just as in psychopathology, here projection helps resolve the conflict associated with ambivalence, in this case allowing one to abandon any feelings of hatred towards the deceased.

But projection also has the function of knowledge, since, thanks to non-recognition and concealment of the inner world from oneself, it allows one to discover the outer world. In paranoia, we are actually talking about recognizing in another what the subject does not want to see in himself, exploring the external world in this way. From this point of view, projection, about which Freud wrote in 1913 that it “plays a major role in determining our way of representing the external world” (p. 78), provides a certain representational content, we become aware of it only through sensations of pleasure or pain, those devoid of quality "feelings" that Freud wrote about in a letter to Jung. Projection contributes to the work of the image thanks to the “perceptual residues” originating from the external world and makes rotation possible, just as multimodal perceptions are transferred to objects in the external world.

In this function of knowledge, projection becomes, as Freud writes in 1911 in Totem and Taboo, a "method of understanding" which allows primitive man to rediscover in gods and spirits what he himself is. Thus, Freud points to the most important connection between projection and identification when he notes that it is a natural and seemingly innate property for primitive man to project his own essence onto the external world, considering all observable events as owing their origin to some beings that have a deep resemblance to himself. Not being identical to animism, projection is nevertheless closely connected with precisely this way of thinking, which allows primitive man to “establish relations” with the world and influence it, to influence it, contributing to the achievement of “mental domination” that underlies physical domination over dangerous nature.

Freud here compares the feeling of impotence and despair of primitive man with the possible feelings of a child at the beginning of life. This is not about reducing prehistoric man to a child, which our colleagues who study prehistoric man actively oppose, but rather about describing some fundamental mental process: projection is related to identification (in the sense of identification, assimilation, establishing an analogy) , allowing the development of identification in a reflexive sense - as "self-identification". Projection fits into non-recognition to the extent that anxiety in the face of the external world becomes ultimately better tolerated than anxiety that is associated with the inner world and the danger of attraction. But at the same time, projection creates the possibility of some kind of assimilation between oneself and the external world, and this is precisely the characteristic of the animistic approach to the world, which nevertheless underlies the ability to perceive and constitute the external world.

In his reflections on the evolution of culture, Freud (1913) proposed a transition from an animistic stage in human development to a stage of religion and then to a scientific stage that could become widespread, especially under the influence of psychoanalysis. But mental functioning is such that projection and the beliefs associated with it can, of course, evolve towards some more objective knowledge of the world, but at the same time the illusions associated with them cannot be completely eliminated, as the hallucination of a dream reminds us of this. The hallucinatory desire gratification hypothesis, based on the dream hallucination model, shows that hallucination precedes perception and that the latter is essentially a kind of belief, as noted by Merleau-Ponty (1945). Projection as a process necessarily refers to the Freudian dialectic of hallucination and perception.

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The term "projection", which is used in geometry, physics, psychology and other sciences, comes from the Latin word projectio, which literally translates as "throwing forward." Specifically in psychology, it denotes one of the mechanisms of psychological defense of the individual.

Basic methods of psychological protection of the individual

Before moving on to revealing the essence of projection, it would be useful to give a general definition of such psychological processes as defense mechanisms, as well as find out what methods of this defense exist.

The concept of psychological defense was born within the framework of psychoanalysis. It was introduced by the founder of this teaching, Sigmund Freud, in 1894. According to it, a person begins to use psychological defense mechanisms to combat various painful and difficult experiences. In difficult times for a person, they help maintain mental health by distorting reality. That is, the primary function of these mechanisms is to protect the individual from the negative impact of external and internal factors (that is, from oneself). In psychology, she acts as a bearer of an individual principle, which is endowed with its own special inner world. Therefore, protection mechanisms for everyone specific case are individual. However, as a result of multiple studies, scientists were able to systematize them and identified several main methods of psychological defense. Almost all mental functions take part in them (memory, attention, perception, imagination, emotions, thinking, etc.), but in each individual case only one of them dominates. Depending on this, the following methods of psychological defense are distinguished:

Each of these mechanisms is a specially formulated program for combating anxiety and tension. They help a person resolve not only external but also internal conflicts. So, for example, thanks to projection, a person can, on an unconscious level, transfer responsibility and guilt for some of his shameful (in his understanding) inclinations to another person, or attribute his qualities or feelings to others.

Forms of psychological defense

Science distinguishes four main forms of psychological defense, namely: active, “capitulation”, overprotection and “rationalization”.

Active form of protection

It can occur by searching for a “target” - someone or something on whom you can take out your bad mood or accumulated aggression, also through extrapunitiveness, in which there is a tendency to blame someone else for your mistakes or failures, but not yourself . This form of defense also includes “righteous anger,” when a person reproaches someone in order to justify the negative feelings that arise in him, for example, envy. Self-affirmation by belittling the dignity of another person is the most negative form of triggering the psychological defense mechanism. And it also belongs to this category. In addition, an active form of defense can include devaluing the object of concern, that is, attributing negative characteristics to a given person, which he may not actually possess.

Psychological defense through surrender

When a person, assessing his achievements in life, feels internal dissatisfaction, he resorts to such a form of defense as capitulation. It can be expressed by gerontolism or puerilism. For example, he can console himself with the fact that he still has everything ahead, or, conversely, blame his age for his failures, saying, if I were young, then everything would be different. By the way, this type also includes intropunity (the opposite of extrapunity), when a person blames himself for everything. This form is mainly used by people with an inferiority complex.

Super protection

Under the influence of deep emotions or stress, a person stops perceiving all unpleasant information and hears only good things. This is called information selection; it is somewhat similar to the mechanism of denial or avoidance, when an individual does not want to believe what happened and denies it.

The so-called “protective façade” also refers to the “overprotection” mechanism, when a quiet person suddenly begins to behave unusually brazenly and thereby plunges those around him into shock. Devaluation of the threat, as well as personalization of anxiety, are also overprotective techniques. And if in the first case a person pushes away thoughts about the threat looming over him due to the commission of certain actions (for example, smoking - as a consequence the threat of lung cancer), then in the second case, in his worries, which are most often causeless, looking for culprits from outside. Overprotection also includes reinsurance (never fly on airplanes, eat healthy food, etc.), fixation, repression, overconservatism, diflexion (the same as withdrawal), disconnection from reality, depersonalization (when a person disconnect from the main problem, begins to do something insignificant, etc.), “cutting the Gordian knot” (unconscious risk), symbolic or ritual actions (belief in omens), sublimation (revaluation of life values), etc.

By the way, people with a high level of psychological defense resort to completely different techniques, such as optimism, clarity of thought, analysis, a realistic view of things, treating oneself with humor, etc. However, only a real person can treat problems in this way. In psychology, despite the fact that the word “personality” refers to any creature that is endowed with consciousness, speech, creative capabilities, etc., nevertheless, in everyday life, when talking about personality, we mean those people who have willpower and character , are extraordinary and strong people.

Protection through rationalization

These primarily include self-defense attitudes, or as they call it in psychology, “your own lawyer.” Probably everyone has seen the film “The Most Charming and Attractive.” In it, the main character uses precisely this form of psychological defense. Projection, distortion, replacement of reality, introjection, identification of oneself with a socially significant person, dissolution of responsibility, etc. also relate to defense through rationalization. Sometimes a distortion of reality occurs in the form of a time shift. When for a person everything that took place several years ago seems almost prehistoric. Further in the article we will try to outline the essence of one of the mechanisms of psychological defense - projection. As noted above, protection in this case is carried out through rationalization.

What is projection?

Projection in psychology is a way of transferring one's own feelings and secret desires to another animate or inanimate object. With the first, everything seems to be clear, as for inanimate objects, this happens in the case when a person endows objects or natural phenomena with their own sensations, for example, an alarming sea, a hostile sky, etc. In the simplest understanding, a person , who experiences outbursts of cruelty from time to time, sees cruelty in other people, the liar thinks that everyone around him is deceiving him. This happens because a person does not accept these qualities in himself, cannot really evaluate himself as if from the outside, however, this constant conflict with himself leads to the fact that he unconsciously resorts to projection, which, like introjection, is a psychological defense. Freud believed that they are most often found in people with paronoid or hysteroid disorders. In this context, this term refers to the mechanism of subjective perception, which can be both positive and negative.

Negative and positive aspects of projection

When people feel sick for a while or they experience anxiety and fear, then certain defense mechanisms begin to work in their minds. For example, projection. As a way of transferring your own feelings and secret desires to another object. For example, a person who feels a secret desire to cheat on his wife, but does not accept and is even ashamed of it, begins to project these desires onto his wife. As a result of this, he begins to believe that it is not he, but his wife who wants to cheat on him. As a result, he continually throws up scenes of jealousy, accusing her of all mortal sins, although he has no reason for this. Another example is the story of an aging beauty who, fearing old age, begins to see signs of aging in her peers and expresses this to their faces. In a word, projection in psychology is a mechanism of subjective perception, which can be both positive and negative. The above examples indicate the negative side of this mechanism.

On the other hand, projection in psychology can also have positive sides. For example, a positive projection is empathy, which can increase the degree of mutual understanding between people. Empathy for someone is called empathy in psychological science. It is based on the same projection mechanism, when a person, empathizing with another, projects his feelings onto himself. As a result, he is able to better understand the state of this “other”.

Conclusion

The main problems, which include the problem of her mental health, are closely interconnected with the psychological defense mechanisms that the individual resorts to (unconsciously) in order to maintain the integrity of his mental health.

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Man and woman. Secrets of reciprocity in astrology and psychology. , Banzhaf H.. Ideal people do not exist. However, you see, this does not prevent us from carefully keeping in our hearts the image of the “prince on a white horse” or “dream woman”, comparing with him everyone who meets on ...

The world of human relationships is complex and, unfortunately, does not always bring us joy. There are often moments that cause bitterness or disappointment. These are difficult feelings that I would like to get rid of, and a person has unconsciously learned to protect his psyche from excessive overload and negativity. S. Freud was the first to study and describe it, determining that one of the most ancient and primitive mechanisms is projection.

Do you know how a projector works? It transfers the image from film to the screen. Also, a person often transfers and projects his feelings, thoughts, desires onto others. Most often these are unpleasant thoughts and desires. - difficult experiences, and a person strives to get rid of them so as not to traumatize his psyche. Moreover, he not only takes his sins and dark thoughts out of his consciousness, but imparts them to other people. This way it’s easier for him - he doesn’t need to blame himself, because others are no better, and even worse.

Projection, like other psychological protection, is necessary for us, as it protects the psyche from and helps build relationships with others. But knowing the disadvantages and dangers of projection, you need to control your thoughts and behavior, limit your desire to blame everything on others and blame them for all troubles.