Cellular immunity mechanism. Immunity and its types

Immunity(from Latin immunitas - liberation or getting rid of something, immunity) is a way to protect the body from genetically alien substances - AG (exogenous and endogenous origin).

The biological meaning of immunity: maintaining homeostasis (the constancy of the internal environment of the body), i.e., the structural and functional integrity of the body.

TYPES OF IMMUNE

Types of immunity:

1. According to the localization of action on the body: general and local.
2. Origin: congenital and acquired.
3. By direction of action: infectious and non-infectious.
4. Also distinguish: humoral, cellular(tissue) and phagocytic.

1. IMMUNITY BY LOCALIZATION ACTION ON THE ORGANISM IS DIVIDED INTO GENERAL And LOCAL.

General immunity(reactions of the integrity of the body) is immunity, which is associated with the protective mechanisms of the whole organism (reactions of the whole organism).

It is formed with the participation of serum antibodies contained in the blood and lymph, which in turn circulate throughout the body.

local immunity(local defense reactions) is immunity, which is associated with the defense mechanisms of certain organs, tissues (local defense reactions).

Such immunity is formed without the participation of serum antibodies. It has been proven that secretory antibodies - class A immunoglobulins - are of great importance in the immunity of the mucous membranes.

2. IMMUNITY BY ORIGIN DIVIDED BY CONGENITAL And ACQUIRED.

innate immunity(non-specific, natural, hereditary, genetic, species, pedigree, individual, constitutional) - this is such an organism's immunity that is genetically inherent in animals of a given species and is inherited.

Innate immunity can sometimes be overcome by weakening the general resistance of the organism (irradiation, hydrocortisone treatment, splenectomy, fasting).

For example: human immunity to canine distemper and rinderpest; animal immunity to gonorrhea and leprosy.

acquired immunity(specific) - this is such immunity of the organism, which is formed in the process of individual development of the organism during its life.

Acquired immunity is most often relative. When a large number of pathogens enter the body, it can be overcome, although the disease in these cases is easier.

Acquired divided by natural(active and passive) and artificial(active and passive).

Natural immunity is acquired naturally.

Natural active - after the disease (antimicrobial and antitoxic).

Natural passive - placental, colostral, transovarial.

Artificial immunity - manifests itself as a result of the introduction into the body of weakened or killed substances, their antigens or ready-made antibodies.

Artificial active - vaccine immunity (vaccine).

Artificial passive - serum immunity (serum).

Active immunity - the body itself produces antibodies after an illness or active immunization. It is more persistent and longer lasting (it can last for many years, or maybe for a lifetime).

Passive immunity - due to ready-made antibodies artificially introduced during passive immunization. It is less persistent and less prolonged (comes a few hours after the administration of AT and lasts from 2-3 weeks to several months).

3. IMMUNITY BY DIRECTION ACTION IS DIVIDED INTO INFECTIOUS And NON-INFECTIOUS.

Infectious immunity is immunity directed against infectious agents and their toxins.

Infectious immunity is divided into antimicrobial (antiviral, antibacterial, antifungal, antiprotozoal) and antitoxic.

Antimicrobial immunity (antiviral, antibacterial, antifungal, antiprotozoal) is immunity in which the body's defense reactions are directed at the microbe itself, killing or delaying its reproduction.

Antitoxic immunity is immunity in which the protective action is aimed at neutralizing the toxic products of the microbe (for example, with tetanus).

Non-infectious immunity is immunity directed against cells and macromolecules of individuals of the same or another species.

Non-infectious immunity is divided into transplant, antitumor, etc.

Transplantation immunity is the immunity that develops during tissue transplantation.

Antimicrobial immunity is sterile and non-sterile.

Sterile immunity (there is immunity, there is no pathogen) - exists after the disappearance of the pathogen from the body. That is, when, after an illness, the body is freed from the causative agent of the disease, while maintaining immunity.

Non-sterile (infectious) immunity (there is immunity if there is a pathogen) - exists only if there is a pathogen in the body. That is, when, in some infectious diseases, immunity is preserved only if there is a pathogen in the body (tuberculosis, brucellosis, glanders, syphilis, etc.).

4.ALSO DIFFERENT HUMORAL, CELLULAR (TISSUE) AND PHAGOCYTIC IMMUNE.

Humoral immunity - protection is mainly provided by AT;

Cellular (tissue) immunity - immunity is determined by the protective functions of tissues (phagocytosis by macrophages, Ig, AT);

Phagocytic immunity - associated with specifically sensitized (immune) phagocytes.

• permanent,
• manifested after the penetration of a pathogenic microbe.

BY THE NATURE AND RANGE OF ACTION THERE ARE:

1. specific mechanisms and factors,
2. non-specific mechanisms and factors.

Specific mechanisms and factors are effective only to a strictly defined species or serotype of microbe.

Non-specific mechanisms and factors are equally effective against any pathogenic microbe.

At present, it has been proven that the guarantee of human health and vital activity to a greater extent depends on the state of immunity. At the same time, not everyone knows what the presented concept is, what functions it performs and what types it is divided into. This article will help you to get acquainted with useful information on this topic.

What is immunity?

Immunity is the ability of the human body to provide protective functions, preventing the reproduction of bacteria and viruses. The peculiarity of the immune system is to maintain the constancy of the internal environment.

Main functions:

• Elimination of the negative impact of pathogens - chemicals, viruses, bacteria;
• Replacement of non-functioning, spent cells.

The mechanisms of the immune system are responsible for the formation of a protective reaction of the internal environment. The correctness of the implementation of protective functions determines the state of health of the individual.

Mechanisms of immunity and their classification:

Allocate specific and non-specific mechanisms. Impact of specific mechanisms aimed at ensuring the protection of the individual against a particular antigen. Non-specific mechanisms resist any pathogens. In addition, they are responsible for the initial protection and viability of the body.

In addition to the listed types, the following mechanisms are distinguished:

• Humoral - the action of this mechanism is aimed at preventing antigens from entering the blood or other body fluids;
• Cellular - a complex type of protection that affects pathogenic bacteria through lymphocytes, macrophages and other immune cells (skin cells, mucous membranes). It should be noted that the activity of the cell type is carried out without antibodies.

Main classification

Currently, the main types of immunity are distinguished:

• The existing classification divides immunity into: natural or artificial;
• Depending on the location, there are: General- provides general protection of the internal environment; Local- whose activities are aimed at local protective reactions;
• Based on origin: congenital or acquired;
• According to the direction of action, there are: infectious or non-infectious;
• The immune system is also divided into: humoral, cellular, phagocytic.

natural

Currently, the types of immunity in humans are: natural and artificial.

The natural type is an inherited susceptibility to certain foreign bacteria and cells that have a negative effect on the internal environment of the human body.

The noted varieties of the immune system are the main ones and each of them is divided into other types.

As for the natural appearance, it is classified into congenital and acquired.

Acquired Species

acquired immunity represents a specific immunity of the human body. Its formation occurs during the period of individual development of a person. When it enters the internal environment of the human body, this type helps to counteract pathogenic bodies. This ensures the course of the disease in a mild form.

Acquired is divided into the following types of immunity:

• Natural (active and passive);
• Artificial (active and passive).

Natural active - produced after a disease (antimicrobial and antitoxic).

Natural passive - produced by the introduction of ready-made immunoglobulins.

artificial acquired- this type of immune system appears after human intervention.

• Artificial active - formed after vaccination;
• Artificial passive - manifests itself after the introduction of serum.

The difference between the active type of the immune system and the passive one lies in the independent production of antibodies to maintain the viability of the individual.

Congenital

What type of immunity is inherited? An individual's innate susceptibility to disease is inherited. It is a genetic trait of an individual that contributes to countering certain types of diseases from birth. The activity of this type of immune system is carried out at several levels - cellular and humoral.

Congenital susceptibility to diseases has the ability to decrease when exposed to negative factors - stress, malnutrition, severe illness. If the genetic species is in a weakened state, the acquired protection of the person comes into play, which supports the favorable development of the individual.

What type of immunity arises as a result of the introduction of serum into the body?

A weakened immune system contributes to the development of diseases that undermine the human internal environment. If necessary, to prevent the progression of diseases, artificial antibodies contained in the serum are introduced into the body. After vaccination, artificial passive immunity is produced. This variety is used to treat infectious diseases and remains in the body for a short time.

We often hear that a person's health largely depends on his immunity. What is immunity? What is its meaning? Let's try to understand these incomprehensible questions for many.

Immunity is the resistance of the body, its ability to resist pathogenic pathogenic microbes, toxins, as well as the effects of foreign substances with antigenic properties. Immunity provides homeostasis - the constancy of the internal environment of the body at the cellular and molecular level.
Immunity happens:

- congenital (hereditary);

- acquired.

Examples of absolute immunity. A person is absolutely not sick with bird plague or rinderpest. Animals absolutely do not suffer from typhoid fever, measles, scarlet fever and other human diseases.

An example of relative immunity. Pigeons do not usually get anthrax, but they can be infected with it if the pigeons are given alcohol beforehand.

Acquired immunity is acquired throughout life. This immunity is not inherited. It is subdivided into artificial and natural. And they, in turn, can be active and passive.

artificial acquired immunity created by medical intervention.

Active artificial immunity occurs during vaccination with vaccines and toxoids.

Passive artificial immunity occurs when sera and gamma globulins are introduced into the body, in which there are antibodies in finished form.

Natural acquired immunity created without medical intervention.

Active natural immunity occurs after a previous illness or latent infection.

Passive natural immunity is created when antibodies are transferred from the mother's body to the child during its intrauterine development.

Immunity is one of the most important characteristics of a person and all living organisms. The principle of immune defense is to recognize, process and remove foreign structures from the body.

Intact skin, mucous membranes of the eyes, respiratory tract with ciliated epithelium, gastrointestinal tract, genital organs are impermeable to most microorganisms.

Peeling of the skin is an important mechanism of its self-purification.

Saliva contains lysozyme, which has an antimicrobial effect.

In the mucous membranes of the stomach and intestines, enzymes are produced that are capable of destroying disease-causing microbes (pathogens) that get there.

On the mucous membranes there is a natural microflora that can prevent the attachment of pathogens to these membranes, and thus protect the body.

The acidic environment of the stomach and the acidic reaction of the skin are biochemical factors of nonspecific protection.

Mucus is also a non-specific protective factor. It coats cell membranes on mucous membranes, binds pathogens that have entered the mucous membrane and kills them. The composition of the mucus is deadly to many microorganisms.

Blood cells that are factors of nonspecific protection: neutrophilic, eosinophilic, basophilic leukocytes, mast cells, macrophages, platelets.

The skin and mucous membranes are the first barrier to pathogens. This protection is quite effective, but there are microorganisms that can overcome it. For example, mycobacterium tuberculosis, salmonella, listeria, some coccal forms of bacteria. Certain forms of bacteria are not at all destroyed by natural defenses, for example, capsular forms of pneumococcus.

Specific immune defense mechanisms is the second component of the immune system. They work when a foreign microorganism (pathogen) penetrates through the body's natural non-specific defenses. Appears inflammatory response at the site of pathogen entry.

Inflammation localizes the infection, the death of penetrating microbes, viruses or other particles occurs. The main role in this process belongs to phagocytosis.

Phagocytosis- absorption and enzymatic digestion of microbes or other particles by cells by phagocytes. In this case, the body is freed from harmful foreign substances. In the fight against infection, all the body's defenses are mobilized.

From the 7th - 8th day of illness, specific mechanisms of immunity are activated. it the formation of antibodies in the lymph nodes, liver, spleen, bone marrow. Specific antibodies are formed in response to the artificial introduction of antigens during vaccination or as a result of a natural encounter with an infection.

Antibodies- proteins that bind to antigens and neutralize them. They act only against those microbes or toxins in response to the introduction of which they are produced. Human blood contains the proteins albumins and globulins. All antibodies are globulins: 80 - 90% of antibodies are gamma globulins; 10 - 20% - beta - globulins.

Antigens- foreign proteins, bacteria, viruses, cellular elements, toxins. Antigens cause the formation of antibodies in the body and interact with them. This reaction is strictly specific.

To prevent human infectious diseases, a large number of vaccines and sera have been created.

Vaccines- these are preparations from microbial cells or their toxins, the use of which is called immunization. Protective antibodies appear in the human body 1 to 2 weeks after the vaccine is administered. The main purpose of vaccines is prevention..

Modern vaccine preparations are divided into 5 groups.

1. Vaccines from live attenuated pathogens.

2. Vaccines from killed microbes.

3. Chemical vaccines.

4.Anatoxins.

5. Associated or combined vaccines.

With long-term infectious diseases, such as furunculosis, brucellosis, chronic dysentery and others, vaccines can be used for treatment.

Serums- prepared from the blood of people who have recovered from an infectious disease or artificially infected animals. Unlike vaccines, serums are more often used for the treatment of infectious patients and less often for prevention. Serums are antimicrobial and antitoxic. Serums purified from ballast substances are called gamma globulins.. They are made from human and animal blood.

Serums and gamma globulins contain ready-made antibodies, therefore, in infectious foci, people who have been in contact with an infectious patient are administered serum or gamma globulin, rather than a vaccine, for prophylactic purposes.

Interferon- an immune factor, a protein produced by the cells of the human body, which has a protective effect. It occupies an intermediate position between general and specific mechanisms of immunity.

Organs of the immune system (OIS):

- primary (central);

- secondary (peripheral).

Primary OIS.

B. Red bone marrow- the central organ of hematopoiesis and immunogenesis, contains stem cells, is located in the cells of the spongy substance of flat bones and in the epiphyses of tubular bones. It differentiates B-lymphocytes from precursors, and also contains T-lymphocytes.

Secondary intellectual property.

A. Spleen- a parenchymal organ of the immune system, also performs a depositing function in relation to the blood. The spleen can contract because it has smooth muscle fibers. It has white and red pulp.

White pulp is 20%. It contains lymphoid tissue, in which there are B - lymphocytes, T - lymphocytes and macrophages.

The red pulp is 80%. It performs the following functions:

Deposition of mature blood cells;

Monitoring the condition and destruction of old and damaged red blood cells and platelets;

Phagocytosis of foreign particles;

Ensuring the maturation of lymphoid cells and the transformation of monocytes into macrophages.

B. Lymph nodes.

B. Tonsils.

D. Lymphoid tissue associated with the bronchi, with the intestines, with the skin.

By the time of birth, secondary OIS are not formed, since they do not come into contact with antigens. Lymphopoiesis (the formation of lymphocytes) occurs if there is antigenic stimulation. Secondary OIS are populated by B - and T - lymphocytes from primary OIS. After contact with the antigen, lymphocytes are included in the work. No antigen goes unnoticed by lymphocytes.

Immunocompetent cells are macrophages and lymphocytes. Together they participate in protective immune processes, provide an immune response.

Cells involved in the immune response, T - lymphocytes.

T - helpers (T - helpers). The main goal of the immune response is to neutralize the extracellular virus and destroy the infected cells that produce the virus.

Cytotoxic T-lymphocytes- recognize virus-infected cells and destroy them with the help of secreted cytotoxins. Activation of cytotoxic T - lymphocytes occurs with the participation of T - helpers.

T - helpers - regulators and administrators of the immune response.

T - cytotoxic lymphocytes - killers.

B - lymphocytes- synthesize antibodies and are responsible for the humoral immune response, which consists in the activation of B - lymphocytes and their differentiation into plasma cells that produce antibodies. Antibodies to viruses are produced after the interaction of B - lymphocytes with T - helpers. T - helpers contribute to the reproduction of B - lymphocytes and their differentiation. Antibodies do not penetrate into the cell and neutralize only the extracellular virus.

Neutrophils- these are non-dividing and short-lived cells, contain a large amount of antibiotic proteins that are contained in various granules. These proteins include lysozyme, lipid peroxidase, and others. Neutrophils independently move to the location of the antigen, "stick" to the vascular endothelium, migrate through the wall to the location of the antigen and swallow it (phagocytic cycle). Then they die and turn into pus cells.

Eosinophils- able to phagocytose microbes and destroy them. Their main task is the destruction of helminths. Eosinophils recognize helminths, contact with them and release substances into the contact zone - perforins. These are proteins that are built into helminth cells. Pores are formed in the cells, through which water rushes into the cell and the helminth dies from osmotic shock.

Basophils. There are 2 forms of basophils:

Actually basophils circulating in the blood;

Mast cells are basophils found in tissues.

Mast cells are found in various tissues: in the lungs, in the mucous membranes and along the vessels. They are able to produce substances that stimulate anaphylaxis (vasodilation, contraction of smooth muscles, narrowing of the bronchi). Thus, they are involved in allergic reactions.

Monocytes – turn into macrophages during the transition from the circulatory system to the tissues. There are several types of macrophages:

1.Some antigen-presenting cells that engulf microbes and “present” them to T-lymphocytes.

2. Kupffer cells - liver macrophages.

3. Alveolar macrophages - lung macrophages.

4. Osteoclasts - bone macrophages, giant multinucleated cells that remove bone tissue by dissolving the mineral component and destroying collagen.

5. Microglia - phagocytes of the central nervous system that destroy infectious agents and destroy nerve cells.

6. Intestinal macrophages, etc.

Their functions are varied:

Phagocytosis;

Interaction with the immune system and maintenance of the immune response;

Maintenance and regulation of inflammation;

Interaction with neutrophils and attracting them to the focus of inflammation;

Release of cytokines;

Regulation of reparation (recovery) processes;

Regulation of blood coagulation processes and capillary permeability in the focus of inflammation;

Synthesis of components of the complement system.

Natural killers (NK cells) - lymphocytes with cytotoxic activity. They are able to contact target cells, secrete proteins that are toxic to them, kill them or send them into apoptosis (the process of programmed cell death). Natural killers recognize cells affected by viruses and tumor cells.

Macrophages, neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils and natural killers provide the innate immune response. In the development of diseases - pathologies, a non-specific response to damage is called inflammation. Inflammation is a non-specific phase of subsequent specific immune responses.

Nonspecific immune response- the first phase of the fight against infection, starts immediately after the microbe enters the body. The nonspecific immune response is practically the same for all types of microbes and consists in the primary destruction of the microbe (antigen) and the formation of an inflammation focus. Inflammation is a universal protective process aimed at preventing the spread of a microbe. High nonspecific immunity creates a high resistance of the body to various diseases.

In some organs in humans and mammals, the appearance of foreign antigens does not cause an immune response. These are the following organs: the brain and spinal cord, eyes, testicles, embryo, placenta.

When immunological resistance is impaired, tissue barriers are damaged and immune responses to the body's own tissues and cells are possible. For example, the production of antibodies to thyroid tissue causes the development of autoimmune thyroiditis.

specific immune response- This is the second phase of the body's defense reaction. In this case, the microbe is recognized and the development of protective factors directed specifically against it. The specific immune response is cellular and humoral.

Cellular immune response consists in the formation of cytotoxic lymphocytes capable of destroying cells whose membranes contain foreign proteins, for example, viral proteins. Cellular immunity eliminates viral infections, as well as bacterial infections such as tuberculosis, leprosy, rhinoscleroma. Cancer cells are also destroyed by activated lymphocytes.

Humoral immune response It is created by B-lymphocytes that recognize a microbe (antigen) and produce antibodies according to the principle for a specific antigen - a specific antibody. Antibodies (immunoglobulins, Ig) are protein molecules that bind to a microbe and cause its death and excretion from the body.

There are several types of immunoglobulins, each of which performs a specific function.

Immunoglobulins type A (IgA) are produced by cells of the immune system and are excreted on the surface of the skin and mucous membranes. They are found in all physiological fluids - saliva, breast milk, urine, tears, gastric and intestinal secretions, bile, in the vagina, lungs, bronchi, urinary tract and prevent the penetration of microbes through the skin and mucous membranes.

Immunoglobulins type M (IgM) the first synthesized in the body of newborns, they are released for the first time after contact with the infection. These are large complexes capable of binding several microbes at the same time, contribute to the rapid removal of antigens from the circulation, and prevent the attachment of antigens to cells. They are a sign of the development of an acute infectious process.

Immunoglobulins type G (IgG) appear after Ig M and protect the body from various microbes for a long time. They are the main factor of humoral immunity.

Immunoglobulins type D (IgD) function as membrane receptors for binding to microbes (antigens).

Antibodies are produced during all infectious diseases. The development of the humoral immune response is approximately 2 weeks. During this time, enough antibodies are produced to fight the infection.

Cytotoxic T-lymphocytes and B-lymphocytes remain in the body for a long time and, when a new contact with the microorganism occurs, they create a powerful immune response.

Sometimes the cells of our own body become alien, in which the DNA is damaged and which have lost their normal function. The immune system constantly monitors these cells, as they can develop into a malignant tumor, and destroys them. First, lymphocytes surround the foreign cell. Then they attach to its surface and pull a special process towards the target cell. When the process touches the surface of the target cell, the cell dies due to the injection of antibodies and special destructive enzymes by the lymphocyte. But the attacking lymphocyte also dies. Macrophages also capture foreign microorganisms and digest them.

The strength of the immune response depends on the reactivity of the body, that is, on its ability to respond to the introduction of infection and poisons. There are normoergic, hyperergic and hypoergic responses.

Normoergic response leads to the elimination of infection in the body and recovery. Tissue damage during the inflammatory response does not cause serious consequences for the body. The immune system is functioning normally.

Hyperergic response develops against the background of sensitization to the antigen. The strength of the immune response in many ways exceeds the strength of the aggression of microbes. The inflammatory reaction is very strong and leads to damage to healthy tissues. Hyperergic immune reactions underlie the formation of allergies.

Hypoergic response weaker aggression from microbes. The infection is not completely eliminated, the disease becomes chronic. A hypoergic immune response is typical for children, the elderly, and those with immunodeficiencies. Their immune system is weakened.

Improving immunity is the most important task of every person. So, if a person suffers from acute respiratory viral infections (ARVI) more than 5 times a year, then he should think about strengthening the immune functions of the body.

Factors that weaken the body's immune functions:

Surgical interventions and anesthesia;

Overwork;

chronic stress;

Taking any hormonal drugs;

Antibiotic treatment;

Atmospheric pollution;

Unfavorable radiation environment;

Injuries, burns, hypothermia, blood loss;

Frequent colds;

Infectious diseases and intoxications;

Chronic diseases, including diabetes;
- bad habits (smoking, frequent use of alcohol, drugs and spices);

Sedentary lifestyle;
- malnutrition-eating foods that lower the immune systemsmoked meats, fatty meats, sausages, sausages, canned food, semi-finished meat products;
- insufficient water intake (less than 2 liters per day).

The task of each person is strengthening their immunity, as a rule, non-specific immunity.

To strengthen the immune system, you should:

Observe the regime of work and rest;

Eat well, food should contain a sufficient amount of vitamins, minerals, amino acids; to strengthen the immune system, the following vitamins and minerals are needed in sufficient quantities: A, E, C, B2, B6, B12, pantothenic acid, folic acid, zinc, selenium, iron;

Engage in hardening and physical education;
- take antioxidants and other drugs to strengthen the immune system;

Avoid self-administration of antibiotics, hormones, except when they are prescribed by a doctor;

Avoid frequent consumption of foods that reduce immunity;
- drink at least 2 liters of water per day.

The creation of specific immunity against a certain disease is possible only through the introduction of a vaccine. Vaccination is a reliable way to protect yourself from a specific disease. In this case, active immunity is carried out due to the introduction of a weakened or killed virus, which does not cause the disease, but includes the work of the immune system.

Vaccinations weaken general immunity in order to increase specific immunity. As a result, side effects may occur, for example, the appearance of "flu-like" symptoms in a mild form: malaise, headache, slightly elevated temperature. Existing chronic diseases may worsen.

The immunity of the child is in the hands of the mother. If a mother feeds her child with breast milk for up to a year, then the child grows healthy, strong and develops well.

A good immune system is a prerequisite for a long and healthy life. Our body is constantly fighting microbes, viruses, foreign bacteria that can cause mortal harm to our body and drastically reduce life expectancy.

Immune system dysfunction can be considered as the cause of aging. This is the self-destruction of the body due to disorders in the immune system.

Even in youth, in the absence of any diseases and maintaining a healthy lifestyle, toxic substances constantly appear in the body that can destroy body cells and damage their DNA. Most of the toxic substances are formed in the intestines. Food is never 100% digested. Undigested food proteins are putrefied, and carbohydrates are fermented. Toxic substances formed during these processes enter the bloodstream and have a negative effect on all cells of the body.

From the position of Eastern medicine, a violation of immunity is a violation of harmonization (balance) in the energy system of the body. Energies entering the body from the external environment through energy centers - chakras and formed during the breakdown of food during digestion, through the channels of the body - meridians enter the organs, tissues, parts of the body, into every cell of the body.

In violation of immunity and the development of diseases, an energy imbalance occurs. In certain meridians, organs, tissues, parts of the body, there is more energy, it is in abundance. In other meridians, organs, tissues, parts of the body, it becomes less, it is in short supply. This is the basis for the development of various diseases, including infectious diseases, impaired immunity.

Doctors - reflexologists redistribute energy in the body by various reflexotherapeutic methods. Insufficient energies - strengthen, energies that are in excess - weaken, and this allows you to eliminate various diseases and increase immunity. There is an activation of the mechanism of self-healing in the body.

The degree of immunity activity is closely related to the level of interaction of its components.

Variants of the pathology of the immune system.

A. Immunodeficiency - congenital or acquired absence or weakening of one of the links of the immune system. When the immune system is deficient, even harmless bacteria living in our body for decades can cause serious illness. Immunodeficiencies make the body defenseless against germs and viruses. In these cases, antibiotics and antiviral drugs are not effective. They slightly help the body, but do not cure it. With prolonged stress and disruption of regulation, the immune system loses its protective value, develops immunodeficiency - lack of immunity.

Immunodeficiency can be cellular and humoral. Severe combined immunodeficiencies lead to severe cellular disorders in which there are no T-lymphocytes and B-lymphocytes. This happens with hereditary diseases. In such patients, the tonsils are often not found, the lymph nodes are very small or absent. They have paroxysmal cough, retraction of the chest during breathing, wheezing, tense atrophic abdomen, aphthous stomatitis, chronic inflammation of the lungs, candidiasis of the pharynx, esophagus and skin, diarrhea, emaciation, growth retardation. These progressive symptoms are fatal within 1 to 2 years.

Immunological insufficiency of primary origin is the genetic inability of the organism to reproduce one or another link of the immune response.

Primary congenital immunodeficiencies. They appear shortly after birth and are hereditary. For example, hemophilia, dwarfism, some types of deafness. A born child with a congenital defect in the immune system is no different from a healthy newborn as long as antibodies received from the mother through the placenta, as well as with mother's milk, circulate in his blood. But the hidden trouble soon shows up. Repeated infections begin - pneumonia, purulent skin lesions, etc., the child lags behind in development, he is weakened.

Secondary acquired immunodeficiencies. They arise after some primary exposure, for example, after exposure to ionizing radiation. In this case, the lymphatic tissue, the main organ of immunity, is destroyed and the immune system is weakened. Various pathological processes, malnutrition, hypovitaminosis damage the immune system.

Most diseases are accompanied by immunological deficiency in varying degrees, and it can be the cause of the continuation and aggravation of the disease.

Immunological deficiency occurs after:

Viral infections, influenza, measles, hepatitis;

Taking corticosteroids, cytostatics, antibiotics;

X-ray, radioactive exposure.

Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome can be an independent disease caused by damage to the cells of the immune system by a virus.

B. Autoimmune conditions- with them, immunity is directed against its own organs and tissues in the body, the body's own tissues are damaged. Antigens in this case can be foreign and own tissues. Foreign antigens can cause allergic diseases.

B. Allergy. In this case, the antigen becomes an allergen, antibodies are produced against it. Immunity in these cases acts not as a protective reaction, but as the development of hypersensitivity to antigens.

D. Diseases of the immune system. These are infectious diseases of the organs of the immune system themselves: AIDS, infectious mononucleosis and others.

D. Malignant tumors of the immune system- thymus gland, lymph nodes and others.

To normalize immunity, immunomodulatory drugs are used that affect the function of the immune system.

There are three main groups of immunomodulatory drugs.

1. Immunosuppressants- depress the body's immune defenses.

2. Immunostimulants– stimulate the immune defense function and increase the body's resistance.

3. Immunomodulators- drugs, the action of which depends on the functional state of the immune system. These drugs inhibit the activity of the immune system if it is excessively elevated, and increase it if it is lowered. These drugs are used in complex treatment in parallel with the appointment of antibiotics, antiviral, antifungal and other drugs under the control of immunological blood tests. They can be used at the stage of rehabilitation, recovery.

Immunosuppressants are used in various autoimmune diseases, viral diseases that cause autoimmune conditions, as well as in donor organ transplants. Immunosuppressants inhibit cell division and reduce the activity of regenerative processes.

There are several groups of immunosuppressants.

Antibiotics- waste products of various microorganisms, they block the reproduction of other microorganisms and are used to treat various infectious diseases. A group of antibiotics that block the synthesis of nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) are used as immunosuppressants, inhibit the reproduction of bacteria and inhibit the reproduction of cells of the immune system. This group includes Actinomycin and Colchicine.

Cytostatics- drugs that have an inhibitory effect on the reproduction and growth of body cells. Red bone marrow cells, cells of the immune system, hair follicles, epithelium of the skin and intestines are especially sensitive to these drugs. Under the influence of cytostatics, the cellular and humoral link of immunity is weakened, the production of biologically active substances that cause inflammation by cells of the immune system decreases. This group includes Azathioprine, Cyclophosphamide. Cytostatics are used in the treatment of psoriasis, Crohn's disease, rheumatoid arthritis, as well as in organ and tissue transplantation.

Alkylating agents enter into a chemical reaction with most of the active substances of the body, disrupting their activity, thereby slowing down the metabolism of the body as a whole. Previously, alkylating agents were used as military poisons in military practice. These include Cyclophosphamide, Chlorbutin.

Antimetabolites- drugs that slow down the body's metabolism due to competition with biologically active substances. The most famous metabolite is Mercaptopurine, which blocks the synthesis of nucleic acids and cell division, is used in oncological practice - it slows down the division of cancer cells.

Glucocorticoid hormones the most commonly used immunosuppressants. These include Prednisolone, Dexamethasone. These drugs are used to suppress allergic reactions, to treat autoimmune diseases, and in transplantology. They block the synthesis of certain biologically active substances that are involved in cell division and reproduction. Long-term use of glucocorticoids can lead to the development of Itsenko-Cushing's syndrome, which includes weight gain, hirsutism (excessive growth of body hair), gynecomastia (growth of the mammary glands in men), the development of stomach ulcers, arterial hypertension. In children, there may be a slowdown in growth, a decrease in the regenerative ability of the body.

Taking immunosuppressants can lead to side effects: the addition of infections, hair loss, the development of ulcers on the mucous membranes of the gastrointestinal tract, the development of cancer, the acceleration of the growth of cancerous tumors, impaired fetal development in pregnant women. Treatment with immunosuppressants is carried out under the supervision of specialist doctors.

Immunostimulants- used to stimulate the body's immune system. These include various groups of pharmacological drugs.

Immunostimulants, based on microorganisms(Pyrogenal, Ribomunil, Biostim, Bronchovax), contain antigens of various microbes and their inactive toxins. When introduced into the body, these drugs cause an immune response and the formation of immunity against the introduced microbial antigens. These drugs activate the cellular and humoral immunity, increasing the overall resistance of the body and the rate of response to a potential infection. They are used in the treatment of chronic infections, the body's resistance to infection is broken, and the microbes of the infection are eliminated.

Biologically active extracts of animal thymus stimulate the cellular link of immunity. Lymphocytes mature in the thymus. Thymus peptide extracts (Timalin, Taktivin, Timomodulin) are used for congenital deficiency of T-lymphocytes, secondary immunodeficiencies, cancer, immunosuppressant poisoning.

Bone marrow stimulants(Myelopid) is made from animal bone marrow cells. They increase the activity of the bone marrow, and the process of hematopoiesis is accelerated, immunity is increased by increasing the number of immune cells. They are used in the treatment of osteomyelitis, in chronic bacterial diseases. immunodeficiencies.

Cytokines and their derivatives belong to biologically active substances that activate the molecular processes of immunity. Natural cytokines are produced by cells of the body's immune system and are information mediators and growth stimulants. They have a pronounced antiviral, antifungal, antibacterial and antitumor effect.

Leukiferon, Likomax, various types of interferons are used in the treatment of chronic, including viral, infections, in the complex therapy of associated infections (simultaneous infection with fungal, viral, bacterial infections), in the treatment of immunodeficiencies of various etiologies, in the rehabilitation of patients, after treatment with antidepressants. Interferon containing Pegasys is used in the treatment of chronic viral hepatitis B and C.

Nucleic acid synthesis stimulators(Sodium nucleinate, Poludan) have an immunostimulating and pronounced anabolic effect. They stimulate the formation of nucleic acids, while accelerating cell division, regeneration of body tissues, increasing protein synthesis, increasing the body's resistance to various infections.

Levamisole (Decaris) a well-known antihelminthic agent, also has an immunostimulating effect. Favorably affects the cellular link of immunity: T - and B - lymphocytes.

3rd generation drugs, created in the 90s of the 20th century, the most modern immunomodulators: Kagocel, Polyoxidonium, Gepon, Myfortic, Immunomax, CellCept, Sandimmun, Transfer Factor. The listed drugs, except for Transfer Factor, have a narrow application, they can only be used as prescribed by a doctor.

Immunomodulators plant origin harmoniously affect our body, are divided into 2 groups.

The first group includes licorice, white mistletoe, iris (iris) milky white, yellow capsule. They can not only stimulate, but also suppress the immune system. Treatment with them should be carried out with immunological studies and under the supervision of a physician.

The second group of immunomodulators of plant origin is very extensive. It includes: echinacea, ginseng, lemongrass, Manchurian aralia, rosea rhodiola, walnut, pine nut, elecampane, nettle, cranberry, wild rose, thyme, St. John's wort, lemon balm, birch, seaweed, figs, king cordyceps and other plants. They have a mild, slow, stimulating effect on the immune system, causing almost no side effects. They can be used for self-medication. These plants are used to make immunomodulatory drugs sold in the pharmacy chain. For example, Immunal, Immunorm are made from echinacea.

Many modern immunomodulators also have an antiviral effect. These include: Anaferon (lozenges), Genferon (rectal suppositories), Arbidol (tablets), Neovir (injection solution), Altevir (injection solution), Grippferon (nasal drops), Viferon (rectal suppositories), Epigen Intim (spray), Infagel (ointment), Isoprinosine (tablets), Amiksin (tablets), Reaferon EC (powder for solution, administered intravenously), Ridostin (injection solution), Ingaron (injection solution), Lavomax (tablets) .

All of the above drugs should only be used as prescribed by a doctor, as they have side effects. The exception is Transfer Factor, which is approved for use in adults and children. It has no side effects.

Most of the plant immunomodulators have antiviral properties. The benefits of immunomodulators are undeniable. Treatment of many diseases without the use of these drugs becomes less effective. But you should take into account the individual characteristics of the human body and carefully select dosages.

Uncontrolled and prolonged use of immunomodulators can harm the body: depletion of the immune system, decreased immunity.

Contraindications to taking immunomodulators - the presence of autoimmune diseases.

These diseases include: systemic lupus erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis, diabetes mellitus, diffuse toxic goiter, multiple sclerosis, primary biliary cirrhosis of the liver, autoimmune hepatitis, autoimmune thyroiditis, some forms of bronchial asthma, Addison's disease, myasthenia gravis and some other rare forms of diseases. If a person suffering from one of these diseases starts taking immunomodulators on his own, the disease will worsen with unpredictable consequences. Immunomodulators should be taken in consultation with a doctor and under the supervision of a doctor.

Immunomodulators for children should be given with caution, not more than 2 times a year, if the child is often sick, and under the supervision of a pediatrician.

For children, there are 2 groups of immunomodulators: natural and artificial.

natural- these are natural products: honey, propolis, dog rose, aloe, eucalyptus, ginseng, onion, garlic, cabbage, beets, radish and others. Of all this group, honey is the most suitable, useful and pleasant to the taste. But you should be aware of the possible allergic reaction of the child to bee products. Raw onions and garlic are not prescribed for children under 3 years of age.

From natural immunomodulators, children can be prescribed Transfer Factor, produced from cow colostrum, and Derinat, produced from fish milk.

artificial immunomodulators for children are synthetic analogues of human proteins - the interferon group. Only a doctor can prescribe them.

Immunomodulators during pregnancy. The immunity of pregnant women should, if possible, be increased without the help of immunomodulators, through proper nutrition, special physical exercises, hardening, and the organization of a rational daily routine. During pregnancy, the immunomodulators Derinat and Transfer Factor are allowed in agreement with the obstetrician-gynecologist.

Immunomodulators in various diseases.

Flu. With influenza, the use of plant immunomodulators is effective - rose hips, echinacea, lemongrass, lemon balm, aloe, honey, propolis, cranberries and others. Used drugs Immunal, Grippferon, Arbidol, Transfer Factor. The same funds can be used to prevent influenza during its epidemic. But you should also remember about contraindications when prescribing immunomodulators. So, the natural immunomodulator rosehip is contraindicated in people suffering from thrombophlebitis and gastritis.

Acute respiratory viral infections (ARVI) (colds) - are treated with antiviral immunomodulators prescribed by a doctor and natural immunomodulators. With an uncomplicated cold, you can not take any medications. It is recommended to drink plenty of water (tea, mineral water, warm milk with soda and honey), rinse the nose with a solution of baking soda during the day (dissolve 2 teaspoons of soda in a glass of warm - hot water to wash the nose), at a temperature - bed rest. If the fever persists for more than 3 days, and the symptoms of the disease increase, more intensive treatment should be started in consultation with the doctor.

Herpes- a viral disease. Almost every person has the herpes virus in an inactive form. With a decrease in immunity, the virus is activated. In the treatment of herpes, immunomodulators are often and reasonably used. Are used:

1. Group of interferons (Viferon, Leukinferon, Giaferon, Amiksin, Poludan, Ridostin and others).

2. Non-specific immunomodulators (Transfer Factor, Cordyceps, echinacea preparations).

3. Also the following drugs (Polyoxidonium, Galavit, Likopid, Tamerit and others).

The most pronounced therapeutic effect of immunomodulators for herpes, if they are used in conjunction with multivitamins.

HIV infection. Immunomodulators are not able to overcome the human immunodeficiency virus, but significantly improve the patient's condition by activating his immune system. Immunomodulators are used in the complex treatment of HIV infection with antiretroviral drugs. At the same time, interferons, interleukins are prescribed: Thymogen, Timopoetin, Ferrovir, Ampligen, Taktivin, Transfer Factor, as well as plant immunomodulators: ginseng, echinacea, aloe, lemongrass, and others.

Human papillomavirus (HPV). The main treatment is the removal of papillomas. Immunomodulators, in the form of creams and ointments, are used as adjuvants that activate the human immune system. For HPV, all interferon preparations are used, as well as Imiquimod, Indinol, Isoprinosine, Derinat, Allizarin, Likopid, Wobenzym. The selection of drugs is carried out only by a doctor, self-medication is unacceptable.

Individual immunomodulatory drugs.

Derinat- an immunomodulator derived from fish milk. Activates all parts of the immune system. It has anti-inflammatory and wound-healing effects. Approved for use by adults and children. It is prescribed for acute respiratory viral infections, stomatitis, conjunctivitis, sinusitis, chronic inflammation of the genitals, gangrene, poorly healing wounds, burns, frostbite, hemorrhoids. Available in the form of a solution for injection and a solution for external use.

Polyoxidonium- an immunomodulator that normalizes the immune status: if immunity is reduced, then polyoxidonium activates the immune system; with excessively increased immunity, the drug helps to reduce it. Polyoxidonium can be prescribed without prior immunological tests. Modern, powerful, safe immunomodulator. Removes toxins from the human body. It is prescribed for adults and children with any acute and chronic infectious diseases. Available in tablets, suppositories, powder for solution.

Interferon- an immunomodulator of a protein nature, produced in the human body. It has antiviral and antitumor properties. It is used more often for the prevention of influenza and SARS during periods of epidemics, as well as for restoring immunity during recovery from serious illnesses. The earlier prophylactic treatment with interferon is started, the higher its effectiveness. Produced in ampoules in powder form - leukocyte interferon, diluted with water and instilled into the nose and eyes. Also available is a solution for intramuscular injection - Reaferon and rectal suppositories - Genferon. Designed for adults and children. Contraindicated in case of allergy to the drug itself and in case of any allergic diseases.

Dibazol- an immunomodulatory drug of the old generation, promotes the production of interferon in the body and lowers blood pressure. More often prescribed for hypertensive patients. Available in tablets and ampoules for injection.

Decaris (Levamisole)- an immunomodulator, has an antihelminthic effect. It can be prescribed for adults and children in the complex treatment of herpes, SARS, warts. Available in tablets.

Transfer Factor- the most powerful modern immunomodulator. Produced from bovine colostrum. Has no contraindications and side effects. Safe to use at any age. Appointed:

In immunodeficiency states of various origins;

With endocrine and allergic diseases;

Can be used to prevent infectious diseases. Available in gelatin capsules for oral administration.

cordyceps- immunomodulator of plant origin. Produced from the cordyceps mushroom, which grows in the mountains of China. It is an immunomodulator that can increase reduced immunity and reduce excessively increased immunity. Eliminates even genetic disorders of the immune system.

In addition to the immunomodulatory action, it regulates the functioning of organs and systems of the body, prevents the aging of the body. This is a fast acting drug. Already in the oral cavity begins its action. The maximum effect is manifested a few hours after ingestion.

Contraindications to taking cordyceps: epilepsy, breastfeeding of a child. It is prescribed with caution to pregnant women and children under five years of age. In Russia and the CIS countries, cordyceps is used as a dietary supplement (BAA) produced by the Chinese corporation Tianshi. Available in gelatin capsules.

Many people take vitamins to boost their immunity. And of course, vitamins - antioxidants C, A, E. First of all - vitamin C. A person must receive it daily from the outside. However, if you take vitamins mindlessly, then they can do harm (for example, an excess of vitamins A, D and a number of others is quite dangerous).

Ways to strengthen the immune system.

From natural remedies, you can use medicinal herbs to increase immunity. Echinacea, ginseng, garlic, licorice, St. John's wort, red clover, celandine and yarrow - these and hundreds of other medicinal plants have been given to us by nature. However, we must remember that prolonged uncontrolled use of many herbs can cause depletion of the body due to the intensive consumption of enzymes. In addition, they, like some medications, are addictive.

The best way to increase immunity is hardening and physical activity. Take a contrast shower, douse yourself with cold water, go to the pool, visit the bathhouse. You can start hardening at any age. At the same time, it should be systematic, gradual, taking into account the individual characteristics of the organism and the climate of the region in which you live. Jogging in the morning, aerobics, fitness, yoga are indispensable for boosting immunity.

It is impossible to carry out hardening procedures after a sleepless night, significant physical and emotional overstrain, immediately after eating and when you are sick. It is important that the treatment measures you have chosen are carried out regularly, with a gradual increase in the load.

There is also a special diet to increase immunity. It involves the exclusion from the diet: smoked meats, fatty meats, sausages, sausages, canned food, semi-finished meat products. It is necessary to reduce the consumption of canned, spicy foods, spices. On the table every day should be dried apricots, figs, dates, bananas. They can be eaten throughout the day.

A prerequisite for the formation of strong immunity is intestinal health, since most of the cells of the immune system are located in its lymphoid apparatus. Many medicines, poor-quality drinking water, diseases, old age, a sharp change in the nature of nutrition or climate can cause intestinal dysbacteriosis. With a diseased intestine, good immunity cannot be achieved. Products rich in lacto- and bifidobacteria (kefir, yogurt), as well as the pharmaceutical product Linax, can help here.

2. An effective remedy for improving immunity is a drink made from pine needles. To prepare it, you need to rinse 2 tablespoons of raw materials in boiling water, then pour a glass of boiling water and cook for 20 minutes. Let it brew for half an hour, strain. It is recommended to drink a decoction in a glass daily. You can add a little honey or sugar to it. You can not drink immediately, dividing the entire volume into several parts.

3. Cut 250 g of onion as finely as possible and mix with 200 g of sugar, pour in 500 ml of water and simmer for 1.5 hours. After cooling, add 2 tablespoons of honey to the solution, strain and place in a glass container. Drink 3-5 times a day, one tablespoon.

4. Herbal Immunity Boosting Blend of Peppermint, Ivan Tea, Chestnut Blossom and Lemon Balm. Each herb should take 5 tablespoons, pour one liter of boiling water and let it brew for two hours. The resulting infusion must be mixed with a decoction made from cranberries and cherries (cherries can be replaced with strawberries or viburnum), and drink 500 ml daily.

5. Excellent tea to improve immunity can be made from lemon balm, cudweed, valerian root, oregano herb, lime blossom, hop cones, coriander seed and motherwort. All components must be mixed in equal proportions. Then pour 1 tablespoon of the mixture into a thermos, pour 500 ml of boiling water and leave overnight. The resulting tea should be drunk during the day in 2-3 sets. With the help of this infusion, you can not only strengthen the immune system, but also improve the functioning of the cardiovascular system.

6. A combination of lemongrass, licorice, echinacea purpurea and ginseng will help increase immunity in case of herpes.

7. A good restorative effect has a vitamin decoction of apples. To do this, one apple should be cut into slices and boiled in a glass of water in a water bath for 10 minutes. After that, add honey, an infusion of lemon peels, oranges and a little brewed tea.

8. The beneficial effect of a mixture of dried apricots, raisins, honey, walnuts, taken in 200 g, and the juice of one lemon is known. All ingredients must be twisted in a meat grinder and mixed thoroughly. Store such a tool should be in a glass container, preferably in the refrigerator. Eat a tablespoon every day. This must be done in the morning on an empty stomach.

9. With the onset of cold weather, ordinary honey can be an excellent way to increase immunity. It is recommended to take it with green tea. To do this, you need to brew tea, add the juice of half a lemon, ½ cup of mineral water and a tablespoon of honey to it. Drink the resulting healing solution should be twice a day for half a glass for three weeks.

10. There is a gift of nature - mummy. It has a powerful tonic, antitoxic and anti-inflammatory effect. With its help, you can accelerate the processes of renewal and restoration of all tissues of the body, mitigate the effect of radiation, increase efficiency, and increase potency. To improve immunity, mummy should be taken as follows: dissolve 5–7 g to a mushy state in a few drops of water, then add 500 g of honey and mix everything thoroughly. Take one tablespoon three times a day before meals. Keep the mixture in the refrigerator.

11. Among the recipes for improving immunity, there is one. Mix 5 g of mummy, 100 g of aloe and the juice of three lemons. Put the mixture in a cool place for a day. Take a tablespoon three times a day.

12. An excellent remedy for improving immunity, which can relieve body aches and headaches, is a vitamin bath. For its preparation, you can use the fruits or leaves of currants, lingonberries, sea buckthorn, mountain ash or wild rose. It is not necessary to apply everything at once. Take in equal parts what is at hand, and pour the mixture for 15 minutes with boiling water. Pour the resulting infusion into the bath, add a few drops of cedar or eucalyptus oil. It is necessary to be in such medicinal water no longer than 20 minutes.

13. Ginger is another immunity-boosting herb. You need to finely chop 200 g of peeled ginger, add chopped pieces of half a lemon and 300 g of frozen (fresh) berries. Let the mixture brew for two days. Use the released juice to increase immunity by adding it to tea or diluting it with water.

Reflexology is effective for strengthening immunity. It can be used at home. Harmonization of the energy system of the body with reflexotherapeutic techniques can significantly improve well-being, relieve symptoms of weakness, fatigue, drowsiness or insomnia, normalize the psycho-emotional state, prevent the development of exacerbations of chronic diseases, and strengthen the immune system.

If wormwood sticks are not available, a well-dried, high-grade cigarette can be used. It is not necessary to smoke, as it is harmful. Impact on the basic points replenishes the energy supply in the body.

You should also warm up the points of correspondence to the thyroid gland, thymus gland, adrenal glands, pituitary gland and, of course, the navel. The navel is a zone of accumulation and circulation of strong vital energy.

After warming up, hot pepper seeds should be placed on these points and fixed with a band-aid. You can also use seeds:rose hips, beans, radishes, millet, buckwheat.

Useful for raising the general toneis a finger massage with an elastic massage ring. You can massage each finger of the hand and foot, rolling the ring over it several times, until heat appears in the finger. See pictures.

Dear blog visitors, you have read my article about immunity, I look forward to your feedback in the comments.

http: //valeologija.ru/ Article: The concept of immunity and its types.

http: //bessmertie.ru/ Articles: How to increase immunity.; Immunity and rejuvenation of the body.

http: //spbgspk.ru/ Article: What is immunity.

http: //health.wild-mistress.ru Article: increasing immunity with folk remedies.

Pak Jae Woo Himself Su Jok Dr. M.2007

Materials from Wikipedia.

A well-coordinated, well-regulated activity of the biological protective devices of the body allows it to interact without harm to health with various environmental factors in which it exists and acts. The immune response begins immediately after the penetration of a foreign agent into the body, but only when passing through the first line of defense of the immune system. Intact mucosal membranes and skin by themselves present significant barriers to pathogens and produce many antimicrobial agents themselves. More specialized defenses include high acidity (pH around 2.0) in the stomach, mucus, and mobile cilia in the bronchial tree.

The range of safe environmental influences is limited by the specifics of the species and the characteristics of the individual person, the rate of adaptation of the individual, his specific phenotype, that is, the totality of the properties of the organism that are congenital and acquired during his life. Each person inherits genetic traits in different amounts while maintaining the genotype in its defining features. Each person is biologically unique because, within certain genotypes, deviations of some specific traits are possible, creating the uniqueness of each organism, and, consequently, the individual rate of its adaptation when interacting with various environmental factors, including the difference in the level of protection of the organism from damaging factors.

If the quality of the environment corresponds to the rate of adaptation of the organism, its protective systems ensure the normal reaction of the organism to the interaction. But the conditions in which a person carries out his life activity are changing, in some cases going beyond the limits of the body's adaptation norm. And then, in extreme conditions for the body, adaptive-compensatory mechanisms are activated that ensure the adaptation of the body to increased loads. Protective systems begin to carry out adaptive reactions, the ultimate goals of which are to preserve the body in its integrity, to restore the disturbed balance (homeostasis). A damaging factor, by its action, causes a breakdown of a certain structure of the body: cells, tissues, sometimes an organ. The presence of such a breakdown turns on the mechanism of pathology, causes an adaptive reaction of protective mechanisms. The breakdown of the structure leads to the fact that the damaged element changes its structural connections, adapts, trying to maintain its "duties" in relation to the organ or organism as a whole. If he succeeds, then due to such an adaptive restructuring, a local pathology arises, which is compensated by the protective mechanisms of the element itself and may not affect the activity of the organism, although it will reduce its rate of adaptation. But with a large overload (within the limits of the organism's adaptation rate), if it exceeds the element's adaptation rate, the element can be destroyed in such a way that it changes its functions, i.e., it malfunctions. Then a compensatory reaction is carried out on the part of a higher level of the organism, the function of which can be impaired as a result of the dysfunction of its element. The pathology is on the rise. Thus, cell breakdown, if it cannot be compensated by its hyperplasia, will cause a compensatory reaction from the tissue. If tissue cells are destroyed in such a way that the tissue itself is forced to adapt (inflammation), then compensation will come from the healthy tissue, i.e., the organ will turn on. Thus, in turn, higher and higher levels of the body can be included in the compensatory reaction, which ultimately will lead to the pathology of the whole organism - a disease when a person cannot normally carry out his biological and social functions.

A disease is not only a biological phenomenon, but also a social one, in contrast to the biological concept of "pathology". According to the WHO definition, health is “a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being”. In the mechanism of the development of the disease, two levels of the immunological system are distinguished: nonspecific and specific. The founders of immunology (L. Pasteur and I. I. Mechnikov) originally defined immunity as immunity to infectious diseases. Currently, immunology defines immunity as a method of protecting the body from living bodies and substances that bear signs of foreignness. The development of the theory of immunity enabled medicine to solve such problems as the safety of blood transfusions, the creation of vaccines against smallpox, rabies, anthrax, diphtheria, polio, whooping cough, measles, tetanus, gas gangrene, infectious hepatitis, influenza and other infections. Thanks to this theory, the danger of Rh-hemolytic disease of newborns was eliminated, organ transplantation was introduced into the practice of medicine, and the diagnosis of many infectious diseases became possible. Already from the examples cited it is clear what tremendous importance for the preservation of human health was the knowledge of the laws of immunology. But even more important for medical science is the further disclosure of the secrets of immunity in the prevention and treatment of many diseases dangerous to human health and life. The non-specific defense system is designed to withstand the action of various damaging factors external to the body of any nature.

When a disease occurs, the nonspecific system carries out the first, early defense of the body, giving it time to turn on a full-fledged immune response from the specific system. Nonspecific protection includes the activity of all body systems. It forms an inflammatory process, fever, mechanical release of damaging factors with vomiting, coughing, etc., changes in metabolism, activation of enzyme systems, excitation or inhibition of various parts of the nervous system. Mechanisms of nonspecific protection include cellular and humoral elements that have a bactericidal effect on their own or in combination.

The specific (immune) system reacts to the penetration of a foreign agent in the following way: upon initial entry, a primary immune response develops, and upon repeated penetration into the body, a secondary one. They have certain differences. In a secondary response to an antigen, immunoglobulin J is immediately produced. The first interaction of an antigen (virus or bacterium) with a lymphocyte causes a reaction called the primary immune response. During it, lymphocytes begin to develop gradually, undergoing differentiation: some of them become memory cells, others are transformed into mature cells that produce antibodies. At the first encounter with an antigen, antibodies of the immunoglobulin class M first appear, then J, and later A. A secondary immune response develops upon repeated contact with the same antigen. In this case, there is already a faster production of lymphocytes with their transformation into mature cells and the rapid production of a significant amount of antibodies that are released into the blood and tissue fluid, where they can meet with the antigen and effectively overcome the disease. Let's consider both (non-specific and specific) body defense systems in more detail.

The nonspecific defense system, as mentioned above, includes cellular and humoral elements. Cellular elements of nonspecific protection are the phagocytes described above: macrophages and neutrophilic granulocytes (neutrophils, or macrophages). These are highly specialized cells that differentiate from stem cells produced by the bone marrow. Macrophages constitute a separate mononuclear (single-nuclear) system of phagocytes in the body, which includes bone marrow promonocytes, blood monocytes that differentiate from them, and tissue macrophages. Their feature is active mobility, the ability to adhere and intensively carry out phagocytosis. Monocytes, having matured in the bone marrow, circulate for 1-2 days in the blood, and then penetrate into tissues, where they mature into macrophages and live for 60 or more days.

Complement is an enzyme system that consists of 11 blood serum proteins that make up 9 components (from C1 to C9) of complement. The complement system stimulates phagocytosis, chemotaxis (attraction or repulsion of cells), the release of pharmacologically active substances (anaphylotoxin, histamine, etc.), enhances the bactericidal properties of blood serum, activates cytolysis (cell breakdown) and, together with phagocytes, takes part in the destruction of microorganisms and antigens . Each component of complement plays a role in the immune response. Thus, complement C1 deficiency causes a decrease in the bactericidal activity of blood plasma and contributes to the frequent development of infectious diseases of the upper respiratory tract, chronic glomerulonephritis, arthritis, otitis media, etc.

Complement C3 prepares the antigen for phagocytosis. With its deficiency, the enzymatic and regulatory activity of the complement system is significantly reduced, which leads to more serious consequences than the deficiency of complements C1 and C2, up to death. Its modification C3a is deposited on the surface of the bacterial cell, which leads to the formation of holes in the shell of the microbe and its lysis, i.e., dissolution by lysozyme. With hereditary deficiency of the C5 component, a violation of the development of the child, dermatitis and diarrhea occur. Specific arthritis and bleeding disorders are observed in C6 deficiency. Diffuse lesions of the connective tissue occur with a decrease in the concentration of components C2 and C7. Congenital or acquired insufficiency of complement components contributes to the development of various diseases, both as a result of a decrease in the bactericidal properties of the blood, and due to the accumulation of antigens in the blood. In addition to deficiency, activation of complement components also occurs. Thus, activation of C1 leads to Quincke's edema, etc. Complement is actively consumed during thermal burns, when complement deficiency is created, which can determine an unfavorable outcome of thermal injury. Normal antibodies are found in the serum of healthy people who have not previously been ill. Apparently, these antibodies arise during inheritance, or antigens come with food without causing the corresponding disease. The detection of such antibodies indicates the maturity and normal functioning of the immune system. Normal antibodies include, in particular, properdin. It is a high molecular weight protein found in blood serum. Properdin provides bactericidal and virus-neutralizing properties of blood (together with other humoral factors) and activates specialized defense reactions.

Lysozyme is an enzyme called acetylmuramidase that breaks down the membranes of bacteria and lyses them. It is found in almost all tissues and body fluids. The ability to destroy the cell membranes of bacteria, from which destruction begins, is explained by the fact that lysozyme is found in high concentrations in phagocytes and its activity increases during microbial infection. Lysozyme enhances the antibacterial action of antibodies and complement. It is part of saliva, tears, skin secretions as a means of enhancing the body's barrier defenses. Inhibitors (retarders) of viral activity are the first humoral barrier that prevents the contact of the virus with the cell.

People with a high content of highly active inhibitors are highly resistant to viral infections, while viral vaccines are ineffective for them. Nonspecific defense mechanisms - cellular and humoral - protect the internal environment of the body from various damaging factors of organic and inorganic nature at the tissue level. They are sufficient to ensure the vital activity of low-organized (invertebrate) animals. The complication of the organism of animals, in particular, has led to the fact that the nonspecific protection of the organism was insufficient. The complication of organization has led to an increase in the number of specialized cells that differ from each other. Against this general background, as a result of a mutation, cells harmful to the body could appear, or similar, but foreign cells could be introduced into the body. Genetic control of cells becomes necessary, and a specialized system for protecting the body from cells that differ from its native, necessary ones appears. It is likely that lymphatic defense mechanisms initially developed not to protect against external antigens, but to neutralize and eliminate internal elements that are "subversive" and threaten the integrity of the individual and the survival of the species. Species differentiation of vertebrates in the presence of a base-cell common to any organism, differing in structure and functions, led to the need to create a mechanism for distinguishing and neutralizing body cells, in particular mutant cells that, multiplying in the body, could lead to its death.

The mechanism of immunity, which arose as a means of internal control over the cellular composition of organ tissues, due to its high efficiency, is used by nature against damaging antigen factors: cells and products of their activity. With the help of this mechanism, the reactivity of the organism to certain types of microorganisms, to the interaction with which it is not adapted, and the immunity of cells, tissues and organs to others are formed and fixed genetically. Species and individual forms of immunity arise, which are formed, respectively, in adaptatiogenesis and adaptiomorphosis as manifestations of compensationogenesis and compensationomorphosis. Both forms of immunity can be absolute, when the organism and the microorganism practically do not interact under any conditions, or relative, when the interaction causes a pathological reaction in certain cases, weakening the body's immunity, making it susceptible to the effects of microorganisms that are safe under normal conditions. Let's move on to the consideration of a specific immunological defense system of the body, the task of which is to compensate for the insufficiency of nonspecific factors of organic origin - antigens, in particular microorganisms and toxic products of their activity. It begins to act when nonspecific defense mechanisms cannot destroy an antigen that is similar in its characteristics to the cells and humoral elements of the organism itself or provided with its own protection. Therefore, a specific protection system is designed to recognize, neutralize and destroy genetically alien substances of organic origin: infectious bacteria and viruses, organs and tissues transplanted from another organism, which have changed as a result of mutation of the cells of one's own organism. The accuracy of discrimination is very high, up to the level of one gene that differs from the norm. The specific immune system is a collection of specialized lymphoid cells: T-lymphocytes and B-lymphocytes. There are central and peripheral organs of the immune system. The central ones include the bone marrow and thymus, the peripheral ones include the spleen, lymph nodes, lymphoid tissue of the intestines, tonsils and other organs, blood. All cells of the immune system (lymphocytes) are highly specialized, their supplier is the bone marrow, from the stem cells of which all forms of lymphocytes are differentiated, as well as macrophages, microphages, erythrocytes, and blood platelets.

The second most important organ of the immune system is the thymus gland. Under the influence of thymus hormones, thymus stem cells differentiate into thymus-dependent cells (or T-lymphocytes): they provide the cellular functions of the immune system. In addition to T-cells, the thymus secretes into the blood humoral substances that promote the maturation of T-lymphocytes in peripheral lymphatic organs (spleen, lymph nodes), and some other substances. The spleen has a structure similar to that of the thymus, but unlike the thymus, the lymphoid tissue of the spleen is involved in humoral-type immune responses. The spleen contains up to 65% of B-lymphocytes, which provide the accumulation of a large number of plasma cells that synthesize antibodies. Lymph nodes contain predominantly T-lymphocytes (up to 65%), and B-lymphocytes, plasma cells (derived from B-lymphocytes) synthesize antibodies when the immune system is just maturing, especially in children of the first years of life. Therefore, the removal of the tonsils (tonsillectomy), produced at an early age, reduces the body's ability to synthesize certain antibodies. Blood belongs to the peripheral tissues of the immune system and contains, in addition to phagocytes, up to 30% of lymphocytes. T-lymphocytes predominate among lymphocytes (50-60%). B-lymphocytes make up 20-30%, about 10% are killers, or "null-lymphocytes" that do not have the properties of T- and B-lymphocytes (D-cells).

As noted above, T-lymphocytes form three main subpopulations:

1) T-killers carry out immunological genetic surveillance, destroying mutated cells of their own body, including tumor cells and genetically alien transplant cells. T-killers make up to 10% of T-lymphocytes in peripheral blood. It is T-killers that, by their action, cause rejection of transplanted tissues, but this is also the first line of defense of the body against tumor cells;

2) T-helpers organize an immune response by acting on B-lymphocytes and giving a signal for the synthesis of antibodies against the antigen that has appeared in the body. T-helpers secrete interleukin-2, which acts on B-lymphocytes, and γ-interferon. They are in peripheral blood up to 60-70% of the total number of T-lymphocytes;

3) T-suppressors limit the strength of the immune response, control the activity of T-killers, block the activity of T-helpers and B-lymphocytes, suppressing the excessive synthesis of antibodies that can cause an autoimmune reaction, that is, turn against the body's own cells.

T-suppressors make up 18–20% of T-lymphocytes in peripheral blood. Excessive activity of T-suppressors can lead to suppression of the immune response up to its complete suppression. This happens with chronic infections and tumor processes. At the same time, insufficient activity of T-suppressors leads to the development of autoimmune diseases due to the increased activity of T-killers and T-helpers that are not restrained by T-suppressors. To regulate the immune process, T-suppressors secrete up to 20 different mediators that accelerate or slow down the activity of T- and B-lymphocytes. In addition to the three main types, there are other types of T-lymphocytes, including immunological memory T-lymphocytes, which store and transmit information about the antigen. When they encounter this antigen again, they provide its recognition and the type of immunological response. T-lymphocytes, performing the function of cellular immunity, in addition, synthesize and secrete mediators (lymphokines), which activate or slow down the activity of phagocytes, as well as mediators with cytotoxic and interferon-like actions, facilitating and directing the action of a nonspecific system. Another type of lymphocytes (B-lymphocytes) differentiates in the bone marrow and group lymphatic follicles and performs the function of humoral immunity. When interacting with antigens, B-lymphocytes change into plasma cells that synthesize antibodies (immunoglobulins). The surface of a B-lymphocyte can contain from 50,000 to 150,000 immunoglobulin molecules. As B-lymphocytes mature, they change the class of immunoglobulins they synthesize.

Initially synthesizing JgM class immunoglobulins, upon maturation, 10% of B-lymphocytes continue to synthesize JgM, 70% switch to JgJ synthesis, and 20% switch to JgA synthesis. Like T-lymphocytes, B-lymphocytes consist of several subpopulations:

1) B1-lymphocytes - precursors of plasmocytes, synthesizing JgM antibodies without interacting with T-lymphocytes;

2) B2-lymphocytes - precursors of plasma cells, synthesizing immunoglobulins of all classes in response to interaction with T-helpers. These cells provide humoral immunity to antigens recognized by T-helper cells;

3) B3-lymphocytes (K-cells), or B-killers, kill antigen cells coated with antibodies;

4) B-suppressors inhibit the function of T-helpers, and memory B-lymphocytes, preserving and transmitting memory of antigens, stimulate the synthesis of certain immunoglobulins upon re-encounter with an antigen.

A feature of B-lymphocytes is that they specialize in specific antigens. When B-lymphocytes react with an antigen encountered for the first time, plasma cells are formed that secrete antibodies specifically against this antigen. A clone of B-lymphocytes is formed, responsible for the reaction with this particular antigen. With a repeated reaction, only B-lymphocytes multiply and synthesize antibodies, or rather, plasma cells directed against this antigen. Other clones of B-lymphocytes do not participate in the reaction. B-lymphocytes are not directly involved in the fight against antigens. Under the influence of stimuli from phagocytes and T-helpers, they are transformed into plasma cells, which synthesize antibodies immunoglobulins that neutralize antigens. Immunoglobulins are proteins in the blood serum and other body fluids that act as antibodies that bind to antigens and neutralize them. Currently, there are five classes of human immunoglobulins (JgJ, JgM, JgA, JgD, JgE), which differ significantly in their physicochemical properties and biological functions. Class J immunoglobulins make up about 70% of the total number of immunoglobulins. These include antibodies against antigens of various nature, produced by four subclasses. They mainly perform anti-bacterial functions and form antibodies against polysaccharides of bacterial membranes, as well as anti-rhesus antibodies, provide a skin sensitivity reaction and complement fixation.

Class M immunoglobulins (about 10%) are the most ancient, synthesized in the early stages of the immune response to most antigens. This class includes antibodies against polysaccharides of microorganisms and viruses, rheumatoid factor, etc. Class D immunoglobulins make up less than 1%. Their role in the body is almost not studied. There is evidence of their increase in certain infectious diseases, osteomyelitis, bronchial asthma, etc. Class E immunoglobulins, or reagins, have an even lower concentration. JgE play the role of a trigger in the deployment of immediate-type allergic reactions. By binding to the complex with the allergen, JgE causes the release of mediators of allergic reactions (histamine, serotonin, etc.) into the body. Class A immunoglobulins make up about 20% of the total number of immunoglobulins. This class includes antibodies against viruses, insulin (in diabetes mellitus), thyroglobulin (in chronic thyroiditis). A feature of this class of immunoglobulins is that they exist in two forms: serum (JgA) and secretory (SJgA). Class A antibodies neutralize viruses, neutralize bacteria, prevent the fixation of microorganisms on the cells of the epithelial surface of the mucous membranes. Summing up, we will draw the following conclusion: a specific system of immunological protection is a multi-level mechanism of the elements of the body that ensures their interaction and complementarity, including, as necessary, components of protection against any interaction of the body with damaging factors, duplicating, in necessary cases, the mechanisms of cellular protection by humoral means, and vice versa .

The immune system that has developed in the process of adaptatiogenesis, which has fixed the genetically specific reactions of the organism to damaging factors, is a flexible system. In the process of adaptiomorphosis, it is corrected, it includes new types of reactions to damaging factors, newly appeared, with which the body has not met before. In this sense, it plays an adaptive role, combining adaptive reactions, as a result of which the body's structures change under the influence of new environmental factors, and compensatory reactions that preserve the integrity of the body, seeking to reduce the price of adaptation. This price is irreversible adaptive changes, as a result of which the organism, adapting to new conditions of existence, loses the ability to exist under the original conditions. So, a eukaryotic cell, adapted to exist in an oxygen atmosphere, can no longer do without it, although anaerobes can do this. The price of adaptation in this case is the loss of the ability to exist in anaerobic conditions.

Thus, the immune system includes a number of components that independently engage in the fight against any foreign factors of organic or inorganic origin: phagocytes, T-killers, B-killers, and a whole system of specialized antibodies aimed at a specific enemy. The manifestation of the immune response of a specific immune system is diverse. In the event that a mutated cell of the body acquires properties that are different from the properties of its genetically inherent cells (for example, tumor cells), T-killers infect the cells on their own, without the intervention of other elements of the immune system. B-killers also destroy recognized antigens coated with normal antibodies on their own. A complete immune response occurs against some antigens that first enter the body. Macrophages, phagocytizing such antigens of viral or bacterial origin, cannot completely digest them and throw them away after a while. The antigen that has passed through the phagocyte bears a label indicating its "indigestibility". The phagocyte thus prepares the antigen for “feeding” into the specific immune defense system. It recognizes the antigen and labels it accordingly. In addition, the macrophage simultaneously secretes interleukin-1, which activates T-helpers. T-helper, faced with such a "labeled" antigen, signals B-lymphocytes about the need for their intervention, secreting interleukin-2, which activates lymphocytes. The T-helper signal includes two components. First, it is a command to start an action; secondly, it is information about the type of antigen obtained from the macrophage. Having received such a signal, the B-lymphocyte turns into a plasma cell, which synthesizes the corresponding specific immunoglobulin, i.e., a specific antibody designed to counteract this antigen, which binds to it and renders it harmless.

Therefore, in the case of a complete immune response, the B-lymphocyte receives a command from the T-helper and information about the antigen from the macrophage. Other variants of the immune response are also possible. The T-helper, having encountered an antigen before being processed by a macrophage, gives a signal to the B-lymphocyte to produce antibodies. In this case, the B-lymphocyte turns into a plasma cell that produces nonspecific immunoglobulins of the JgM class. If a B-lymphocyte interacts with a macrophage without the participation of a T-lymphocyte, then, having not received a signal about the production of antibodies, the B-lymphocyte is not included in the immune response. At the same time, the immune reaction of antibody synthesis will begin if the B-lymphocyte interacts with the antigen corresponding to its clone processed by the macrophage, even in the absence of a signal from the T-helper, since it is specialized for this antigen.

Thus, the specific immune response provides for various cases of interaction between the antigen and the immune system. It involves a complement that prepares the antigen for phagocytosis, phagocytes that process the antigen and supply it to lymphocytes, T- and B-lymphocytes, immunoglobulins and other components. In the process of evolution, various scenarios for dealing with foreign cells have been developed. Once again, it should be emphasized that immunity is a complex multi-element system. But, like any complex system, immunity has a drawback. A defect in one of the elements leads to the fact that the entire system may fail. There are diseases associated with immunosuppression, when the body cannot independently counteract the infection.

There is the ability of our body to protect itself from pathogens, chemical agents, as well as from our own diseased and substandard cells.

The biological meaning of immunity is to ensure the integrity and maintenance of the constancy of the composition of the body at the genetic and molecular level throughout its life.

Immunity is realized thanks to the immune system, in which central and peripheral organs are isolated. They produce immunocompetent cells. The central organs include the bone red marrow and the thymus gland (thymus). Peripheral organs are the spleen, lymph nodes, as well as lymphoid tissue located in some organs. Immune defense is complex. Let's see what forms, types and mechanisms of immunity exist.

1. Nonspecific immunity is directed against all microorganisms, regardless of their nature. It is carried out by various substances that secrete the glands of the skin, digestive and respiratory tract. For example, in the stomach, the environment is strongly acidic, due to which a number of microbes die. Saliva contains lysozyme, which has a strong antibacterial effect, etc. Nonspecific immunity also includes phagocytosis - the capture and digestion of microbial cells by leukocytes.
2. Specific immunity is directed against a specific type of microorganism. Specific immunity is carried out due to T-lymphocytes and antibodies. For each type of microbe, the body produces its own antibodies.

There are also two types of immunity, each of which, in turn, is divided into two more groups.

1. Natural immunity is inherited or acquired after illnesses. He, respectively, and is divided into congenital and acquired.
2. A person acquires artificial immunity after vaccination - the introduction of vaccines, sera and immunoglobulins. Vaccination contributes to the emergence of active artificial immunity, since either killed or weakened cultures of microbes enter the body, and the body then develops immunity on them. This is how vaccines against poliomyelitis, tuberculosis, diphtheria and some other infectious diseases work. Active immunity is produced for years or for life.

With the introduction of sera or immunoglobulins, ready-made antibodies enter the body, which circulate in the body and protect it for several months. Since the body receives ready-made antibodies, this type of artificial immunity is called passive.

And finally, there are two main mechanisms by which immune responses are carried out. This is humoral and cellular immunity. As the name suggests, humoral immunity is realized through the formation of certain substances, and cellular immunity is realized through the work of certain cells of the body.

humoral immunity

This mechanism of immunity is manifested in the formation of antibodies to antigens - foreign chemicals, as well as microbial cells. B-lymphocytes play a fundamental role in humoral immunity. It is they who recognize foreign structures in the body, and then produce antibodies on them - specific substances of a protein nature, which are also called immunoglobulins.

The antibodies that are produced are extremely specific, that is, they can only interact with those foreign particles that caused the formation of these antibodies.

Immunoglobulins (Ig) are found in the blood (serum), on the surface of immunocompetent cells (surface), as well as in the secrets of the gastrointestinal tract, lacrimal fluid, breast milk (secretory immunoglobulins).

In addition to being highly specific, antigens also have other biological characteristics. They have one or more active sites that interact with antigens. More often there are two or more. The strength of the connection between the active center of an antibody and an antigen depends on the spatial structure of the substances that bind (i.e., antibodies and antigen), as well as the number of active centers in one immunoglobulin. Several antibodies can bind to one antigen at once.

Immunoglobulins have their own classification using Latin letters. In accordance with it, immunoglobulins are divided into Ig G, Ig M, Ig A, Ig D and Ig E. They differ in structure and function. Some appear immediately after infection, while others appear later.

The antigen-antibody complex activates the complement system (protein substance), which contributes to the further absorption of microbial cells by phagocytes.

Due to antibodies, immunity is formed after infections, as well as after. They help to neutralize toxins that enter the body. In viruses, antibodies block receptors, preventing them from being absorbed by the cells of the body. Antibodies are involved in opsonization (“wetting microbes”), making antigens easier to swallow and digest macrophages.

Cellular immunity

As already mentioned, cellular immunity is carried out at the expense of immunocompetent cells. These are T-lymphocytes and phagocytes. And if the protection against bacteria of the body occurs mainly due to the humoral mechanism, then antiviral, antifungal, and antitumor protection - due to the cellular mechanisms of immunity.

• T-lymphocytes are divided into three classes:
• T-killers (directly contact with a foreign cell or damaged cells of their own body and destroy them)
• T-helpers (produce cytokines and interferon, which then activate macrophages)
• T-suppressors (control the strength of the immune response, its duration)

As you can see, cellular and humoral immunity are interconnected.

The second group of immunocompetent cells involved in cellular immune responses are phagocytes. In fact, these are different types of leukocytes that are found either in the blood (circulating phagocytes) or in tissues (tissue phagocytes). Granulocytes (neutrophils, basophils, eosinophils) and monocytes circulate in the blood. Tissue phagocytes are found in connective tissue, spleen, lymph nodes, lungs, endocrine cells of the pancreas, etc.

The process of destruction of the antigen by phagocytes is called phagocytosis. It is essential for the immune defense of the body.

Phagocytosis proceeds in stages:

• Chemotaxis. Phagocytes are sent to the antigen. This can be facilitated by certain complement components, some leukotrienes, as well as products secreted by pathogenic microbes.
• Adhesion (gluing) of phagocytes-macrophages to the vascular endothelium.
• The passage of phagocytes through the wall and out of it
• Opsonization. Antibodies envelop the surface of a foreign particle, they are helped by complement components. This facilitates the absorption of antigen by phagocytes. The phagocyte then attaches itself to the antigen.
• Actually phagocytosis. The foreign particle is absorbed by the phagocyte: first, a phagosome is formed - a specific vacuole, which then connects to the lysosome, where the lysosomal enzymes that digest the antigen are located).
• Activation of metabolic processes in the phagocyte, contributing to the implementation of phagocytosis.
• destruction of the antigen.

The process of phagocytosis can be completed and incomplete. In the first case, the antigen is phagocytosed successfully and completely, in the second case it is not. The incompleteness of phagocytosis is used by some pathogenic microorganisms for their own purposes (gonococci, Mycobacterium tuberculosis).

Find out how you can support your immune system.

Immunity is the most important process of our body, helping to maintain its integrity, protecting it from harmful microorganisms and foreign agents. Cellular and humoral are two mechanisms that, acting in harmony, complement each other and help maintain health and life. These mechanisms are quite complex, but our body as a whole is a very complex self-organizing system.