What was the name of the spaceship on which. What was the name of Yuri Gagarin's spaceship: alternative versions

The presence of compatibility contributes to the establishment of an acceptable, favorable interpersonal distance in a relationship. Accordingly, compatibility is one of the conditions regulating socio-psychological distance in relationships.

In the Russian language dictionary the word compatibility means: “one that can be combined with something, and the word combine- combine, connect together."

In psychological literature compatibility is understood as the psychological effect of a combination of individuals, which is expressed in mutual acceptance, agreement and partial identification at the emotional, sensory, intellectual and activity levels, in mutual satisfaction and the absence of tension, conflicts, hostility in any contacts.

N.I. Shevandrin (1998), considers “compatible people who are situationally indivisible in the sense of internal unity and self-government.” However, it is not entirely clear what it means situationally indivisible? (highlighted by me – S.D.) It turns out that compatibility can only exist in situations of joint activity, in situations of interpersonal interaction. But interpersonal relationships are not always direct, therefore, we believe that psychological compatibility is a broader concept. It should not be limited only to joint activities and direct interaction of the subjects of relations with each other.

In the Great Psychological Encyclopedia the concept “ group compatibility"- representing an element of group cohesion, consisting in optimal unity and consistency of psychological properties of group members.

W. Schutz (1993) in his theory of interpersonal relations understood compatibility as a feature of the relationship between two or more individuals, between an individual and a role, between an individual and the surrounding situation, which leads to the mutual satisfaction of interpersonal needs and their mutual coexistence.

As A.L. Sventsitsky points out psychological compatibility– the ability of group members to collaborate, based on their optimal combination. Compatibility is determined both by the similarity of some properties of group members and by the differences in their other properties. As a result, this leads to the complementarity of people in joint activities, so that this group represents a certain integrity.

Compatibility can be presented at two levels: lower and higher. Lower represents the compatibility of characters, temperaments, consistency of the simplest sensorimotor actions. Higher presupposes consistency of functional-role expectations, subject-goal and value-orientation unity.

Compatibility as a factor regulating interpersonal distance, it is convenient to present it in two forms: psychophysiological and socio-psychological.

Psychophysiological compatibility. This implies the similarity of the psychophysiological characteristics of people and, on this basis, the consistency of their emotional and behavioral reactions, the synchronization of the pace of joint activity.

Social and psychological compatibility. Here we mean the optimal combination of types of behavior of people in a group, the commonality of their social attitudes, needs and interests, value orientations, and psychological qualities of the individual.

One of the phenomena of socio-psychological compatibility is communication compatibility. As V.N. Kunitsyna notes (2003), communication compatibility“a particular type of compatibility that arises on the basis of mutual understanding and consistency of a common position; characterized by the absence of adverse consequences of communicative interaction in the form of tension, annoyance, and psychological discomfort.”

N.N. Obozov (1979), identified the following as criteria for assessing compatibility and workability:

● performance results,

● emotional and energy costs of participants in the activity,

● their satisfaction with this activity.

Incompatibility arises if the subjects of the relationship have different views on the frequency and degree of change in interpersonal behavior in a certain area of ​​interpersonal relationships (inclusion, control, affect). It leads to dissatisfaction with relationships and conflicts, as a result of which an unfavorable, unacceptable distance is established between the subjects of the relationship.

Psychological compatibility can also be viewed through the prism of similarity (contrast) between subjects of interpersonal relationships. In this case, psychological compatibility will be determined by:

● the ratio of their individual (natural), personal and socio-psychological parameters (temperament, intelligence, character, motivation, interests, value orientations, worldview positions);

● similarity/difference of initial (before the start of the relationship) opinions, assessments, attitudes towards oneself, the world of people and the objective world;

● similarity/difference of opinions, assessments, attitudes towards oneself, the world of people and the objective world as a consequence of interpersonal relationships and interpersonal interaction.

Generalization of what has been described allows us to say the following. Socio-psychological distance is regulated by the compatibility of the subjects of the relationship with each other. The more compatible the interacting people are, the more opportunities there are to establish a favorable, acceptable interpersonal distance. In this case, it is necessary to take into account the levels of compatibility, the combination of which will also affect the closeness - distance between people. So in some situations, to achieve an acceptable distance, psychophysiological compatibility is necessary, in others - socio-psychological. The ideal option is their harmonious, proportionate combination.

An important point in the regulation of socio-psychological distance is the degree of trust, readiness to transmit, receive and store information, information that is of personal significance for the subjects of the relationship. The problem of interpersonal trust will be discussed in the next part of the book.

Residents all over the world learned the name of the man who opened space to people.

From sensational newspaper headlines, read in rapid succession of enthusiastic radio reports in all possible languages, and, finally, television programs, it became known what Yuri Gagarin was called. A common word meaning one of the four cardinal directions. The name doesn’t mean anything like that, it doesn’t reveal any mysteries. There were many questions, but few answers.

A bit of pseudo-scientific-political fiction

Of course, if such an event had happened forty years earlier, in the twenties, one can only guess what name the first one would have received. In those years, as usual, it would probably have been called “International-1”, or some clever abbreviation, corresponding to the party fashion of the time. For example, “Strasovkosom” (Country of Soviets in space). Or “Vladlenkos” (Vladimir Lenin in the same place). After all, even the position of Deputy People's Commissar for Naval Affairs was designated as “Zamkompomorde”. In general, we would come up with something expressive.

And if the first one had entered orbit under Stalin, then perhaps he would have carried on his body the name of the leader, the “father of nations.”

Another name for the rocket, military

If a professional military man, a secret rocket scientist, was asked what the real name of Yuri Gagarin’s spaceship was, he would answer (observing secrecy, and only to those who had “first clearance”) that it was correct - R-7. Because it was this one that was the carrier that launched the now famous Soviet pilot into orbit. But just asking such questions was fraught. Firstly, it was still necessary to find out who to approach with them, and this turned out to be beyond the power of even such an insidious intelligence agency as the CIA. And secondly, almost everything related to Soviet space research was kept secret.

Tricky questions to Gagarin and his witty answers

On April 16, 1961, the world's first cosmonaut came to a press conference, at which correspondents from all news agencies could ask him any, even the most tricky, questions. At that time, they only knew the name of Yuri Gagarin’s spacecraft, the weight of its payload (5 tons) and several other parameters announced earlier by Academician Keldysh. The hero smiled charmingly, willingly and wittily answered all the interviewers’ questions, but did not provide any new technical information. Until 1968, when the Vostok descent module became an exhibit at VDNKh, even the shape of the habitable compartment remained a mystery, not to mention the complex devices that ensured the vital functions and landing of the capsule. There were reasons for such a veil of secrecy. The Americans literally stepped on their heels, but were always two or three months late, which greatly upset President Kennedy and other important people in the White House, and not only that. Even seemingly insignificant details could lead overseas designers to the right direction, and priority would be lost. Experts from the United States made assumptions about the layout of the Vostok, but, as time has shown, they were all wrong.

“Vostok” and “Zenith” are twin brothers

So, everyone knows the name of Yuri Gagarin’s spaceship - Vostok-1. But the word “Zenith” meant almost nothing to anyone until 1968. Only a few knew about the true and main problem that was being solved by designing the return head of the space rocket. In addition to delivering nuclear weapons, the R-7 could launch into orbit a reconnaissance satellite equipped with high-power optics and photographic equipment. With great difficulty, Keldysh and Korolev managed to add words about a manned flight to a top-secret government decree. Thus, Yuri Gagarin’s spaceship became an example of conversion, while its main purpose was military photographic reconnaissance.

And again about history

Time has shown that the great scientist S.P. Korolev and his wonderful team were right. Decades have passed, and today they rarely remember about spy satellites, clear photographs of Soviet and American defense facilities, ballistic mega-deaths aimed at each other and other terrible realities. But all of humanity remembers the name of Yuri Gagarin’s ship, knows about our space priority and pronounces the name of the pioneer space with respect and love. This cannot be changed.

Applicable to: ESA, NASA, China, Japan

Both names - "Rosetta" and "Philae" - are related to the deciphering of ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs. The name "Rosetta" comes from the famous Rosetta Stone - a stone slab with three identical texts carved on it, two of which are written in ancient Egyptian (one in hieroglyphs, the other in demotic writing), and the third in ancient Greek. Scientists used the Rosetta Stone to decipher ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs: ancient Greek was well known to them, and by comparing the texts, experts were able to read the new language.

Computer model of the Rosetta spacecraft, photo: DLR German Aerospace Center. Rosetta Stone, photo: Hans Hillewaert

The name of the Philae lander was chosen during a competition held in 2004 among residents of the countries participating in the project. This is the name of an island on the Nile River where an obelisk was discovered with a hieroglyphic inscription mentioning King Ptolemy VIII and Queens Cleopatra II and Cleopatra III. The obelisk also helped scientists decipher ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs.

With the help of Rosetta and the lander, scientists hope to understand what happened to the Universe in the first moments of its existence, hence the choice of names.

By the way, their mission to comet Churyumov-Gerasimenko was so successful that ESA extended it until the fall of 2016.

Tribute to ancient mythology is paid not only in Europe, but also in China. The Chang'e lunar module and its faithful companion, the six-wheeled lunar rover Yutu, descended to the surface of the Moon the year before and told the world a lot of new things about our natural satellite. Chang'e is the name of the Chinese moon goddess, and Yutu (translated as "jade hare") is a strange creature that always accompanies Chang'e.

Lunar module Chang'e-3 with the Yutu rover on board. Image: CNSA/SASTiND/Xinhua/Marco Di Lorenzo/Ken Kremer, Goddess Chang'e flies to the moon, art. Ren Shuaiying/Wikimedia

Other Chinese spacecraft are also related to the mythology of this huge and incomprehensible country, and their names are very poetic: “Shenzhou” - “Heavenly Boat”, “Tiangong” - “Heavenly Palace”, “Shenlong” - “Divine Dragon” and, finally , the Long March launch vehicle, which means "Long March".

All names consist of two hieroglyphs and have a historical and sometimes philosophical (and understandable only to the Chinese themselves) meaning. For example, “Shenlong” is the motto of the reign of the only empress in the entire history of China, Wu Zetian, as well as Emperor Zhong Zong.

The Japanese revere their mythology no less than their neighbors. The second Japanese artificial satellite of the Moon was given the name “Kaguya” (the name was traditionally chosen by the public) - this was the name of the lunar princess from an ancient Japanese legend. And after two small satellites successfully separated from Kaguya, they were officially named “Okina” and “Oyuna” in honor of the old man and old woman who sheltered the lunar princess in the same fairy tale.

Computer model of the Japanese Kaguya spacecraft, image: JAXA. Still from the animated film “The Tale of the Princess Kaguya”/Studio Ghibli

Europeans are not alone in loving their mythology. At the beginning of the space age, ships and missions were named after ancient Greek and Roman gods: the first US manned program was called Mercury, and the Apollo program landed American astronauts on the Moon six times.

But since then, NASA has forgotten Greece and Ancient Rome.

The ancient European gods are sometimes remembered by other countries: the same Japanese gave their space sailing ship the name ICAROS (Icarus), which is traditionally an English abbreviation: Interplanetary Kite-craft Accelerated by Radiation Of the Sun (interplanetary sailing vehicle propelled by solar radiation).

Ships named after ships

Applicable to: ESA, NASA

Often, when naming new spacecraft, space agencies perpetuate significant sea vessels of the past. For example, the European Beagle lander is named after the ship on which Charles Darwin traveled. Unlike the “real” Beagle, the mission of its space successor failed: after an unsuccessful landing on Mars, it disappeared and was found relatively recently by orbital vehicles.

The Beagle lander leaves Mars Express, image: Medialab/ESA. The Beagle on which Charles Darwin traveled, watercolor by Owen Stanley

The most consistent “admirers” of maritime transport are shuttles. All space shuttles are named after ships that became famous for something.

The first shuttle, Columbia, was named after the sailboat on which Captain Robert Gray explored the inland waters of British Columbia (today Washington and Oregon) in 1972. The next one, Challenger, was named after the sea vessel that carried out the first global ocean scientific expedition in the 70s of the last century. Both of these shuttles crashed and exploded. The Discovery shuttle bears the name of one of the two ships of the famous British captain James Cook. Cook's second ship, the Endeavor, gave its name to the last of the shuttles. The fourth shuttle bears the loud and seemingly meaningless name “Atlantis” (Atlantis); it was named after the first American sailing ship, which was specially built in 1930 to study the biology, geology and physics of the sea.

It is curious that the very first test shuttle, a prototype of future shuttles that never left the earth’s atmosphere, was originally supposed to be pathetically called “Constitution” in honor of the 200th anniversary of the US Constitution. However, according to the results of a vote by viewers of the terribly popular TV series “Star Trek” at that time, it was named “Enterprise” (initiative) - this was the name of the fictional starships in the universe of the series.

“Star Wars” also “participated” in the naming of real spaceships. Their famous Millennium Falcon became the prototype for the Falcon series of launch vehicles created by the American private space company SpaceX.

Falcon-9 launch vehicle, photo: CRS-6. Millennium Falcon, still from the Star Wars franchise/Lucasfilm

Romantic names

Typical: NASA, Japan, USSR/Russia

Very often ships have romantic names. For example, “Nozomi” (hope), the Japanese probe sent to Mars in 1998, the famous American rovers “Spirit” (spirit), “Oportunity” (opportunity). The last two flew in pairs - their names were invented in 2003 as part of a traditional NASA competition by a 9-year-old girl, Sophie Collins. By the way, she was born in Siberia and was adopted by an American family from Arizona.

Right now, the Curiosity spacecraft crawling on Mars (curiosity) was named based on the results of an online vote. The options offered were entirely poetic: Adventure, Journey, Pursuit, Perception, Wonder, and so on.

A romantic flair can also be seen in the names of both Voyagers (travelers), who headed beyond the boundaries of the solar system more than 30 years ago. Moreover, this name was chosen by the mission organizers from NASA themselves - it was not customary to hold a naming competition among citizens at that time.

Man and telescope

Featured: NASA and ESA

In cosmonymics (the non-existent science of naming spacecraft) there is another growing trend - naming ships after great people. The Saturnian probe "Cassini" is named after the French astronomer; NASA has christened the most famous space observatories with the names of Planck, Hubble, Herschel and Kepler and is going to continue this tradition further: in 2018, another American space telescope "James Webb" will begin work, bearing the name of the second head of the American Space Agency.

Europeans prefer scientists to artists. Thus, the space probe "Giotto", which was created to fly past Halley's Comet, is named after the Renaissance artist Giotto di Bondone, who depicted this comet in the fresco "Adoration of the Magi". The European cargo ship Jules Verne is in the same trend.

Computer model of the “Giotto” probe, image: Andrzej Mirecki/Wikimedia, Giotto di Bondone “Adoration of the Magi”

Patriotic

Typical: China and the USSR

The space age began with the unremarkable Sputnik, and the modest name immediately spread throughout the world, becoming a proper name from a common noun. Then came “Vostok” and “Voskhod”, which apparently symbolized the beginning of the space age and the advantage of the East over the West. They were replaced by “Worlds” and “Salyuts”, which denoted the main values ​​of Soviet ideology.

Model of the Vostok ship, photo: Georgy Elizarov/Wikimedia

China also suffers from the virus of patriotism. Take, for example, the 1970 launch vehicle "Dongfanghong" ("Already the East") and the already mentioned "Changzheng" ("Long March"), although there are some doubts about the latter due to the ambiguity of the name.

Bureaucratic

Typical: USSR/Russia; ESA, India

Russia, Europe and partly India often call their spacecraft dryly and bureaucratically. When sending another apparatus to the Moon, the USSR often called it simply “Moon” with the corresponding number. Russia continued the tradition: “Mars” (“Mars-96”) tried to fly to Mars, “Phobos” (“Phobos-Grunt”) to Phobos, and so on. Europeans are also prone to official names: just remember the Venus Express and Mars Express probes. India, which recently joined the pool of space powers, also does not shy away from this tradition and names its ships without frills, but in Hindi, which gives the names a national flavor - “Chandrayaan” (lunar ship) and “Mangalyaan” (Martian ship).

Assembly of the Mars Express apparatus. Photo: ESA

The Millennium Falcon spaceship from the Star Wars universe
Before becoming the Millennium Falcon, the ship was an ordinary Correlian truck bought by Lando Calrissian. Lando almost completely changed the truck, making many modifications, including installing a hyperdrive. One day, Han Solo arrived on Bespin and, betting against Calrissian, Falcon won. Having made a few more significant changes, Solo began to carry out scams involving the smuggling of the drug spice and recruited a new navigator - the Wookiee's first mate Chewbacca.

Ship "Enterprise"
fictional Starfleet Constitution-class starship from the Star Trek series. Over the course of 40 years of use, it has undergone modernization and at least two repairs. It enabled time travel, making it the most famous Starfleet ship of the period. Major achievements occurred during a five-year mission (2265-2270) under the command of James T. Kirk.

"The Reaper"
The main destroyers of all living beings in the history of the known Universe, a biomechanical race that periodically appears to destroy all intelligent organic life (the game features a time period of 50,000 (apparently terrestrial, since in the games of the series this information was somehow communicated to a representative of humanity) years, but it is unlikely to be constant for all cycles). The term "Reaper" is not the name of the race itself, but was coined to refer to them by the Protheans, according to information from the Sovereign (a living inorganic ship - the vanguard force of the Reapers, left behind by them before their return). In the game, the Reapers live in the “dark space”, which is located outside of our galaxy. Return to the Milky Way occurs through a mass relay, which is the giant space station Citadel. The game's plot revolves around preventing their invasion of the galaxy.

Perhaps, by uttering tricky words without any explanation, rocket professionals (and those classified among them) see themselves as a separate intellectual caste. But what about an ordinary person who, being interested in rockets and space, tries to immediately master an article peppered with incomprehensible abbreviations? What is BOKZ, SOTR or DPK? What is “crumpled gas” and why did the rocket “go over the hill”, and the launch vehicle and the spacecraft - two completely different products - bear the same name “Soyuz”? By the way, BOKZ is not Albanian boxing, but block for determining star coordinates(in common parlance - a star tracker), SOTR is not a violent abbreviation of the expression “I’ll grind it into powder”, but thermal control system, and WPC is not a furniture “wood-polymer composite”, but the most rocket-propelled one (and not only) drain safety valve. But what to do if there are no transcripts in either the footnote or the text? This is a problem... And not so much the reader, but the “writer” of the article: they won’t read it a second time! To avoid this bitter fate, we have undertaken the modest task of compiling a short dictionary of rocket and space terms, abbreviations and names. Of course, it does not pretend to be complete, and in some places, to be strict in its formulation. But we hope it will help the reader interested in astronautics. And besides, the dictionary can be supplemented and clarified endlessly - after all, space is infinite!..

Apollo- an American program to land a man on the Moon, which also included test flights of astronauts on a three-seater spacecraft in low-Earth and lunar orbit in 1968-1972.

Ariane-5— the name of a European disposable heavy-class launch vehicle designed to launch payloads into low-Earth orbits and departure trajectories. From June 4, 1996 to May 4, 2017, it completed 92 missions, 88 of which were completely successful.

Atlas V- the name of a series of American disposable medium-class launch vehicles created by Lockheed Martin. From August 21, 2002 to April 18, 2017, 71 missions were completed, of which 70 were successful. It is used primarily for launching spacecraft on orders from American government departments.

ATV(Automated Transfer Vehicle) is the name of a European disposable automatic transport vehicle designed to supply the ISS with cargo and flew from 2008 to 2014 (five missions were completed).

BE-4(Blue Origin Engine) is a powerful propulsion liquid rocket engine with a thrust of 250 tf at sea level, running on oxygen and methane and developed since 2011 by Blue Origin for installation on promising launch vehicles Vulcan and New Glenn. Positioned as a replacement for the Russian RD-180 engine. The first comprehensive fire tests are scheduled for the first half of 2017.

CCP(Commercial Crew Program) is a modern public American commercial manned program conducted by NASA and facilitating access for private industrial firms to technologies for the study and development of outer space.

CNSA(China National Space Agency) is the English abbreviation of the government agency that coordinates work on the study and development of outer space in the PRC.

CSA(Canadian Space Agency) is a government agency that coordinates space exploration in Canada.

Cygnus- the name of an American disposable automatic transport ship created by Orbital to supply the ISS with supplies and cargo. From September 18, 2013 to April 18, 2017, eight missions were completed, seven of them were successful.

Delta IV- the name of a series of American disposable medium- and heavy-class launch vehicles created by Boeing as part of the EELV program. From November 20, 2002 to March 19, 2017, 35 missions were conducted, 34 of which were successful. Currently used exclusively for launching spacecraft on orders from American government departments.

Dragon- the name of a series of American partially reusable transport ships developed by the private company SpaceX under a contract with NASA under the CCP program. Capable of not only delivering cargo to the ISS, but also returning it back to Earth. From December 8, 2010 to February 19, 2017, 12 unmanned spacecraft were launched, 11 of them were successful. The start of flight testing of the manned version is scheduled for 2018.

Dream Chaser- the name of the American reusable transport orbital rocket plane, developed since 2004 by Sierra Nevada to supply orbital stations with supplies and cargo (and in the future, in a seven-seat version, for crew changes). The start of flight tests is scheduled for 2019.

EELV(Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle) is a program for the evolutionary development of expendable launch vehicles for use (primarily) in the interests of the US Department of Defense. As part of the program, which began in 1995, carriers of the Delta IV and Atlas V families were created; Since 2015, they have been joined by Falcon 9.

EVA(Extra-Vehicular Activity) is the English name for extra-vehicular activity (EVA) of astronauts (work in outer space or on the surface of the Moon).

FAA(Federal Aviation Administration) - The Federal Aviation Administration, which regulates legal issues of commercial space flights in the United States.

Falcon 9- the name of a series of American partially reusable medium-class carriers created by the private company SpaceX. From June 4, 2010 to May 1, 2017, 34 missile launches of three modifications were carried out, 31 of which were completely successful. Until recently, the Falcon 9 served both to launch unmanned Dragon cargo ships into orbit to resupply the ISS, and for commercial launches; is now included in the spacecraft launch program commissioned by American government departments.

Falcon Heavy is the name of an American partially reusable heavy-duty launch vehicle developed by SpaceX based on the Falcon-9 launch vehicle stages. The first flight is planned for autumn 2017.

Gemini - the name of the second American manned space program, during which astronauts on a two-seater spacecraft made near-Earth flights in 1965-1966.

H-2A (H-2B)- variants of a Japanese disposable medium-class launch vehicle designed to launch payloads into low-Earth orbits and departure trajectories. From August 29, 2001 to March 17, 2017, 33 launches of the H-2A variant were carried out (of which 32 were successful) and six launches of the H-2B (all successful).

HTV(H-2 Transfer Vehicle), also known as Kounotori, is the name of a Japanese automatic transport vehicle designed to supply the ISS with cargo and has been flying since September 10, 2009 (six missions completed, three remaining according to plan).

JAXA(Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency) is an agency that coordinates space exploration work in Japan.

Mercury- the name of the first American manned space program, during which astronauts on a single-seat spacecraft made near-Earth flights in 1961-1963.

NASA(National Aeronautics and Space Administration) is a government agency that coordinates aviation and space exploration in the United States.

New Glenn is the name of a partially reusable heavy-duty launch vehicle being developed by Blue Origin for commercial launches and use in the lunar transport system. Announced in September 2016, the first launch is planned for 2020-2021.

Orion MPCV(Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle) is the name of multifunctional manned spacecraft developed by NASA as part of the Exploration program and intended for flights of astronauts to the ISS and beyond low Earth orbit. The start of flight tests is scheduled for 2019.

Skylab- the name of the first American space station, on which three expeditions of astronauts worked in 1973-1974.

SLS(Space Launch System) is the name of the American family of super-heavy launch vehicles developed by NASA as part of the Exploration program and designed to launch elements of space infrastructure (including manned Orion spacecraft) onto flight trajectories. The start of flight tests is scheduled for 2019.

SpaceShipOne(SS1) is the name of an experimental reusable suborbital rocket plane created by Scaled Composites, which became the first non-governmental manned vehicle to overcome the Karman Line and reach space. Theoretically, it was supposed to carry a crew of three people, but in fact it was controlled by one pilot.

SpaceShipTwo(SS2) is the name of a reusable multi-seat (two pilots and six passengers) suborbital rocket plane from Virgin Galactic, designed for short tourist trips into space.

Space Shuttle, otherwise STS (Space Transportation System) is a series of American reusable manned transport spacecraft, created by order of NASA and the Department of Defense under a state program and completed 135 missions into near-Earth space between 1981 and 2011.

Starliner (CST-100)- the name of an American partially reusable manned transport ship developed by Boeing under a contract with NASA under the CCP program. The start of flight tests is scheduled for 2018.

ULA(United Launch Alliance) is a joint venture created in 2006 by Lockheed Martin and Boeing to cost-effectively operate Delta IV and Atlas V launch vehicles.

Vega- the name of a European light-class launch vehicle, developed in international cooperation with the decisive participation of Italy (Avio company) for launching payloads into near-Earth orbits and departure trajectories. From February 13, 2012 to March 7, 2017, nine missions were completed (all were successful).

Vulcan— the name of a promising American rocket designed to replace the Delta IV and Atlas V carriers. It has been developed since 2014 by the United Launch Alliance ULA. The first launch is planned for 2019.

X-15- an American experimental rocket plane created by North American on behalf of NASA and the Department of Defense to study the conditions of flight at hypersonic speeds and atmospheric reentry of winged vehicles, evaluate new design solutions, heat-protective coatings and psychophysiological aspects of control in the upper atmosphere. Three rocket planes were built, which made 191 flights in 1959-1968, setting several world speed and altitude records (including an altitude of 107,906 m reached on August 22, 1963).

Ablation- the process of mass removal from the surface of a solid body by a flow of incoming gas, accompanied by the absorption of heat. It forms the basis of ablative thermal protection, protecting the structure from overheating.

"Angara"- the name of the Russian launch vehicle, as well as a family of disposable modular launch vehicles of light, medium and heavy classes, designed for launching payloads into low-Earth orbits and departure trajectories. The first launch of the Angara-1.2PP light rocket took place on July 9, 2014, the first launch of the Angara-A5 heavy carrier took place on December 23, 2014.

Apogee— the most distant point in the orbit of a satellite (natural or artificial) from the center of the Earth.

Aerodynamic quality— dimensionless quantity, the ratio of the lifting force of an aircraft to the drag force.

Ballistic trajectory- the path along which a body moves in the absence of aerodynamic forces acting on it.

Ballistic missile - an aircraft that, after turning off the engine and leaving the dense layers of the atmosphere, flies along a ballistic trajectory.

"East"- the name of the first Soviet single-seat manned spacecraft, on which cosmonauts made flights from 1961 to 1963. Also - the open name of a series of Soviet disposable light-class launch vehicles, created on the basis of the R-7 intercontinental ballistic missile and used from 1958 to 1991.

"Sunrise"- the name of the multi-seat modification of the Soviet manned spacecraft "Vostok", on which the cosmonauts made two flights in 1964-1965. Also - the open name of a series of Soviet disposable medium-class launch vehicles used between 1963 and 1974.

Gas rocket engine(gas nozzle) is a device that serves to convert the potential energy of a compressed working fluid (gas) into thrust.

Hybrid rocket engine(GRD) is a special case of a chemical jet engine; a device that uses the chemical energy of interaction between fuel components that are in different states of aggregation (for example, a liquid oxidizer and a solid fuel) to create thrust. The engines of the SpaceShipOne and SpaceShipTwo rocket planes are built on this principle.

Gnomon- an astronomical instrument in the form of a vertical stand, which allows one to determine the angular height of the sun in the sky, as well as the direction of the true meridian, by the shortest length of the shadow. A photognomon with a color calibration scale served to document samples of lunar soil collected during the Apollo missions.

ESA(European Space Agency) is an organization that coordinates the activities of European states in the study of outer space.

Liquid rocket engine(LPRE) - a special case of a chemical jet engine; a device that uses chemical energy from the interaction of liquid fuel components stored on board an aircraft to create thrust.

Capsule- one of the names of the wingless descent vehicle of artificial satellites and spacecraft.

Spacecraft— a general name for various technical devices designed to perform targeted tasks in outer space.

Space rocket complex(KRC) is a term that characterizes a set of functionally related elements (the technical and launch complex of the cosmodrome, the measuring equipment of the cosmodrome, the ground control complex of the spacecraft, the launch vehicle and the upper stage), ensuring the launch of the spacecraft onto the target trajectory.

Karman Line- an internationally agreed upon boundary of space, located at an altitude of 100 km (62 miles) above sea level.

"World"- the name of the modular Soviet/Russian orbital space station, which flew in 1986-2001, hosting numerous Soviet (Russian) and international expeditions.

ISS(International Space Station) is the name of the manned complex, which was created in low-Earth orbit by the efforts of Russia, the USA, Europe, Japan and Canada to conduct scientific research related to the conditions of long-term human stay in outer space. English abbreviation ISS (International Space Station).

Multistage (composite) rocket- a device in which, as fuel is consumed, there is a sequential discharge of used and unnecessary structural elements (stages) for further flight.

Smooth landing— contact of a spacecraft with the surface of a planet or other celestial body, in which the vertical speed allows for the safety of the structure and systems of the apparatus and/or comfortable conditions for the crew.

Orbital inclination- the angle between the orbital plane of a natural or artificial satellite and the equatorial plane of the body around which the satellite orbits.

Orbit- a trajectory (most often elliptical) along which one body (for example, a natural satellite or spacecraft) moves relative to the central body (Sun, Earth, Moon, etc.). To a first approximation, the Earth's orbit is characterized by such elements as inclination, perigee and apogee heights, and orbital period.

First escape velocity- the lowest speed that must be given to a body in the horizontal direction near the surface of the planet in order for it to enter a circular orbit. For Earth - approximately 7.9 km/s.

Overload— vector quantity, the ratio of the sum of thrust and/or aerodynamic force to the weight of the aircraft.

Perigee— the point of the satellite’s orbit closest to the center of the Earth.

Circulation period- the period of time during which the satellite makes a full revolution around the central body (Sun, Earth, Moon, etc.)

New generation manned transport ship (PTK NP) “Federation”- a reusable four-six-seater ship developed by the Energia Rocket and Space Corporation to provide access to space from Russian territory (from the Vostochny Cosmodrome), delivery of people and cargo to orbital stations, flights to polar and equatorial orbit, exploration of the Moon and landing on it . It is being created within the framework of FKP-2025, the start of flight tests is scheduled for 2021, the first manned flight with a docking with the ISS should take place in 2023.

"Progress"- the name of a series of Soviet (Russian) unmanned automatic ships for delivering fuel, cargo and supplies to the Salyut, Mir and ISS space stations. From January 20, 1978 to February 22, 2017, 135 ships of various modifications were launched, 132 of them were successful.

"Proton-M"— the name of a Russian disposable heavy-class launch vehicle designed to launch payloads into low-Earth orbits and departure trajectories. Created on the basis of Proton-K; The first flight of this modification took place on April 7, 2001. Until June 9, 2016, 98 launches were completed, of which 9 were completely and 1 partially unsuccessful.

Acceleration block(RB), the closest Western equivalent in meaning is the “upper stage,” a launch vehicle stage designed to form the target trajectory of a spacecraft. Examples: Centaur (USA), Briz-M, Fregat, DM (Russia).

Launch vehicle- currently the only means of launching a payload (satellite, probe, spacecraft or automatic station) into outer space.

Super-heavy class launch vehicle(RN STK) is the code name of a Russian development project intended to create a means of launching elements of space infrastructure (including manned spacecraft) onto flight trajectories (to the Moon and Mars).

Various proposals for the creation of a super-heavy class carrier based on the modules of the Angara-A5V, Energia 1K and Soyuz-5 rockets. Graphics by V. Trouser

Solid fuel rocket engine(solid propellant motor) - a special case of a chemical jet engine; a device that uses chemical energy from the interaction of solid fuel components stored on board an aircraft to create thrust.

Rocketplane- a winged aircraft (aircraft) that uses a rocket engine for acceleration and/or flight.

RD-180- a powerful propulsion liquid rocket engine with a thrust of 390 tf at sea level, running on oxygen and kerosene. Created by the Russian NPO Energomash at the request of the American company Pratt and Whitney for installation on the Atlas III and Atlas V family of carriers. Serially produced in Russia and supplied to the USA since 1999.

Roscosmos- the short name of the Federal Space Agency (from 2004 to 2015, from January 1, 2016 - the Roscosmos state corporation), a state organization that coordinates the study and development of outer space in Russia.

"Firework"- the name of a series of Soviet long-term orbital stations that flew in low-Earth orbit from 1971 to 1986, receiving Soviet crews and cosmonauts from the countries of the socialist community (Intercosmos program), France and India.

"Union"- the name of a family of Soviet (Russian) multi-seat manned spacecraft for flights in low-Earth orbit. From April 23, 1967 to May 14, 1981, 39 ships flew with crew on board. Also - the open name of a series of Soviet (Russian) disposable medium-class launch vehicles used to launch payloads into low-Earth orbits from 1966 to 1976.

"Soyuz-FG"- the name of the Russian disposable medium-class launch vehicle, which since 2001 has been delivering spacecraft - manned (Soyuz family) and automatic (Progress) - into low-Earth orbit.

"Soyuz-2"— the name of a family of modern Russian disposable light and medium-class launch vehicles, which since November 8, 2004 have been launching various payloads into low-Earth orbits and departure trajectories. In its variants, Soyuz-ST has been launched from October 21, 2011 from the European spaceport in Kourou in French Guiana.

"Soyuz T"- the name of the transport version of the Soviet manned Soyuz spacecraft, which from April 1978 to March 1986 made 15 manned flights to the Salyut and Mir orbital stations.

"Soyuz TM"- the name of a modified version of the Soviet (Russian) manned transport spacecraft Soyuz, which from May 1986 to November 2002 made 33 manned flights to the Mir orbital stations and the ISS.

"Soyuz TMA"— the name of the anthropometric modification of the Russian Soyuz transport ship, created to expand the permissible range of height and weight of crew members. From October 2002 to November 2011, he made 22 manned flights to the ISS.

"Soyuz TMA-M"— further modernization of the Russian transport spacecraft Soyuz TMA, which from October 2010 to March 2016 carried out 20 manned flights to the ISS.

"Soyuz MS"- the final version of the Russian Soyuz transport spacecraft, which made its first mission to the ISS on July 7, 2016.

Suborbital flight— movement along a ballistic trajectory with a short-term exit into outer space. In this case, the flight speed can be either less or more than the local orbital one (remember the American probe Pioneer-3, which had a speed higher than the first cosmic speed, but still fell to Earth).

"Tiangong"- the name of a series of Chinese orbital manned stations. The first (Tiangong-1 laboratory) was launched on September 29, 2011.

"Shenzhou"- the name of a series of modern Chinese three-seat manned spacecraft for flights in low-Earth orbit. From November 20, 1999 to October 16, 2016, 11 spacecraft were launched, 7 of them with astronauts on board.

Chemical jet engine- a device in which the energy of the chemical interaction of fuel components (oxidizer and fuel) is converted into the kinetic energy of a jet stream that creates thrust.

Electric rocket motor(EP) - a device in which, to create thrust, the working fluid (usually stored on board the aircraft) is accelerated using an external supply of electrical energy (heating and expansion in a jet nozzle or ionization and acceleration of charged particles in an electric (magnetic) field).

The ion electric rocket engine has low thrust, but high efficiency due to the high speed of exhaust of the working fluid

Emergency rescue system— a set of devices for rescuing the crew of a spacecraft in the event of a launch vehicle accident, i.e., when a situation arises in which launching onto the target trajectory is impossible.

Spacesuit- an individual sealed suit that provides conditions for the work and life of an astronaut in a rarefied atmosphere or in outer space. There are different types of rescue suits and extravehicular activity suits.

Descent (return) apparatus- part of a spacecraft intended for descent and landing on the surface of the Earth or other celestial body.

Search and rescue team specialists examine the descent module of the Chinese Chang'e-5-T1 probe, which returned to Earth after flying around the Moon. Photo by CNSA

Traction- the reactive force that sets in motion an aircraft on which a rocket engine is installed.

Federal space program(FKP) is the main document of the Russian Federation, defining the list of main tasks in the field of civil space activities and their financing. Compiled for a decade. The current FCP-2025 is valid from 2016 to 2025.

"Phoenix"— the name of the development work within the framework of FKP-2025 to create a medium-class launch vehicle for use as part of the Baiterek, Sea Launch and LV STK space rocket systems.

Characteristic speed (CV, ΔV)— a scalar quantity characterizing the change in the energy of an aircraft when using rocket engines. The physical meaning is the speed (measured in meters per second) that the device will acquire when moving in a straight line only under the influence of traction at a certain fuel consumption. It is used (including) to estimate the energy costs required to perform rocket-dynamic maneuvers (required CS), or the available energy determined by the on-board fuel or working fluid reserves (available CS).

Transporting the Energia launch vehicle with the Buran orbital spacecraft to the launch site

"Energy" - "Buran"- Soviet spacecraft with a super-heavy class launch vehicle and a reusable winged orbital ship. Developed since 1976 as a response to the American Space Shuttle system. In the period from May 1987 to November 1988, he made two flights (with a mass-size analogue of the payload and with an orbital vehicle, respectively). The program closed in 1993.

ASTP(experimental flight "Apollo" - "Soyuz") - a joint Soviet-American program, during which in 1975 the manned Soyuz and Apollo spacecraft carried out a mutual search, docking and a joint flight in low-Earth orbit. In the USA it is known as ASTP (Apollo-Soyuz Test Project).