Critical thinking. The Need for Critical Thinking Skills

Critical thinking is the true art of deep analysis of information and the opportunity to develop your thinking abilities. Thinking critically does not mean thinking more or more complex things. First of all, it is to think “better, more qualitatively”. As you hone your critical thinking skills, you develop your intellectual curiosity. But everything is not so simple here. Critical thinking requires serious discipline. You must be completely objective and, most importantly, self-critical. You need to seek and recognize the truth, even in those situations where you were wrong.

Steps

Sharpen Your Interviewing Skills

Building a question-assumption. We talk a lot and about everything. This is how our brain processes certain pieces of information. It is the basis of our daily life. But what to do in a situation where our assumption turned out to be incorrect or incorrect? Indeed, in this case, the whole process will be initially a failure.

Do not take information as truth until you have investigated this or that issue yourself. Instead of checking how true the information is, we very often trust the inscriptions on the labels or some reliable source in our opinion. Do not try to save time and energy on double-checking information, even if it comes from a reliable source. Not everything is true, what magazines, newspapers write about and what they talk about on television channels and on the radio.

Learn to trust and use your instinct. Especially in the most controversial issues. If something seems doubtful to you, look for more information about it, and also use different sources. Soon enough, you will learn to distinguish between useful information and filter out unnecessary information.

Such a thing as a question. Remember, the quality of the information you receive depends on how you ask the question. The ability to ask the right questions is perhaps the quintessence of all critical thinking. Without knowing which questions to ask first and which ones to leave for the final part, you will never get the desired result. The ability to find the right questions is the basic principle of critical thinking.

Put yourself in other people's shoes. This contributes to the development of critical thinking skills. Empathy will help you better understand human psychology, motives and aspirations of people. Do not be heartless, because the ability to sympathize is necessary for every person.

Set aside 30 minutes a day for brain training. There are dozens of ways you can improve your brain function. Here are some of these ideas:

Use Internet resources and libraries to find more information about the subject of your thoughts. Uninformed criticism is worse than ignorance.
Don't be too judgmental, but be brave enough to think critically. Avoid the words "never" unless you're 100% sure of it. Be persuasive in your arguments, operate with facts. Speak slowly and confidently, there is no race here.
Distinguish between inductive and deductive methods of reasoning. You must when the conversation is from the specific to the general, and when from the general to the particular.
Ask for other people's opinions. People from different age and social groups can give you a whole new perspective on things.
Read other people's reviews in newspaper and magazine articles. Consider their mistakes and strengths to improve your own style.
Pay attention to what other critics think about you.
Be diplomatic. Your goal is not the person himself, but the proposal that he puts forward.
Think hypothetically-deductively. That is, given the specific situation, apply the appropriate knowledge of the principles and limitations and show them in an abstract, possible way.
Criticism will be much more successful if its subject is in your area of expertise. For example, who better than the artist will appreciate the picture? And who, if not a writer, will speak better about a book or a literary work?

Warnings

use the "sandwich" method: compliment, offer, wish. Criticism will come out better if you use this approach. You can also use the name and surname of the person, a sincere smile, a look into the eyes.
Never criticize in an offensive way. In this case, a person takes a defensive-attacking position (especially if the subject of the dispute concerns him personally). Therefore, it is not necessary, for example, in a conversation with an abortion supporter to add fuel to the fire with speeches that abortion is a crime. In such a situation, a person does not listen to arguments and it will be even more difficult for you to convince him of the opposite. And in conclusion - criticism works great with praise.

The ability to think outside the box is a competitive advantage for any freelancer. Critical thinking is a way to get ahead and create something really new. Of course, in many cases you can get by with template solutions, just following fashion trends, but sometimes this is not enough. In the world of information technology, everything changes so quickly that sometimes there are simply no templates to perform a task, and then you have to “turn on” the brain. The fourth industrial revolution is raging around us, but many people, including freelancers, do not feel this, they simply rush in the stormy information flow along with everyone else.

Meanwhile, last year the World Economic Forum published a very interesting report on the skills that will be in demand in the coming years. In the first place of the most important skills was the ability to solve complex problems. The skill of critical thinking took the fourth place in the rating. But that was last year. According to experts, by 2020 critical thinking will become the second most important skill for professionals working in the field of information technology. And this is serious.

What is critical thinking? The Department of Philosophy at the University of Hong Kong gives the following definition: a person with critical thinking must have the following skills, abilities or abilities:

See logical connections between different ideas
Be able to evaluate and systematize arguments
Find inconsistencies and common errors in reasoning
Determine the importance and relevance of ideas
Correctly evaluate your own views and beliefs

These six points clearly show how important critical thinking is. These skills help solve complex problems, promote communication, make you think logically and increase creativity. And this is exactly what a successful freelancer needs.

Information management

We live in an information world and are constantly confronted with new ideas, data or opinions. Constant access to the Internet, a huge amount of information flows and the continuous generation of new ideas means only one thing: you have a lot of information to analyze, and something needs to be done to make sense of it all. This is where critical thinking can help.

Perhaps critical thinking should be seen not as a set of useful skills, but as a way of life. The idea is not new. Siddhartha Gautama, better known as the Buddha, spoke about this:

“Don't trust what you've heard; do not trust traditions, as they have been passed down from generation to generation; do not trust anything if it is a rumor or the opinion of the majority; do not trust if it is only a record of the saying of some old sage; do not trust guesses; do not trust what you think is true, what you are used to; do not trust the bare authority of your teachers and elders alone. After observation and analysis, when it agrees with reason and contributes to the good and benefit of one and all, then accept it and live according to it.

At its core, critical thinking is the path to truth. Along this path, you will have to solve complex problems, come up with unusual ideas and build new connections between different concepts. Critical thinking is a part of our lives, but this skill can be developed and strengthened to become a true expert in our field.

Ask why?

In critical thinking, the main question is: “Why?”. And this question is not so simple as it seems at first glance. Very many people tend to accept different opinions, especially if they are supported by at least some kind of authority, as indisputable facts. However, a person with critical thinking does not rely on faith. He's asking. And why, for example, is this presidential candidate better than his rival? Why is this view mainstream? Where did this information come from? Why is it believed that a certain interpretation of events is correct? On what basis can such a conclusion be drawn? Questions, questions and more questions. "Why?" can take a variety of forms, so do not deny yourself the pleasure of asking. Sometimes even the most innocent question can completely change the picture of the world, which is certainly useful, especially for creative people.

Everyone in childhood was why, but an adult should not ask this question with the same naivete. However, in communication with other people or just in a mental dispute, one cannot do without correctly posed questions. This helps in conducting your own research, this is how you can get a deeper understanding of the issues under discussion. Let them not look very complicated at first approximation.

Let's take games for example. Everyone played games when they were kids. But today everyone plays, from young to old. Of course, this is no longer hide and seek, but various video games, if we talk about adults. But the question is: why do people start playing? And not only on the computer, because right before our eyes there is a rapid growth in the popularity of board games. The history of many board games dates back centuries, what is it that people find in them? Questions like these make you see different aspects of the problem and help you find the most effective solutions. Just don't be afraid to think critically. The answer "board games are popular because they always have been" is the wrong answer. This is formulaic, not critical thinking.

Reading

One of the best ways to develop critical thinking skills is to learn about the lives of other peoples, their areas of residence, their cultures and their history. It is quite possible to get this knowledge, it is enough to start traveling around the world, but not everyone can afford it. But you can start reading. And the more the better.

Today on the Internet you can find almost any information on any topic of interest. Not all of the content presented will be useful, so it's important to be able to work with facts and not trust their interpretation. You need to read a lot and not only what you like. We need to be familiar with other points of view, even if they contradict our philosophical, political or religious beliefs. And it doesn't matter who said what, a philosopher or the most ordinary person - the truth always remains the truth.

The more one reads, the more one learns. And the larger the body of knowledge, the easier it is to develop critical thinking skills. At the same time, it is not at all necessary to focus on scientific articles and similar content, fiction is also important: novels, stories, plays also help to understand how other people think and live.

But do not forget about critical thinking while reading. If someone has formalized his thoughts in the form of a book or a policy article on an Internet forum, then this does not mean at all that everything that is said there is true.

Forget about multitasking

Modern culture and technology make it easy to multitask. The conventional wisdom says that multitasking allows us to get more done, but science has repeatedly refuted this opinion. Multitasking distracts a person from the main thing and makes it difficult to think really seriously. This is the exact opposite of what is needed for critical thinking.

In order to solve a complex problem, you need to fully focus on it, which is impossible to achieve by working in multitasking mode. Reading, creativity, collaboration, discussion of various issues - all this requires the utmost concentration of attention, especially when it comes to achieving a real goal.

If you really need to think about some problem, it's better to get rid of everything that can turn on multitasking. Don't check mail. Turn off mobile phone. Close unnecessary tabs in the browser, especially if these are social network tabs. All this makes it hard to think. Not only does this prevent you from thinking critically, it also prevents you from thinking in any way productively.

Many freelancers may not agree with this point of view, well, maybe someone manages to think through a complex problem while doing several things at the same time. People are all different, this is quite real. But for the majority, juggling tasks and thoughtful reflection are incompatible.

Time for observations

When faced with a problem or the need to come up with a new idea, it is better not to rush off the bat, but to take the time to observe. Some things take time to reflect on, especially if past beliefs and experiences are in conflict with any events or statements. Today, everything is changing so fast that it is easy to get confused in all the variety of ideas and points of view.

Most people at such moments prefer to retreat "to previously occupied positions", they do not want to part with the usual way of thinking. But to learn to think critically, you need to be able to observe in order to correctly assess the situation. Sometimes it is useful to follow the development of a discussion on Facebook for several days in order to form your own opinion on an issue of interest. It is very tempting to insist on your point of view, but observation can give a clearer picture of what is happening.

The modern way of life greatly interferes with reflection. It even seems a little wild: how can you just think without doing anything else? However, focused reflection is one of the best ways to develop critical thinking. In order for your own voice to sound in your head, it is important to drown out all other voices. And it's difficult because there are so many distractions around.

Everyone has their own way of thinking. Someone goes for a walk, someone finds it easier to concentrate while working with pencil and paper. Any convenient solution will do. The main thing to remember is that for critical thinking it is important to establish connections between ideas. Decide on a direction of thought. Outline the range of issues and identify problems related to the task.

This is especially difficult if you imagine that right at the same time, thousands of people around the world are pondering similar ideas. Information flows are seething and there is a desire to simply find a ready-made solution on the Internet. If you want to develop critical thinking skills, you will have to think with your own head. Yes, this is not at all like a productive use of time. But that's how great ideas are born. Some people are so lucky that they can come up with amazing ideas during hard work on a project. However, many need silence and solitude. And time. To just think.

Instead of a conclusion

Everyone can think critically and live effectively. It is not at all difficult and does not require a great mind at all. Critical thinking is just a way to think with your head, questioning any, even the most interesting ideas. Of course, critical thinking won't solve every freelance problem, but it's a good habit to get into. And the more he thinks, the more efficiently he will work, learn, communicate and generate creative ideas.

Quite often, the term "critical thinking" is interpreted incorrectly, replaced by such concepts as creative thinking, the ability to draw logical conclusions, making sound decisions, and the ability to analyze information. In fact, the listed designations are not synonymous, but (except for the first one) are components of the process of critical thinking. The creative can be considered the antagonist of the critical. Therefore, such a substitution of concepts is inappropriate.

What is critical thinking and should it be developed?

Origin of the term

The word criticism is derived from the Greek kritike and literally translates as "the ability to disassemble or judge" (to form an opinion based on facts).

Such a human ability as thinking has been studied by various sciences for many years (logic, psychology, linguistics, philosophy, pathopsychology, neuropsychology). In general, the thought process can be defined as the ability to achieve a goal in a motivated way through a system of certain actions and planning with a predictable result. Naturally, depending on the science that considers or studies thinking, the definitions of this phenomenon will also change. For the correct interpretation of the term "critical thinking", it is enough to understand that this is a special human activity with a certain structure and types.

From all of the above, we can derive a definition: what is critical thinking. proposed his own formulation, in which he described one of the types of intellectual activity with an objective approach to the surrounding reality and information flows. This human ability is based on a system of rules and actions.

signs

Before listing the ways of developing critical thinking, it is necessary to describe the features inherent in this type:

One of the key features is independence in conclusions, assessments of phenomena and objects and beliefs. This is the ability to extract and analyze information based on personal experience and known problem solving schemes. Hence, the more complete the information about the problem being solved and the more diverse the palette of ways to solve the problem, the more reliably the result will be predicted (bypassing the established stereotypes of people).
Another distinguishing feature can be considered the attitude to information: its discovery, analysis, selection and application. A person who knows how to extract the necessary grains from any information and establish connections with an object of interest can cope with problems of any level.
Signs can also be considered the formulation of the right questions, which, as you know, represent the solution of half the problem, and the development of a strategy for solving the problem.
An important feature is the exhaustive argumentation, rationalization and reasonable and justified arguments.
One head is good, but two is even better. Another sign is the consideration of social factors in solving the problem, because therefore, debates and discussions are an acceptable form of work to achieve the goal.

How to develop critical thinking with the help of known techniques without outside help? It is enough to practice daily until this process becomes a way of life.

Skill Development Techniques

Due to the large number of methods for developing critical thinking, it is not possible (and necessary) to list everything. Therefore, it is enough to list the most popular of them and dwell on the description of those that are effectively used.

How to develop critical thinking on your own? Popular tricks include:

"Clusters".
"Basket of Ideas".
"Reverse logical chains".
"True and False Statements".
"Six Hats"
Fishbone.
"Sinquain".
"Flight Magazines".
"RAFT".
"Tree of Predictions"
"Marginal Notes".
"Question of the day".

"Clusters"

It is good to use the technique when systematizing the obtained information and establishing links between phenomena.

The principle of building a cluster is based on a model of the structure of the solar system. The question or problem of interest takes the position of the Sun. All other information is located on the positions of the planets of the solar system with their satellites.

fishbone

Another method of systematizing information and finding the optimal solution to a problem is Fishbone.

His help on how to develop critical thinking is undeniable. Reception is displayed in the form of a fish skeleton. The head and tail are denoted as the problem and its solution, respectively. On the edges are the causes of the problem and the facts confirming them. This technique allows you to identify the relationship of problems and the system of their interaction.

"RAFT"

This technique is good for working on oral speech, the development of rhetoric and the skill of persuasion. The name is formed from the first letters of the words - Role, Audience, Form, Theme. This technique involves discussing a topic on behalf of a certain character (role), for an audience (a certain level of needs), in a pre-selected form (dialogue, story, anecdote, etc.) of narration and a given number of topics.

"Six Hats"

How to develop critical thinking with hats? Reception is suitable for independent work, and for working with an audience (both large and not so). The number of hats corresponds to certain views on the problem. Colors are assigned to certain elements:

white - facts;
yellow - opportunities;
blue - meaning;
green - creative;
red - emotions;
black - criticism.

It can be seen that the consideration of the problem is complex, from different positions, which allows you to make the most acceptable and rational decision.

"Tree of Predictions"

A technique for developing the ability to reasonably and reasonably make forecasts on a given topic.

The theme is represented by a tree trunk. Forecasts (possibly, probably) - branches on two sides. Arguments are leaves on branches. In this way, it is possible not only to compile a probabilistic model of the development of the situation, but also to determine the decisive factors in the current situation.

in the education system

Modern education is too concentrated on the learning process itself, which is reflected in the excessive enthusiasm for (necessary and not so) technologies. Fundamentally, the use of technologies practically does not change anything (except for the names of the parts of the lesson, according to the requirements of the technology, ZUNs - competencies, etc.). As a result, the student must memorize certain material. True, the use of developing puzzles in a certain dosage in the lessons is welcome. This type of activity brings variety to the strictly regulated life of the student. Indeed, in order to find the answer to the question of how to assemble a puzzle, it is required to mobilize all knowledge, skills, and independence in achieving the goal.

In order for the technology for the development of critical thinking not to look like a decorative addition to school life, it is necessary to change the education system itself. And this is almost impossible to do in the near future.

Many elements of critical thinking are often used in the lessons (question of the day, etc.), but the basis remains a mystery behind seven seals.

Instead of a conclusion

The development of critical thinking is available for a person from about 5-6 years old. Until that time, the nervous system has not yet been developed enough and certain parts of the brain have not been formed. For an older preschooler, the solution to the question: "How to assemble a puzzle?" - and there is this development. Expands for lower receptions. And for middle and senior students, the whole palette of methods for developing critical thinking is available.

Adults can independently, as needed or for self-examination, use the listed techniques. In addition, the use of critical thinking in everyday life helps to keep the brain young for many years. On the other hand, it is critical thinking that allows a person to remain a Personality, that is, not to succumb to the provocations of a well-established system for managing public opinion.

Every day brings down on us a stream of problems that require supposedly immediate solutions. Some are insignificant, others can really change our lives. To assess the problem, and even more so - to make a responsible decision, you need to weigh all the options, analyze the situation. Critical thinking is a necessary and often overlooked skill for this. There are techniques that will help develop critical thinking and keep a cool head in the most nervous situations.

What is critical thinking

Critical thinking helps to analyze events or facts, and then come to certain conclusions. The main tools are the ability to find cause-and-effect relationships and logic, with the help of which a person forms an objective view of the problem, outlines the path to its solution.

Those with a well-developed critical mind question information and do not take it for granted. They are able to predict the further course of events, identify patterns, and find connections between objects and phenomena.

Critical thinking is not always related to the level of education or intelligence.

A small child who cannot read and write, without much life experience, is able to think freely. Free from stereotypes, children often find a non-trivial and unusual method for solving problems that adults would not have thought of.

Of course, a certain level of knowledge simplifies the process of critical thinking. For example, to understand whether a device is useful, you need to understand how it works.

It is believed that critical thinking skills are formed and developed constantly. Psychologists say that special attention should be paid to this process during the period of personality formation and the formation of a life position. Nevertheless, it is possible and necessary to work on critical thinking at any age, since there are enough techniques for this.

Under the influence of parents, children form a certain worldview, a system of life values is formed. Sometimes everything that was laid down in childhood remains unchanged throughout a person’s life.

Sometimes the "template" decisions that have been taught to make in the family are not suitable. A person who knows how to think critically is able to see new ways to achieve goals, to look for non-standard answers to the questions posed.

Why develop critical thinking?

Critical thinking in professional and everyday life contributes to more accurate and accurate work, helps to separate the important from the secondary, effectively and quickly solve problems.

Critical thinking also plays an important role in education.

It will help you absorb key ideas from textbooks and sources, draw on various theories, and provide compelling evidence.

In addition, with the help of critical thinking, it is easier to find a common language with other people, not to succumb to provocations in disputes, and to avoid other unpleasant situations in communication with others. Also among the obvious advantages of developed critical thinking are attention to detail and observation, the ability to think analytically in any life situations.

A person who owns critical thinking automatically acquires other important skills. In particular, he is able to communicate his thoughts logically, be persuasive in reasoning, correctly interpret data, make the most effective decisions, and so on.

In the modern world, developing critical thinking is especially important. It helps to filter the vast amount of information that we receive daily from the media, advertising, social networks and in person. In order to better navigate the information flow, it is easy to distinguish truth from lies, you need to compare and critically evaluate data from different sources.

Simply put - it is better to check the accuracy of the facts more often.

This does not mean that it is necessary to question everything, to doubt everything. However, thanks to critical thinking, a person is able to form his own point of view, alternative and independent. He can look at the situation as a whole, understand where he is wrong, and change his position based on arguments or facts.

Methods for developing critical thinking

The most famous technology for the development of critical thinking was developed by American scientists from Northern Iowa. In Russia, the same methodology has been used since 1997. It is called RCMCHP - the development of critical thinking through reading and writing.

First of all, this technique helps to form basic thinking skills and apply them in practice. The main channels through which we receive and transmit information are texts (reading and writing).

In accordance with the methodology of critical thinking, a person must carefully read all the materials related to a particular topic, and then analyze the data obtained.

This refers not only to written materials, but also speech, video and audio recordings.

The method of developing critical thinking is based on three stages of material processing: challenge, comprehension and reflection.

At the first stage, a person collects all the knowledge that was obtained earlier, looks for flaws in them and determines whether additional information is needed. At the stage of comprehension, analytical work with the text takes place. This can be helped by drawing up tables and keeping diaries, in which you can note the level of understanding of the information received and specific facts.

At the stage of reflection, knowledge reaches a new level and is applied in practice.

At this point, a person can already form their attitude to the text and discuss it with others during the discussion.

Critical Thinking Techniques

There are a number of critical thinking techniques. Among them, there are several options for active writing (cluster, table "Z-X-Y"), active reading and listening (insert), as well as the organization of group work.

Cluster. This is one of the most popular critical thinking techniques today. It is needed in order to visually display the thought processes that occur while working with text.

For the effective use of the technique, a sheet of paper is taken, in the center of which the key word in the text is written, and then close ideas, images or facts are noted around it. As they appear, they are connected to the keyword with straight lines. In the course of work, the "satellite words" of the key concept acquire their "satellites".

As a result, a diagram appears that clearly shows how the thought process took place.

Experts advise writing down everything that comes to mind, building as many different connections as possible, even non-standard ones. The only drawback of this technique is that extra words and information may appear that will interfere with perception and overload the scheme.

"I know. I want to know. I found out ”(“ Z-X-U ”). This is another technique for developing critical thinking. It was developed in 1986 by Chicago professor Donna Ogle.

You need to create a table with three columns. The first - “I know” - is filled in at the call stage. You can add preliminary knowledge, hypotheses or associations there. The second column, "I want to know," focuses on the purpose of learning information. The last part of the table - “Learned” - is filled in after working with the data. This technique helps to better analyze new information in order to be able to subsequently apply it in practice.

Insert. This technique is used while reading the text. Notes are made in the margins in accordance with the attitude of the researcher to the information. There are four markers for this:

"V"- the researcher knew it before;

«-» - the data contradict what is already known;

«+» - the researcher has not previously encountered these data;

«?» - the information is not clear, it is necessary to obtain more accurate information.

In the future, all this is recorded in a special table. Using this technique, information can be distributed depending on its value and the experience of the researcher.

All the mentioned technologies are useful for the development of critical thinking.

Everyone can choose the most suitable technique or combine several.

With the help of critical thinking technology, you can identify and solve problems based on the available information, search for and evaluate solutions. In parallel with the development of critical thinking, the whole system of human mental work is changing: different points of view no longer cause protest, and alternative ways of solving problems help to live.

Although the ability to think critically has been important at all times, those who will live in the 21st century simply cannot do without it. For the first time in the history of mankind, there is a danger that we are capable of destroying all life on our planet. The decisions we make as individuals and as members of society, whether those decisions are about the economy, the conservation of natural resources, or the development of nuclear weapons, will affect future generations of peoples around the globe. In addition, we have to make decisions on a number of important issues of a local or private nature. For example, in recent elections, voters had to decide whether they were for or against an increase in the property income tax, the construction of a canal that would divert water from one part of the state to another, mandatory AIDS testing for criminals, and an ordinance to limit rent.

In addition, they had to choose one of the candidates for the positions of governor, state treasurer, district judge and trustee of the network of local libraries. Consumers have to decide whether the nitrates in the hot dogs they eat are carcinogenic, whether the public school system creates opportunities for up-to-date education, and whether a healthcare improvement program that allows you to choose your doctor is preferable to other programs, which do not provide such an opportunity. Since every citizen is required to make a huge number of important decisions, it seems natural that society should be concerned about how these decisions are made. Oddly enough, teachers, politicians and the general public began to pay serious attention to this issue only in the last 10-15 years.

More recently, the National Committee on Educational Challenges has recognized the need to ensure that college graduates have the knowledge and skills to help grow the world economy and participate in democratic processes. This would allow all of us to enjoy a peaceful and prosperous life. One of the goals that the Committee sets for graduates in the next decade is: "The proportion of college graduates who are able to think critically, work productively in a team and solve problems must increase significantly."

Numerous data from the United States show that forms of education that would enable a person to think more productively are urgently needed. America is called "a nation under threat" because we are depriving students of the most important component of education - we are not educating them with the ability to think. Steen summed up the results of a study of student math ability in several countries around the world with the following chilling warning: "While the back-to-basics principle has flourished in the United States over the past 15 years, the ability of American students to think (and not just memorize) has declined markedly." The American Committee on Education came to a similar disappointing conclusion in its 1982 report: "The trend is clear: the percentage of students who achieve well is declining."

Studies conducted in many countries over and over again paint the same sad picture of the neglect of critical thinking. Izawa and Hayden summed up the results of a comparative study of the abilities of students from different countries. In solving mathematical problems, the best of the American students performed worse than the weakest of the Japanese students; equally deplorable results were obtained as a result of testing knowledge of history and proficiency in reading skills. Neubert and Binko, guided by the data of such studies, came to the conclusion that only 39% of 17-year-old young people are able to find the necessary information, organize it and interpret it correctly. Add to this that, perhaps, the most terrible horror story of science fiction writer Isaac Asimov was his statement about the true state of scientific knowledge of Americans. He noted that in a telephone survey conducted by the Public Opinion Lab at Northern Illinois University, 20% of more than 200 adult respondents believed that the sun revolves around the earth. How could it be, Asimov asks, that 400 years after scientists agreed that the Earth revolves around the Sun, a huge number of adults still do not know this elementary fact that is taught in any high school?

A depressingly long list of such evidence appears in the reports of many authoritative organizations. Based on these data, we can conclude that many adults do not have satisfactory thinking skills and assimilation of information. It's time to stop reporting and start taking steps to nurture these skills.

Critical thinking is not all right, not only in the United States. Representatives of a number of countries recognized that the world community is developing at a rapid pace and the need for citizens who can think critically is essential for all states. This is the conclusion reached by a group of leading experts in the field of higher education who met in Mexico City. They expressed a unanimous opinion: "The task of the university today is to graduate students who can think in a rapidly changing world."

If these findings from national and international research organizations do not convince you of the need for critical thinking training, then consider the following. Most people complete their formal education between the ages of 18 and 22. The average life expectancy of those who are young today is expected to be the longest in human history; most will live past 70 years, and many over 80 and 90 years. We can only guess what life will be like in 2050 or 2060 and beyond, which is the time many of you readers of this book will be living in. But it is safe to say that many of those who are still young now will have to do work that is still difficult to imagine, and deal with technologies that modern science fiction writers could not even dream of. What knowledge do you need to acquire in the first two decades of your life in order to feel calm for the remaining 50-odd years?

Education designed for the future should be built on the basis of two inseparable principles: the ability to quickly navigate in a rapidly growing flow of information and find the right one, and the ability to comprehend and apply the information received. I have an inexpensive modem connected to my home computer. With it, I can access all the scientific papers in the main university library, dozens of daily newspapers, flight schedules, several Internet encyclopedias, the Dow Jones Index, information about new pharmaceuticals, thousands of yearbooks of various colleges, government publications, new movie reviews, and many other information sources. I can get all this information from the comfort of my home, and it takes a computer just a few minutes to find it. Another problem arises: what to do with this avalanche of information? Information must be collected, organized, interpreted, and applied, or it will be no more useful on my desktop than it was on the library shelf where it was before. If we are unable to make sense of the vast number of questions that we have to deal with, then there is a danger that we will get answers to all these questions, but not understand what they mean.

Using the same modem, I can almost instantly establish a connection with any part of our planet and at the same time communicate on the Internet with people from all over the world. Information arrives in a matter of seconds, but whether the latest technology will prove to be a boon or a heavy burden for humanity depends entirely on the presence of people capable of critical thinking at the entrance and exit of these ultra-fast communication highways.

Despite the obvious need for higher education for many, only in recent years have teachers begun to develop curricula aimed at improving the thinking abilities of students. It is difficult to imagine an area of life where the ability to think clearly would not be needed. However, few of us have ever been taught exactly how to learn to think more productively. Our institutions have traditionally required students to learn, memorize, analyze facts, solve problems, but these institutions have never really shown students how to do it. It was assumed that adult students already "know how to think." Research has shown, however, that this assumption is not justified in practice. Psychologists have found that only 25% of first-year students have the skills necessary for logical and abstract thinking - the kind of thinking that is required, for example, to answer the question: "What will happen if ..." and to evaluate abstract ideas. This situation has been summed up briefly by Brock, former head of the Republican Party and now a prominent international affairs consultant. After reading a recent report on the low level of cognitive and mental abilities of college graduates, he exclaimed: "Everyone should be horrified by this!"

Thinking and knowledge

... Everything that is known to us, and everything that is known to all people - that is, all existing knowledge - was created by someone. When we study Euclidean geometry, we use the knowledge created by the great mathematician Euclid. In the same way, all other outstanding discoveries and inventions, such as the wheel, shoes, video games, toilet paper, the formula E = mc^2 and the "discovery of America", are knowledge created by people. Knowledge is not static. It cannot be passed from person to person, just as we pour water from vessel to vessel. It is dynamic. Of course, it is naive to think that we all have to start from scratch and reinvent the wheel. We rely on knowledge created by someone to create new knowledge.

Although specialists in psychology and related sciences have proposed several definitions of the term critical thinking, all these definitions are quite close in meaning. Here's one of the simplest ones that gets the gist of the idea: critical thinking is the use of cognitive techniques or strategies that increase the likelihood of obtaining a desired end result. This definition characterizes thinking as something characterized by controllability, validity and purposefulness, a type of thinking that is used in solving problems, formulating conclusions, probabilistic evaluation and decision making. At the same time, the thinker uses skills that are justified and effective for a particular situation and the type of problem being solved. Other definitions further indicate that critical thinking is characterized by the construction of logical inferences, the creation of consistent logical models among themselves, and the adoption of informed decisions regarding whether to reject any judgment, agree with it, or temporarily postpone consideration of it. All these definitions imply mental activity, which should be aimed at solving a specific cognitive task.

The word critical, used in the definition, suggests an evaluative component. Sometimes this word is used to convey a negative attitude towards something, for example, when they say: "She was very critical of the film." But evaluation can and should be a constructive expression of both positive and negative attitudes. When we think critically, we evaluate the results of our thought processes - whether the decision we made is correct or how well we coped with the task. Critical thinking also involves evaluating the thought process itself—the reasoning that led to our conclusions, or the factors we took into account when making a decision. Critical thinking is sometimes also referred to as directed thinking because it aims to get a desired result. Dreams, dreams and other types of mental activity, in which we do not pursue a specific goal, do not belong to the category of critical thinking. Similarly, the thinking behind our daily habits is not critical either. For example, when we get out of bed in the morning, brush our teeth, and walk the familiar path to school or work, our thinking is goal-oriented, but it involves little or no conscious evaluation of the actions we take. These are all examples of undirected or automatic thinking.

Although psychology has been studying the process of thinking for almost its entire more than a century of existence as an academic discipline, cognitive psychology, that is, the branch of psychology that studies the nature of thinking and knowledge, has truly dominated scientific psychology in the last 20 years. Cognitive psychologists aim to study the techniques and strategies that are used in problem solving, reasoning, and decision making. They are also interested in how these abilities depend on intelligence. This keen interest in thought processes gave rise to a new field of psychology that came to be called cognitive learning. Its task is to find application of the knowledge we have accumulated about the processes and mechanisms of human thinking in order to help people improve their thinking abilities. For example, by studying the right and wrong actions of a person in various situations, psychologists have found that the spontaneous and intuitive approach of many people to solving various problems often turns out to be erroneous. Moreover, scientists can often predict when the wrong decision will be made due to the very nature of the problem, and when - because of a misunderstanding of this problem by the person solving it. The knowledge accumulated in this area is already being applied in practice in solving many practical problems - from teaching military skills to read maps to developing computer programs with a convenient and understandable interface.

Can you change your mindset?

The intention to influence human thinking can seem somewhat daunting. Words like mind control, propaganda, or the image of Big Brother who knows all your thoughts from Orwell's 1984 immediately come to mind. In reality, critical thinking is the antidote to the very thought control that so bothered Orwell. Teaching clear thinking skills can help anyone recognize propaganda and thus avoid falling victim to it, analyze false grounds in an argument, see clear deceit, determine the reliability of a particular source of information, and properly think about each problem or decision.

When I talk about critical thinking with students or other people with whom I have to communicate, I am sometimes told that there is no such thing as critical thinking, because there can be many different opinions on the same issue, and everyone has right to your point of view. They prove to me that there is no "best way to think". Of course, I agree that we are all entitled to our own opinion, but some opinions are still better than others. If, for example, you are convinced that it is useful for pregnant women to consume large amounts of alcohol, you will have to support this belief with strong arguments (there are no such arguments in this case). (Stronger definitions of the terms opinion and belief are presented in Chapter 5.) The opposite assumption, that pregnant women should drink very little, if at all, can be supported by carefully conducted laboratory studies, which show the detrimental effect of alcohol on the developing fetus. Similarly, everyone has the right to believe in astrological predictions and extrasensory perception, but at the moment there is no hard evidence in favor of such beliefs. Not all beliefs are equally justified.

Let's look at a few examples of the need for critical thinking in various areas of life. The best place to start is with ads. Advertisers pay huge sums for the opportunity to convince buyers to buy their products. An advertising campaign is considered successful if, after it was carried out, the demand for the advertised product increased and the amount from its additional sale turned out to be more than the advertising costs. One of my favorite examples is cigarette ads. As you probably know, every advertisement for tobacco products must carry the following warning: "Smoking is injurious to your health." It could be assumed that these words would be associated with dry coughs, yellow plaque on the teeth and lung cancer, thereby reducing the effectiveness of any cigarette advertising. Contrary to this warning, cigarette advertisements often show smokers surrounded by virgin nature with clear lakes, blue skies and tall green pine trees. On one of the advertising posters you can read: "Come where cleanliness is." Another classic cigarette advertisement reads "Live your pleasure" - an attempt to influence those who associate smoking with premature death.

Have you ever thought about how smoking has to do with the beauty of nature? Maybe when smoking is associated with beautiful people against a beautiful background, it seems to be more beneficial to health. One of the brands of cigarettes is called "Malibu". Their advertising posters depict the soft white sand and frothy blue ocean off Malibu Beach in California - the perfect setting for "beautiful people" to relax. This luxurious picture, which comes to mind at the sight of the brand of cigarettes mentioned, should obscure the image of a patient greedily crouching on an oxygen bag - an image that has a much closer relationship to smoking.

Another example of how critical thinking is needed is a conversation I had with a taxi driver about a commercial for detergents. My interlocutor said that he does not pay any attention to advertising and that it does not affect his choice when buying goods. He then added that he always buys blue laundry detergent, which washes "a dirty circle on the collar" well. Do you see the contradiction in his words? Although he claimed that advertising did not affect him, in fact, it was she who determined what he bought. I'm sure a lot of people didn't show any concern about "collar circles", "yellow greasy coating" on the sink, "dandruff" or "leaky elbows" until advertisers told us that we would be in an unenviable position in society if Let's ignore these details. These ads tacitly imply that the "problems" they point to (dark streaks on a shirt collar or a dirty sink) are very serious, but can be fixed if you purchase the advertised product. For example, a taxi driver, having taken the "circle on the collar" problem to heart, bought the advertised product as a result, not even suspecting that someone influenced his thoughts and actions.

During a recent campaign, one candidate told voters that he was opposed to corruption, pollution, crime and overpaid bureaucrats. His speech was met with loud applause. Why do I pay attention to his words? Because he didn't say anything at all. I have never heard that any of the candidates was for corruption, environmental pollution, crime or high salaries for officials. Voters should have asked him to name more specific goals and explain how he intends to achieve them and where he will get the money to finance his projects.

Nine-year-old American children were asked to solve the following problem: "Jason bought three boxes of pencils. What else do you need to know to determine how many pencils he bought?" Only 35% of the respondents realized that they needed information about how many pencils were in each box. Here is another problem given to a large group of 13-year-olds: "An army bus holds 36 soldiers. If 1,128 soldiers need to be taken to the training ground, how many buses will be needed?" Most of the students did the necessary calculations without difficulty. The difficulty was to make sense of the answer. Many rounded the result to the nearest whole number and decided that 31 buses would be required. Others answered in decimal form (31.33) or indicated the remainder of the branch. The task was not to demonstrate elementary calculation skills, but to find an answer that can be considered acceptable in this case, and to apply a method that differs from that taught in school - the answer had to be rounded to the nearest higher whole number, and not just to the nearest whole number. Perhaps simple examples like this provide the most compelling answer to the question of whether critical thinking should be taught. The most valuable commodity in America is thinking and educated adults. The goal of the education system should be to have as many of them as possible.

EVIDENCE THAT THINKING CAN BE BETTER

Everyone agrees that college students learn, but whether they learn to think is debatable. Wilbert J. McKeachy

If you've wondered if you can learn to think more effectively, then you've probably wondered if there is evidence that thinking can be improved. … We now have a lot of evidence that thinking skills courses have a positive effect that can be used in a wide variety of situations. A number of evaluation studies of the results of such courses were carried out, fundamentally different in their form. Summarizing their results gives every reason to believe that with the help of training it is quite possible to develop a person's ability to think critically, especially if this training is aimed at applying the acquired skills in various situations and various fields of knowledge. Indeed, it is difficult to name an aspect of critical thinking that cannot be taught and mastered. We study mathematics with the expectation that we will be able to use mathematical knowledge in everyday life, where it is often needed. In the same way, we teach children the skills of speaking and writing, believing that they will be able to use these skills when they speak or write on any topic.

Here is a short list of some of the facts that support the case that critical thinking skills can be learned in class and used later in a variety of situations:

1. An analysis of a nationwide thinking skills training program in Venezuela showed that students who attended thinking training classes performed better in oral discussions and written essays on a given topic than students from the control group with which they were compared. This study is particularly noteworthy because the essays and oral responses were assessed "blindly", i.e. the assessors did not know whether the students they assessed had received training in thinking skills, or if they were in the control group. The results of this program indicate that the acquired thinking skills were appropriately applied when students were presented with topics that were unexpected for them.

2. According to college students' own testimonies, most of them are convinced that their ability to think critically has increased markedly after taking a course in thinking skills. Students began to rate themselves higher on a range of self-assessment scales, including the ability to take the time to make judgments, the ability to evaluate contradictory statements, use probabilistic estimates, and consider uncertainty. They also note that they have learned to apply various heuristic techniques when solving problems, such as the "by contradiction" method, the exclusion of unnecessary data and the assessment of the reliability of the information source. Of course, believing that one's own ability to think critically has increased is far from the same as demonstrating an improvement in this ability in practice, but it must be said that the students' own assessments are consistent with other data.

3. There was also a study that showed that college students who took a course in critical thinking performed much better on standard intelligence tests. While one might be skeptical of any claim that a person's intelligence has increased after a few sessions, these data provide additional evidence for that. that critical thinking training courses give a positive result.

4. Other researchers have found that a college-level critical thinking course increased adult cognitive ability. Cognitive development was assessed according to the method developed by the famous psychologist Jean Piaget and considered a reference in the analysis of cognitive growth. This is an impressive result, given the following fact: when assessed according to the indicators proposed by Piaget, it turned out that only 25-50% of first-year students have the skills necessary for abstract and logical thinking.

5. A fruitful approach to the study of changes in thinking is to study how exactly knowledge is represented in the human mind. Although the theoretical basis of this technique is beyond the scope of this book, the results of such studies are not difficult to evaluate. Schoenfeld and Hermann, for example, found that when college students were taught general thinking skills, they performed much better on various tasks than students trained in a traditional program. In addition, these students, unlike students in the control group, organized their mental presentation of the material they were offered in the same way that specialists usually do.

6. Using a similar methodology, Facione determined that college students who took a critical thinking course performed better on a multiple-choice test than students who did not. Lehman, Lempert, and Nisbett also reported success on similar tests in final-year college students. They came to the conclusion that the knowledge gained during training, during which general "rules" of thinking are given, can be transferred to other areas of activity. Similar conclusions were drawn by Fong, Krantz, and Nisbett, who summarized their research as follows: "A number of experiments have shown that thinking ability can be improved through formal training."

7. To test the ability of adult students to master and apply thinking skills, Lehman and Nisbett examined how well students can use what they have learned outside the classroom. They called students at home a few months after they completed their courses and asked questions under the guise of a public opinion poll. For example, students might be asked to comment on a successful streak played by a rising league baseball star. Those trained in critical thinking could determine that a general statistical principle was important in this case. The results confirmed the assumption that students have learned and can quickly apply the thinking skills that they were taught in the classroom. Moreover, this ability is retained even when questions are asked in the usual everyday environment - at their home - a few months after the end of classes and relate to other topics.

8. In 16 chapters of a recently published book edited by Nisbett, there is a wealth of data that convincingly shows that the skills of logic, statistics, deduction and evaluative analysis can be instilled in such a way that they will be applied by students in a wide variety of situations. Another series of studies noting the positive results of teaching critical thinking is described by Brewer. A similar conclusion is reached in an independent literature review.

All these various materials lead us to the same conclusion: college students can be taught to think more critically if they are given classes dedicated to this task. We should strive to ensure that the teaching of various methods of critical thinking is given attention in every college class and that students learn to apply the acquired skills in any setting. Evaluation of studies that have compared several groups of students, however, suggests that the results are most noticeable when the course of study is aimed exclusively at developing critical thinking. Critical thinking does not automatically appear as a by-product of ordinary training in some area. To achieve the expected effect, it is required to make systematic efforts to improve thinking. In order for students to be fully and consciously focused on improving their thinking abilities and expanding the scope of the acquired skills, critical thinking training should include a large number of examples from various areas of life.

Application in practice of acquired skills

All of the studies noted above that have confirmed the effectiveness of teaching critical thinking have studied the universalization of critical thinking skills. The real purpose of any learning to improve thinking is to put into practice the acquired skills. By practical application, I mean using critical thinking skills in a wide variety of situations. This book will not be of much use if these skills are used only in the classroom or in solving problems similar to those considered in the classroom. Ideally, critical thinking skills should be used to recognize unrealistic campaign promises, arguments that themselves need to be proven, incorrect probabilistic estimates, weak arguments, or purely rhetorical constructs. Critical thinkers should be better at solving real-life problems, whether it's the threat of nuclear war or setting up a freshly bought VCR. These skills, moreover, should be long-lasting and useful during the decades of critical thinking that most of us have ahead of us. These tasks are not abstract at all. They are very specific and relevant. The best way to ensure the practical application I am talking about is to do so through the conscious and thoughtful use of the skills you learn in a wide variety of situations. Students can expand this scope by looking for examples that require critical thinking and using them.

The tasks and exercises presented in the collection that complements this book are intended to show the versatility of this application in practice. The collection contains a large number of types of tasks on various topics. By solving these problems, you are more likely to remember and, if necessary, use the thinking skills presented in the book in everyday situations. There are many factors that determine how likely you are to apply the thinking skills gained in one area of expertise to another, but we know for sure that it is possible and doable. Find other times you can use these thinking skills and apply them!