Lexical and phonetic foundations of the Russian language. Accent

Word stress is called emphasis when pronouncing one of the syllables of a disyllabic or polysyllabic word. Verbal stress has an organizing function. A group of syllables connected by a common stress forms a special phonetic unit. It is called a phonetic word , for example: [gъл^ва] head, [на(гълъву] on the head. Within the framework of a phonetic word, the stressed syllable turns out to be the point of reference in relation to which the nature of the pronunciation of the remaining syllables is determined. Words destressed can behave differently. Some of them follow the usual rules of pronunciation of sounds: [da_sád] to the garden (cf.: [d^sád] annoyance); [l' e´j_kъ] lei-ka (cf.: [l' e´jkъ] watering can). Others , despite being unstressed, retain some phonetic features of an independent word. They, for example, may contain vowels that are uncharacteristic of unstressed syllables: [shto(nám] what do we need (cf.: [shtanám] pants); [t'e(l' isa] - those forests (cf.: [t'l'isa] telesa). Verbal stress is one of the main external signs of an independent word. Function words and particles usually do not have stress and are adjacent to independent words, making up one phonetic word with them : [under-the-mountain], [on-the-side], [that-that-time].The Russian language is characterized by forceful (dynamic) stress, in which a stressed syllable stands out compared to unstressed ones with greater tension of articulation, especially the vowel sound. A stressed vowel is always longer than the corresponding unstressed sound. In Russian, the stress is varied - it is not assigned to a specific syllable: svetly (stress falls on the first syllable), svetlyet (stress falls on the second syllable), svetlyachok (stress falls on the last syllable). Thus, Russian stress can fall on any syllable (exit, exit, exit). Variation of stress is used in the Russian language to distinguish homographs and their grammatical forms (organ - organ) and individual forms of various words (moyu - moi), and in some cases serves as a means of lexical differentiation of a word (chaos - chaos) or gives the word a stylistic coloring (well done - Well done). Stress norms for most words in the Russian language are contained in the spelling dictionary. The mobility and immobility of stress serves as an additional means in the formation of forms of the same word: the stress or remains in the same place of the word (garden, -a, -u, -om, -e, -y, -ov, etc. .), or moves from one part of the word to another (city, -a, -u, -om, -e; -a, -ov, etc.). The mobility of stress ensures the distinction of grammatical forms (buy - buy, legs - legs, etc.). In some cases, the difference in the place of verbal stress loses all meaning: cf.: cottage cheese and cottage cheese, otherwise and differently, butt and butt, etc. Words can be unstressed or lightly stressed. Usually, function words and particles are deprived of stress, but they sometimes take on stress, so that a preposition with an independent word following it has the same stress: [for-winter], [out-of-town], [in the evening]. Two- and three-syllable prepositions and conjunctions, simple numerals in combination with nouns, connectives be and become, and some of the introductory words can be weakly stressed. Some categories of words, in addition to the main one, have an additional, side stress, which is usually in the first place, and the main one in the second, for example: Old Russian. These words include words: 1) polysyllabic, as well as complex in composition (aircraft construction), 2) complex abbreviations (gostelecentr), 3) words with prefixes after-, super-, arch-, trans-, anti-, etc. (transatlantic , post-October), 4) some foreign words (postscript, post factum).

Phrase, tact and logical stress. Clitics.

Phrase stress - highlighting one of the words in a phrase by increasing word stress, combining different words into one phrase. The phrasal stress usually falls on the stressed vowel of the last word in the final speech beat (syntagma): There is a short, / but wondrous time in the initial autumn.

Bar accent- highlighting one of the words in a speech beat (syntagma) by increasing verbal stress, combining different words into one syntagma. Syntagmatic stress usually falls on the stressed vowel of the last word in a speech beat: There is a short, / but wonderful time in the initial autumn //. The speech beat usually coincides with the respiratory group, i.e. a segment of speech pronounced with one blast of exhaled air, without pauses. The integrity of a speech beat as a rhythmic unit is created by its intonation design. The intonation center is concentrated on the stressed syllable of a word as part of a speech beat - the beat stress: On a dry aspen / hoodie /... Each speech beat is formed by one of the intonation structures. A speech beat is sometimes called syntagma. The main means of dividing into syntagmas is a pause, which usually appears in combination with the melody of speech, the intensity and tempo of speech and can be replaced by sudden changes in the meanings of these prosodic features. One of the words of the syntagma (usually the last) is characterized by the strongest stress (With logical stress, the main stress can fall on any word of the syntagma). The phrase usually stands out and contains several speech bars, but the boundaries of the phrase and the bar can coincide: Night. // Street. // Flashlight. // Pharmacy // (Block). The selection of speech beats can be characterized by variability: cf. Field behind the ravine and Field/behind the ravine.

Word stress- a type of stress defined within a word and consisting in highlighting one of its syllables, in contrast to phrasal, rhythmic (beat), syllabic stress. S. u. can be free, as in Russian, or fixed, as in Czech, Hungarian, Polish. Within a bar (less often a phrase), two types of bar (phrase) stress are distinguished, depending on the functions - logical and emphatic. Logical stress- an emphasis that allows any word in a phrase to be made the semantic center. Emphatic stress– To characterize the emotional expressiveness of a word, Shcherba introduced the term “emphatic stress.” This stress “pushes forward” and enhances the emotional side of the word or expresses the speaker’s affective state in connection with a particular word. Briefly, the difference between logical and emphatic stress can be formulated as follows: logical stress draws attention to a given word, and emphatic stress makes it emotionally rich. In the first case, the speaker's intention is manifested, and in the second, a direct feeling is expressed.

In Russian, emphatic stress consists of a greater or lesser lengthening of the stressed vowel: a most beautiful worker, a wonderful work of art."

Clitics- a word (for example, a pronoun or particle), grammatically independent, but phonologically dependent. By definition, clitics are, in particular, all words that do not form a syllable (for example, the prepositions in, to, with). Clitics can be attached to the stressed word form of any one part of speech (for example, Roman pronominal forms in indirect cases - only to the verb) or to word forms of any part of speech (these are Russian particles); the latter are called transcategorial.

16. The concept of Russian intonation, its means, types, functions.
Intonation is a set of rhythmic and melodic components of speech: melody, intensity, duration, speech tempo and timbre.

Elements of intonation:

1) melody speech - the main component of intonation, raising - lowering the voice in a phrase (cf., pronunciation of interrogative and declarative sentences);

2) rhythm speech - regular repetition of stressed and unstressed, long and short syllables. The rhythm of speech serves to organize poetic and prose texts;

3) volume speech - the strength or weakness of pronouncing a statement (cf. the different intensity of speech at a meeting and in a room);

4) pace speech - speed of pronunciation (sounds, syllables, words), speed of speech, duration of speech in time (for example, towards the end of the utterance the pace of speech slows down,
segments containing secondary information are pronounced quickly, informatively significant segments are pronounced at a slow pace);

5) timbre speech - the sound coloring of speech, conveying its emotionally expressive shades (for example, intonation of distrust, playful intonation, etc.).

Functions of intonation.

1) A means of formalizing a statement and identifying its meaning. With the help of intonation, the speech flow is divided into semantic segments (cf. the intonation of completeness and incompleteness of a sentence).

2) Distinguishes between types of statements according to purposefulness (cf. intonation of motivation, question, narrative, etc.).

3) Conveys syntactic relationships between parts of a sentence or sentences (cf. intonation of enumeration, explanation, comparison).

4) Expresses emotional coloring (cf. exclamatory intonation, non-exclamatory).

5) Reveals the subtext of a statement (a special meaning that does not follow from the meanings of words).

6) Characterizes the speaker and the communication situation as a whole (emotionally neutral, raised tone, mystery, secrecy, importance, intimacy).

Question No. 2: SegmentalAndsupersegmentalphoneticunits. Phrase, speechtact, phoneticword, syllable, soundHowsegmentspeechflow. Our speech is a stream of sounds, a sound chain. This chain is divided into segments, separate units, distinguished by various phonetic means. In the Russian language, such units are a phrase, a phonetic syntagm, a phonetic word, a syllable and a sound. A phrase is a segment of speech united by a special intonation and phrasal stress and concluded between two fairly long pauses. The phrase corresponds to a statement that is relatively complete in meaning. However, a phrase cannot be identified with a sentence. A phrase is a phonetic unit, and a sentence is a grammatical one; they belong to different tiers of language and may not coincide linearly. A phrase can be divided into phonetic syntagms. Phonetic syntagma is also characterized by special intonation and syntagmic stress, but pauses between syntagmas are not required, and they are shorter than interphrase pauses. The division of the speech flow into phrases and syntagmas is determined by the meaning, the meaning that the speaker puts into the utterance. Phonetic syntagmas consisting of more than one word are characterized by semantic and syntactic integrity. Thus, the phrase and phonetic syntagma are distinguished by rhythmic and intonation means; the division of the speech flow into phrases and phonetic syntagms is associated with meaning and syntactic division. A phonetic syntagma can consist of one or more phonetic words. A phonetic word is a segment of a sound chain united by one verbal stress. A phonetic word can correspond to one or more lexical units. A phonetic word is divided into syllables, and syllables are divided into sounds. A sound, a syllable, a phonetic word, a phonetic syntagm, a phrase are different segments of the speech stream. Such linear segments are called segmental units. Sound is the smallest segmental unit. Each next largest segmental unit consists of smaller ones: a syllable of sounds; phonetic word - made of syllables; phonetic syntagma - from phonetic words; phrase - from syntagmas.

Question No. 3: Syllable, emphasis, intonationHowsupersegmentalunits. The supersegmental units of speech include stress and intonation. They serve to combine segmental units in the speech stream. Stress is an essential feature of a word. Can be verbal. Verbal stress is the selection, using phonetic means, of one of the syllables in a word, a stressed syllable. Russian accent is quantitative, i.e. the stressed syllable is characterized by a longer duration. This feature forms the basis of the methodological technique used by teachers in primary schools. In addition, Russian stress is characterized as dynamic or forceful, because the stressed syllable is pronounced with greater force. Combining both characteristics, stress can be called quantitative-dynamic. Russian stress is free, it can fall on any of the syllables. Russian stress can move from syllable to syllable when the form of the same word changes. There are words with fixed stress. As language develops, the placement of word stress may change. There are options when the stress depends on the style of pronunciation. The word has one accent, but there are compound words. They can have two stresses: one is the main one, the second is a secondary one (d O skein A ny) In addition to verbal stress, there is logical stress - highlighting the most significant, from the speaker’s point of view, word. This is essentially new information that sounds in the phrase - rhemma, and that which is already known and is not new is theme. In addition to logical stress, there is: Emphatic - the transfer of emotions. It makes words emotionally rich. If the emotions are positive, then the vowel sound that is under stress is pronounced more elongated and longer. With negative emotions, the consonant sound at the beginning is lengthened. Intonation is a set of means in the organization of sounding speech or the rhythmic and melodic pattern of speech. The elements of intonation include: Melody - the movement of the fundamental tone of the voice. Rate of speech - the speed of speech in time. Timbre of speech - the sound coloring of speech , conveying emotionally expressive shades. The intensity of speech is the strength of pronunciation associated with the strengthening or weakening of exhalation.

Question No. 4: AcousticAndarticulatorycharacteristicssounds. Phonetics is a branch of linguistics that studies the sound side of language. Acoustic phonetics studies the physical features of speech sounds. In acoustics, sound is understood as the result of vibrational movements of a body in a certain environment, accessible to auditory perception. The speech apparatus is a set of organs of the human body adapted for the production and perception of speech. The speech apparatus in a broad sense covers the central nervous system, organs of hearing and vision, as well as speech organs. Based on their role in pronouncing sounds, the speech organs are divided into active and passive. The active organs of speech produce certain movements necessary for the formation of sounds, and are thus particularly important for their formation. The active organs of speech include: vocal cords, tongue, lips, soft palate, uvula, and the entire lower jaw. Passive organs do not perform independent work during sound production and perform only an auxiliary role. The passive organs of speech include the teeth, alveoli, hard palate and the entire upper jaw. To form each speech sound, a complex of work of the speech organs is required in a certain sequence, that is, a very specific articulation is needed. Articulation is the work of the speech organs necessary to pronounce sounds. The complexity of sound articulation also lies in the fact that it is a process in which three phases of sound articulation are distinguished: attack (excursion), endurance and retreat (recursion). An articulation attack is when the speech organs move from a calm state to the position necessary to pronounce a given sound. Exposure is maintaining the position necessary to pronounce a sound. Indentation of articulation consists of transferring the speech organs to a calm state.

Question No. 5: ClassificationvowelssoundsByplaceAnddegreesriselanguage, Byavailabilityorabsencelabialization. IN basis classifications vowels sounds lie following signs: 1) participation of the lips; 2) the degree of elevation of the tongue vertically in relation to the palate; 3) the degree of advancement of the tongue forward or pushed back horizontally. Accordingly, vowels are divided into the following classification groups: 1) rounded (labialized): y [o], y [y]; unrounded - [a], [e], [i], [s]; 2) according to the degree of elevation of the tongue in relation to the palate, the following groups are distinguished: a) vowels of the upper rise (narrow): [i], [s], [ u];b) mid-rise vowels [e], [o]c) low-rise vowels (wide): [a3) according to the degree of the tongue moving forward or moving it back horizontally, the vowels differ: a) front row: [i], [e]; b) middle row [s], [a]; c) back row [y], [o]. Along with sounds, open and closed vowels are distinguished - “shades” of sounds that are pronounced with greater openness or closedness, with a smaller or larger rise of the tongue. They can be more or less advanced forward or backward. For example: 1) vowel sounds [ä], , [ö], [ÿ] - front-medial, pronounced between soft consonants 2) vowel [e¬] pronounced under stress after hard consonants ;3) vowels [ie], [ыъ], [аъ] are only in an unstressed position; 4) vowel – mid-back; 5) vowels [ä], [аъ], – mid-low, etc. An even more subtle analysis of vowels is possible.

Question No. 6: ClassificationconsonantssoundsByplaceeducation. According to the place of formation, consonant sounds are divided into labial and lingual. Labial consonants are those consonants in which an obstruction is formed with the help of the lips. In some cases, when only the lips are involved (the lower lip moves closer to the upper), labiolabial consonants are formed, for example, [b], [p], [m]. In other cases, when the lower lip comes close to the upper teeth, labiodental consonants are formed: for example, [v], [f]. Lingual consonants are those consonants in which, when pronounced, an obstruction is formed using different parts of the tongue in different places in the oral cavity. All consonants of the Russian language are lingual, except for labial ones. Depending on which part of the tongue and in which part of the oral cavity forms an obstruction, the consonants are distinguished as front-lingual, posterior-lingual and middle-lingual. Front-lingual consonants are those in which an obstruction is created in the front part of the oral cavity by bringing the front part of the back of the tongue and its tip closer to the teeth (lower or upper), alveoli or anterior palate. These include most linguistic consonants: for example, [d], [t], [z], [s], [zh], [sh], [ts], [h], [n], [r]. Rear-lingual consonants are consonants, in the formation of which an obstruction occurs in the back of the oral cavity as a result of the convergence of the back of the tongue with the palate. This is, for example, [g], [k], [x]. Midlingual consonants include consonants, during the formation of which a barrier is created in the middle part of the oral cavity, where the middle part of the back of the tongue approaches the palate. The middle language is, for example, the sound [j].

Question No. 7: ClassificationconsonantssoundsBywayeducation. An obstacle to the air flow during the formation of a consonant sound is created by different articulatory organs (they determine the place of sound formation), but the obstacle can be formed in different ways and the air flow can also overcome it in different ways. One of the key characteristics of a consonant in the Russian language - the method of sound formation - depends on how the air overcomes an obstacle in its path. To produce a consonant sound, three main methods of articulation are used: 1) bowing, when, with the help of the articulatory organs, the air flow is completely blocked for some time, and then, under air pressure, the barrier formed by the articulatory organs opens and the air pushes out. To the ear, such a sound is perceived as a very short noise, or an explosion. This is how stop or plosive consonants are formed [p], [p"], [b], [b"], [t], [t"], [d], [d"], [k], [k "], [g], [g"]; 2) a gap when the entire air flow comes out through a narrow channel, which is formed by the organs of articulation, while the air stream passes between them with force and due to friction and air turbulence between the walls of the formed sound arises from the cracks; To the ear, such a sound is perceived as hissing. This is how fricative, or fricative, sounds are formed [f], [f"], [v], [v"], [s], [s"], [z], [z"], [sh], [sh "], [zh], [zh"], [j], [x], [x"]; 3) vibration, when the tip of the tongue vibrates in the outward air stream (in the Russian language, only one type of consonant sounds is formed in this way - trembling sonorants, or vibrants, [r] / [r"]). The first two methods of articulation (bow and gap) can be combined with each other: when the bow is opened, a gap appears through which air passes for some time - this is how bow-clefts are formed consonants, or affricates [ts] and [h"]. The closure of the organs of articulation can be accompanied by the release of part of the air stream through additional channels: through the nose for nasal consonants (this is how nasal sonorant consonants are formed [m], [m"], [n], [n"]) and on the side of the tongue between its edges and the upper teeth (this is how only one type of sounds is formed in the Russian language - consonants [l] / [l"], also called lateral, or lateral consonants).

Question No. 8: ClassificationconsonantssoundsBylevelnoise, participationornon-participationvoteVeducationsound, Byhardness – softness. By noise level: a) sonorous: [p], [l], [m], [n], and their soft pairs, [j]; b) noisy: [b], [c], [g], [ d], [g], [z], [k], [p], [s], [t], [f], [x], [c], [h], [w], etc.; Based on the participation or non-participation of the voice in the formation of sound, dull and voiced tone (voice) are distinguished; tone (voice) is characteristic of the pronunciation of voiced sounds; their articulation requires the obligatory work of the vocal cords. All sonorants [р], [л], [м], [н], [j] are voiced. Among noisy consonants, the following sounds are considered voiced: [b], [c], [d], [d], [zh], [z] and their soft pairs. b) voiceless consonants are pronounced without voice when the vocal cords remain relaxed . Voiced voices of this type include only noisy ones: [k], [p], [s], [t], [f], [x], [sh] and their soft pairs [ts], [ch']. According to availability or lack of voice, many agree to form pairs. It is customary to distinguish 12 pairs of consonants contrasted by deafness and voicedness: b-p, v-f, d-t, z-s, zh-sh, g-k and their soft pairs. Hard unpaired consonants include the consonants [ts], [sh ]. All of them are either hard doubles or soft doubles: [b] - [b'][c] - [c'][g] - [g'][d] - [d'][z] - [z' ] [p] - [p'] [f] - [f'][k] - [k'[t] - [t'][s] - [s'] [m] - [m'][n ] - [n'][r] - [r'][l] - [l'][x] - [x']

Question№ 9: Syllable from articulatory and acoustic points of view. Various syllable theories. Types of syllables. Phonetic words are divided into syllables. There are various definitions of a syllable, which are based on attention to its articulatory or acoustic features. The most common articulatory definition of a syllable is the following: a syllable is a part of a phonetic word consisting of one or more sounds pronounced by one impulse of exhaled air. Articulatory definition of a syllable proposed by L .IN. Shcherboy, based on pulsation theory. According to this theory, a syllable is a segment of speech corresponding to the alternation of pumping and releasing muscular tension of the speech apparatus. In this case, the syllable is formed by each rise followed by a fall; at the beginning of the chain there may be no rise, and at the end there may be a fall. In other articulatory definitions, a syllable is characterized as a sequence of speech movements that is formed by one respiratory push (R. Stetson) or is the result of one control command (L.A. Chistovich). Acoustic definition syllable connected with sonorous theory, proposed by the Danish linguist O. Jespersen and in relation to the Russian language developed by R.I. Avanesov; this theory is the most recognized in modern Russian linguistics. In accordance with this theory, a syllable is a segment with a peak of sonority and a less sonorous environment, a wave of increasing and decreasing sonority. There are more than a dozen theories or interpretations of the syllable. Let's look at the most famous of them. Expiratory or aspiratory. As the name itself suggests, this theory is based on the physiological process of exhalation when speaking. German phonetician Eduard Sievers calls a syllable that part of a word that is pronounced with one impulse of exhaled air. According to this theory, speaking does not occur as a uniform "flow" of air and uniform production of sounds one after another, but in the form of portions of exhaled air, which produce not a single sound, but a group of sounds more closely related to each other than the sounds produced by the next one. a push of air. This theory is the oldest and, perhaps, the most understandable and close to us. Priscian also gave a similar definition (“with one accent and one exhalation”), and we ourselves often observe this phenomenon when we need to pronounce a word separately, i.e. by syllables, as well as during group speaking, chanting, etc. Ballistic theory, or theory of motion. This theory was proposed by R. Stetson. The ballistic theory of the syllable is based on the position that all movements regularly performed by a person, after some time become automated and are performed without control from the corresponding center of higher nervous activity. Moreover, once automated, these movements are no longer subject to conscious control or, at best, are very difficult to correct.

Question№ 10: Syllable division in Russian. The structure of a syllable in the Russian language obeys the law of ascending sonority. This means that the sounds in a syllable are arranged from the least sonorous to the most sonorous. The law of ascending sonority can be illustrated in the words below, if sonority is conventionally designated by numbers: 3 - vowels, 2 - sonorant consonants, 1 - noisy consonants. Water: 1-3/1-3; boat: 2-3/1-1-3; ma-slo: 2-3/1-2-3; wave: 1-3-2/2-3. In the examples given, the basic law of syllable division is implemented at the beginning of a non-initial syllable. The initial and final syllables in the Russian language are constructed according to the same principle of increasing sonority. For example: summer: 2-3/1-3; glass: 1-3/1-2-3. The syllable division when combining significant words is usually preserved in the form that is characteristic of each word included in the phrase: us Turkey - us-Tur-tsi-i; nasturtiums (flowers) - na-stur-tsi-i. A particular pattern of syllable division at the junction of morphemes is the impossibility of pronouncing, firstly, more than two identical consonants between vowels and, secondly, identical consonants before the third (other) consonant within one syllable. This is more often observed at the junction of a root and a suffix and less often at the junction of a prefix and a root or a preposition and a word. For example: odessite [o/de/sit]; art [i/sku/stvo]; part [ra/become/xia]; from the wall [ste/ny], therefore more often - [so/ste/ny].

Question№ 11: Emphasis. Word stress. Phonetic nature of Russian stress. Place of stress in a word. Stress - highlighting (a syllable, a word) with the strength of the voice or raising the tone. Stress is an essential feature of a word. It can be verbal. Verbal stress is the emphasis, using phonetic means, of one of the words in a word of a stressed syllable. What is the phonetic nature of the stress?, Russian nature, i.e. stressed syllable. This feature is the basis of a methodological technique that is used by teachers in elementary school. In addition, Russian stress is characterized by dynamic or forceful, because the stressed syllable is pronounced with greater force. Combining both characteristics, the stress can be called quantitative-dynamic Russian stress is free It can be initial, middle or final. Russian stress can move from syllable to syllable when the form of the same word changes. For example, stol (stress falls on O) - tables (stress falls on Y) - such stress is called movable. There are words that have a fixed stress - chair (the stress falls only on U). With the development of language, the placement of verbal stress may change. For example, in the 19th century A.S. Pushkin wrote music (with emphasis on Y). There are options for setting verbal stress, which depend on the style of stress. A word, as a rule, has one stress, but there are complex words. In addition to verbal stress, they distinguish: logical stress - highlighting the most significant, from the point of view from the point of view of the speaker. This is essential, as a rule, new information in a rheme phrase. And that information that is known and is not new is the topic. Aliphatic stress is the transfer of emotions, it makes words emotionally rich. If the emotions are positive, then the vowel sound is pronounced longer. If the emotions are negative, the consonant sound is pronounced longer.

Question№ 12: The semantic distinguishing function of Russian stress. Fixed and movable stress. Clitics. Meaning-discriminating function is the ability of linguistic means to serve to distinguish lexical units and statements. The semantic-distinguishing function in the Russian language can be performed by sounds (the semantic-distinguishing role of sound) (house - volume), stress (flour - flour), intonation (This is your computer. - This is your computer?). The different place stress of the Russian language in some words is fixed, i.e. .e. when forming grammatical forms of a word, it remains on the same syllable, and in others it is mobile, i.e. When different grammatical forms of a word are formed, it is transferred from one syllable to another (inflectional mobility of stress). Wed. different forms of two words like head and head: head, head, head, head, head, head, head and head, head, head, head, head, head, head; the first of them has a fixed stress, the second - a movable one. Another example: strigý, cut, cut, cut (fixed stress), mogý, can, mógat, mógut (movable). A clitic is a word (for example, a pronoun or particle), grammatically independent, but phonologically dependent. By definition, clitics are, in particular, all words that do not form a syllable (for example, the prepositions in, to, with). Clitics can be attached to the stressed word form of any one part of speech (for example, Roman pronominal forms in indirect cases - only to the verb) or to word forms of any part of speech (these are Russian particles); the latter are called transcategorial.

Question No. 13: Phrase, tact and logical stress.

Phrase stress - Emphasizing one word in a phrase by increasing word stress, combining different words into one phrase. Phrasal stress usually falls on the stressed vowel of the last word in the final speech beat (syntagm): There is a short, / but wondrous time in the initial autumn //. Beat stress - Isolating one of the words in a speech beat (syntagm) by strengthening the verbal stress that unites different words into one syntagma. Syntagmatic stress usually falls on the stressed vowel of the last word in a speech beat: There is a short, / but wonderful time in the initial autumn //. The speech beat usually coincides with the respiratory group, i.e. a segment of speech pronounced with one blast of exhaled air, without pauses. The integrity of a speech beat as a rhythmic unit is created by its intonation design. The intonation center is concentrated on the stressed syllable of a word as part of a speech beat - the beat stress: On a dry aspen / hoodie /... Each speech beat is formed by one of the intonation structures. A speech beat is sometimes called syntagma. The main means of dividing into syntagmas is a pause, which usually appears in combination with the melody of speech, the intensity and tempo of speech and can be replaced by sudden changes in the meanings of these prosodic features. One of the words of the syntagma (usually the last) is characterized by the strongest stress (With logical stress, the main stress can fall on any word of the syntagma). The phrase usually stands out and contains several speech bars, but the boundaries of the phrase and the bar can coincide: Night. // Street. // Flashlight. // Pharmacy // (Block). The selection of speech beats can be characterized by variability: cf. Field behind the ravine and Field/behind the ravine. Word stress - A type of stress defined within a word and consisting of highlighting one of its syllables, in contrast to phrasal, rhythmic (beat), syllabic stress. S. u. can be free, as in Russian, or fixed, as in Czech, Hungarian, Polish. Within a bar (less often a phrase), two types of bar (phrase) stress are distinguished, depending on the functions - logical and emphatic.

Question№ 14: Intonation. Intonation structures, their types. Functions of intonation: rhythm-forming, phrase-forming, meaning-distinguishing, emotional. Intonation (Latin intonō “pronounce loudly”) is a set of prosodic characteristics of a sentence: tone (melody of speech), volume, tempo of speech and its individual segments, rhythm, phonation features. Together with stress, it forms the prosodic system of the language. Intonation construction (IC), intonation, phoneme of tone is a set of intonation features sufficient to differentiate the meanings of statements and convey such parameters of the statement as communicative type, semantic importance of its constituent syntagmas, actual division. Being a type of linguistic sign (namely a suprasegmental unit), it has a plane of expression and a plane of content. Differential features for distinguishing intonation structures are the direction of tone on the vowel center and the ratio of tone levels of the component parts of the IC, as well as the duration of the vowel center, increased verbal stress on it and the presence or absence of a vocal cord stop at the end of the pronunciation of a vowel in the center of the IC, perceived as a sharp break sound. An intonation structure is realized on a speech segment, which can be a simple or complex sentence, the main or subordinate part of a complex sentence, a phrase, a separate word form of an independent word or a function word. In practice, intonation structures are types to which the whole variety of melodic patterns of utterances is reduced .Types of intonation structures In the Russian language, there are seven types of intonation structures (IC): IC-1 (lower tone on the center vowel): After the conversation, he became thoughtful. IK-2 (on the vowel of the center the tone movement is smooth or downward, the verbal stress is increased): Where should I go? IK-3 (a sharp increase in tone on the vowel of the center): How can I forget? IR-4 (on the vowel of the center, the tone decreases, then increases; the high tone level is maintained until the end of the structure): What about dinner? IK-5 (two centers; on the vowel of the first center there is an increase in tone, on the vowel of the second center there is a decrease): I haven’t seen her for two years! IK-6 (increasing tone on the vowel of the center, the high level of tone is maintained until the end of the structure; IK-6 differs from IK-4 by a higher tone level on the center vowel, for example, when expressing bewilderment or evaluation): What an interesting film! IR-7 (raising the tone on the center vowel, for example, when expressing expressive negation): Did you complete the task? – Completed! Intonation plays a phrase-forming role: the tone movement characteristic of a specific intonation structure is completed - the phrase is completed. Intonation is one of the most important phonetic means of language, performing the following functions in speech.1. Provides phonetic integrity of the utterance or its part.2. Serves to divide a whole coherent text into parts that have signs of semantic and phonetic integrity.3. Conveys the most important communicative meanings - such as narration, question, motivation, etc.4. Indicates certain semantic relationships between the units forming a statement and between statements.5. Conveys the speaker’s attitude to the content of his statement or the statement of his interlocutor.6. Carries information about the emotional state of the speaker.

Question№ 15: Phonology. Sounds of speech and sounds of language. The concept of phoneme. The concept of alternation. Phonology (from the Greek φωνή - “sound” and λόγος - “teaching”) is a branch of linguistics that studies the structure of the sound structure of a language and the functioning of sounds in the language system. The basic unit of phonology is the phoneme, the main object of study is the oppositions (oppositions) of phonemes that together form the phonological system of the language. A phoneme is a unit of the sound structure of a language, represented by a number of positionally alternating sounds, which serves to identify and distinguish significant units of language (words, morphemes). Therefore, a phoneme is sometimes defined as a series of positionally alternating sounds. Phonemes are able to distinguish significant units of language due to the fact that they are material expressed, have known acoustic and articulatory properties, and are perceived by the human hearing organs. In speech, the implementation of phonemes occurs through sounds. Position is the condition for the implementation of a phoneme in speech, its position in a word in relation to stress, another phoneme, the structure of the word as a whole. A strong position is the position of distinguishing phonemes, i.e. the position in which the largest number of units differs. The phoneme appears here in its basic form, which allows it to best perform its functions. For Russian vowels, this is the stressed position. For voiceless, voiced consonants the position is before all vowels. For hard and soft, this is the position of the end of the word. Weak position is the position of non-discrimination of phonemes, i.e. a position in which a smaller number of units are distinguished than in a strong position, since phonemes have limited opportunities to perform their distinctive function. In this position, two or more phonemes coincide in one sound, i.e. their phonological opposition is neutralized. Neutralization is the elimination of differences between phonemes under certain positional conditions. Phonemes, like other linguistic units (sign and non-sign), perform certain functions in the language. Usually, two main functions of phonemes are distinguished: the function of forming other (more complex) units of language, or structure function, and the function of distinguishing significant units of language (morphemes, words), or distinctive function. In speech, phonemes can change, i.e. used in the form of different sounds. A modification of a phoneme in speech is called its variation, and specific sounds representing one or another phoneme in the speech stream are called phoneme variants. Sound is the most important unit of the phonetic level of a language. The concept of speech sound can be explained based on the closest generic concept - sound as an acoustic phenomenon. The sound of speech is an element of spoken speech formed by the speech organs. With the phonetic division of speech, a sound is a part of a syllable, the shortest, further indivisible sound unit pronounced in one articulation. Vowel. Consonant sound. The sound of speech can be defined as a sound created with the help of the human speech organs, serving as a means of communication between people, devoid of linguistic meaning. Every phoneme is a sound of speech, but not every sound of speech is a phoneme. Phonemes are those speech sounds that not only form more complex units of language, but are also capable of distinguishing these units and contrasting them with each other. Speech sounds, like all other sounds, are characterized by a number of acoustic features: 1) the presence of tone or noise 2) strength , volume 3) pitch 4) longitude, duration 5) timbre The presence of tone or noise depends on the nature of the vibration of the elastic body that produces the sound (for example, the vocal cords). On this basis, sounds differ between tones and noises. Tone is formed when the vibration is of an ordered, rhythmic nature, i.e. is uniformly periodic. Tones include, for example, sounds produced by a musical instrument. Noise occurs when there is no rhythm or periodicity in the vibrations. Noises are the sounds that occur when a car wheel moves. The strength of the sound varies depending on the scope and amplitude of vibrations of elastic bodies, including the human vocal cords. The amplitude of body oscillations, in turn, depends on the size of the oscillating body and the force of influence on it.

The pitch of the sound is determined by the frequency of vibration.

Question№ 19: Phonetic alternations of consonant sounds, differing in deafness and voicedness, hardness and softness, place and method of formation. Voicelessness/voicing of consonants remains an independent, independent feature in the following positions: 1) before vowels: [su]d court - [zu]d itch, [ta]m there - [da]m dam; 2) before sonorants : [layer] layer - [evil] oh evil, [tl']i aphid - [dl']i for; 3) before [v], [v']: [sv']ver veri - [zv'] er beast. In the indicated positions, both voiceless and voiced consonants are found, and these sounds are used to distinguish words (morphemes). The listed positions are called strong in deafness/voicedness. In other cases, the appearance of a dull/voiced sound is predetermined by its position in the word or the proximity of a specific sound. Such deafness/voiceness turns out to be dependent, “forced”. Positions in which this occurs are considered weak according to the indicated criterion. In the Russian language, there is a law according to which voiced noisy ones are deafened at the end of the word, cf.: du[b]a oak - du[p] oak, má[z']i ointments – ma[s'] ointment. In the given examples, the phonetic alternation of consonants in deafness / voicedness is recorded: [b] // [p] and [z’] // [s’]. In addition, positional changes concern situations when voiceless and voiced consonants are nearby. In this case, the subsequent sound affects the previous one. Voiced consonants in front of deaf people are necessarily likened to them in terms of deafness, as a result a sequence of voiceless sounds arises, cf.: ló[d]ochka boat - ló[tk]a boat (i.e. [d] // [t] before the deaf), prepared c']), change to voiced ones, assimilation occurs in terms of voicing, cf.: molo[t']i´t to thresh – molo[d'b]á threshing ([t'] // [d'] before the voiced), pro[s']i´t to ask - pro[z'b]a request (i.e. [s'] // [z'] before a voiced one). Articulatory likening of sounds of the same nature, that is, two consonants (or two vowels), is called assimilation (from Latin assimilatio 'likening'). Thus, assimilation in deafness and assimilation in voicedness were described above. The hardness / softness of consonants as an independent feature, and not one arising due to positional changes, is fixed in the following strong positions: 1) before vowels, including [e]: [lu]k bow - [l'u]k hatch, [but]s nose - [n'o]s carried, past [t'e']l pastel - after [t'e']l bed; Paired soft consonants before [e] are pronounced in native Russian words, paired solid ones - in borrowed ones. However, many of these borrowings have ceased to be recognized as rare: antenna, cafe, sausage, stress, mashed potatoes, prosthesis, etc. As a result, in common words it has become possible to pronounce both hard and soft consonants before [e]. 2) at the end words: ko[n] kon - ko[n'] horse, zha[r] heat - zha[r'] fry; 3) for sounds [l], [l'] regardless of their position: vo[l]ná wave - vo[l']ná is free; 4) for consonants [c], [s'], [z], [z'], [t], [t'], [d], [d'], [n], [n'], [p], [p'] (for front-lingual speakers) – in the position before [k], [k'], [g], [g'], [x], [x' ] (before back-linguals): gó[r]ka gorka - gó[r']ko bitterly, bá[n]ka bank - bá[n']ka bathhouse; – in position before [b], [b'], [ p], [p'], [m], [m'] (before labials): i[z]bá izba - re[z']bá carving; In other cases, the hardness or softness of the consonant will not be independent, but caused by the influence sounds at each other. Similarity in hardness is observed, for example, in the case of connecting soft [n'] with hard [s], cf.: kó[n'] horse - kó[ns] horse, Spain [n']ia Spain - spain [ns] cue (i.e. [n'] // [n] before hard). The pair ju[n’] June – ju’[n’s]ky June does not obey the indicated pattern. But this exception is the only one. Assimilation in softness is carried out inconsistently in relation to different groups of consonants and is not observed by all speakers. The only thing that does not know the indentation of deviations is the replacement of [n] with [n'] before [h'] and [w:'], cf: drum [n] drum - drum [n'ch']ik drum, go[n]ok races – gó[n' sh:']ik racer (i.e. [n] // [n'] before soft). The place and method of formation of consonants can only change as a result of the influence of sounds on each other. Before anteropalatal noisy ones, dental ones are replaced to the anterior palatines.

Question№ 22: The subject of orthoepy. The meaning of spelling norms. “Senior” and “junior” norms. Pronunciation styles. Reasons for deviations from literary pronunciation. The term orthoepy (from the gr. orthos - correct, epos - speech) is used to designate: 1) a set of rules of normative literary pronunciation; 2) a section of linguistics that studies the functioning of literary norms and develops pronunciation recommendations - orthoepic rules. The subject of orthoepy is the composition of the basic sounds of a language, phonemes, their quality and changes in certain phonetic conditions, i.e. the same as phonetics. But phonetics considers these issues in terms of describing the sound structure of a language; for orthoepy, it is important to establish norms of literary pronunciation. The need to establish such norms is determined by the fact that when listening to oral speech, we do not think about its sound, but directly perceive the meaning. Every deviation from the usual pronunciation distracts the listener from the meaning of the statement. Orthoepy is a branch of linguistics that has an applied nature. Orthoepic norms are very important in speech activity, since incorrect pronunciation or stress distracts attention from the meaning of the statement, complicates understanding, and often simply makes an unpleasant impression on the listener. In Russian orthoepy, it is customary to distinguish between “senior” and “ junior" norm. The “senior” norm preserves the features of the Old Moscow pronunciation of individual sounds, sound combinations, words and their forms. The “younger” norm reflects the features of modern literary pronunciation. There are high, neutral and colloquial styles outside the literary norms of the colloquial style. High is a slow and careful pronunciation (theater). Neutral is our everyday speech in compliance with all orthoepic norms at a faster pace of pronunciation .Colloquial is characterized by great emotionality, an even faster pace and less strict adherence to the rules of literary pronunciation.1.The main source of deviations from the norms of literary pronunciation is the native dialect of the speaker. For example, speakers of southern Russian dialects often violate the literary norm by pronouncing fricative [Ɣ] instead of the plosive [g]. ]. 2. The second reason for deviation from literary pronunciation is writing, since we become familiar with the literary language through writing, through reading literature, which leads to the emergence of pronunciation in accordance with what is written. For example, as a result of letter-by-letter pronunciation, you can hear [ch"] in words: what, so, boring, of course. But on the other hand, deviations can win the right to exist and then become the source of the development of variants of norms: I dare [s] and I dare [s "]. 3. Deviations from literary pronunciation are also caused by the influence of the phonetic system of another language: Ukrainian people [dm]i .

Question№ 24: The importance of writing in the history of Russian society. Origin and main stages of development of Russian writing. The invention of writing by man, as a system for recording speech for transmitting it in space and time, was one of the most important discoveries that largely determined the progress of modern society. The main advantage of writing is that it allows one to overcome the barrier of time, makes it possible to communicate between different generations, pass on their knowledge about the world to their descendants. With the help of writing, people created various business papers (documents), recorded their knowledge and experiences in books. Despite the enormous achievements, scientific and technological progress in the field of accumulation, storage and transmission of information, humanity has so far and has not come up with another system equal to writing and capable of performing these functions to the same extent. Writing is an additional means of communication. It arose out of the need to convey ideas to another tribe and descendants. Writing is one of the greatest inventions of mankind. Writing helps people communicate in cases where communication in audible language is either impossible or difficult. 1) The first historical type of writing was pictography, i.e. picture letter. Pictograms - units of such writing were scratched out and then drawn on the walls of caves, stones, rocks, animal bones, and on birch bark. In pictography, the symbol is a schematic drawing of a person, a boat, animals, etc. 2) Ideogram. Ideography is a writing in which graphic signs convey not words in their grammatical and phonetic design, but the meanings that stand behind these words. The transition from pictography to ideography is associated with the need to graphically convey something that is not visual and cannot be depicted in pictures. So, for example, the concept of “wakefulness” cannot be drawn, but one can draw the organ through which it manifests itself. i.e. through the image of an eye. In the same way, “friendship” can be conveyed by the image of two hands shaking one another, “enmity” by the image of crossed weapons, etc. The drawing in these cases appears figurative, and thereby in the conventional meaning. Hieroglyphs – “sacred writings” – were carved on bones and other materials. 3) phonography - a type of writing that reflects the pronunciation of words. Sound alphabet for writing; phonetic writing system. A) syllabic (each written sign denotes a specific syllable) b) vocal-sound (letters mainly designate the sounds of speech) Stages of development of writing: As a result of the evolution of the pictogram, ideogram and syllabogram, a letter appears - a sign of vocal-sound writing. (example: ancient Greek. The letter A was called “alpha” and denoted the vowel [a]). But the history of writing is not only the history of writing letters, at the same time it is also the history of the formation of modern alphabets and graphics.

Question№ 26: Composition of the modern Russian alphabet. Letter names. Phonetic and positional principles of Russian graphics. Designation on the letter of the phoneme [j]. Russian alphabet - (alphabet) - a set of graphic signs - letters in a prescribed sequence, which create the written and printed form of the national Russian language. Includes 33 letters: a, b, c, d, d, f, e, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, p, r, s, t, u, f, x, ts, ch, sh, sch, ъ, s, ь, e, yu, i. Most letters in written form are graphically different from printed ones. Except ъ, ы, ь, all letters are used in two versions: uppercase and lowercase. In printed form, the variants of most letters are graphically identical (they differ only in size; cf., however, B and b); in written form, in many cases, the spelling of uppercase and lowercase letters differs from each other (A and a, T, etc.). The Russian alphabet conveys the phonemic and sound composition of Russian speech: 20 letters convey consonant sounds (b, p, v, f, d, t, z, s, zh, sh, ch, ts, shch, g, k, x, m, n, l, p), 10 letters - vowels, of which a, e, o, s, i, u - only vowels, i, e, e, yu - softness of the preceding consonant + a, e, o, u or combinations j + vowel (“five”, “forest”, “ice”, “hatch”; “pit”, “ride”, “tree”, “young”); the letter "y" conveys "and non-syllabic" ("fight") and in some cases the consonant j ("yog"). Two letters: “ъ” (hard sign) and “ь” (soft sign) do not denote separate independent sounds. The letter “b” serves to indicate the softness of the preceding consonants, paired in hardness - softness (“mol” - “mol”), after the hissing letters “b” it is an indicator in writing of some grammatical forms (3rd declension nouns - “daughter”, but “brick”, imperative mood - “cut”, etc.). The letters “ь” and “ъ” also act as a dividing sign (“rise”, “beat”). Russian graphics are based on two basic principles - phonemic and positional. The essence of the phonemic principle of Russian graphics comes down to the fact that a letter denotes not a sound, but a phoneme. But there are more phonemes in the Russian language than letters. Another principle helps to smooth out such a discrepancy - positional (syllabic, letter combination), which allows you to clarify the sound meaning of a letter by means of another letter following it. The positional principle of Russian graphics is its great advantage, since thanks to it the transmission of hard and soft consonants in writing is halved (for example, in the Serbo-Croatian language there are special letters to indicate soft consonants: zh - soft l, sh - soft n). The positional principle is used to convey the hardness/softness of consonant phonemes and to indicate lt;jgt. The positional principle for conveying hardness/softness of consonant phonemes is implemented in the following way:

at the end of a word, the softness of a consonant is indicated by a soft consonant, and hardness by a space: coal_- angle_softness of a consonant before a hard consonant is conveyed by a soft sign: free - wave; the softness and hardness of a consonant before vowels differs using these vowels: single-digit letters indicate the hardness of the consonant phoneme, and multi-valued vowels - for softness: mayor, mor, bow, varnish, bast, but chalk, chalk, mil, crumpled. Designation on the phoneme letter [j]

In modern Russian there are two variants of pronunciation of the sound [j]. The first (and main) meaning of the sound [j] appears in the position before the vowel: fir-tree - lka, understand - understand. But at the end of a word or at the end of a syllable, the sound [j] is reduced, becomes short, approaching in sound the vowel sound [i]. It must be remembered that [j] does not coincide with e [i]: loaf, wait. In writing, the letter y denotes only the second variant of pronunciation of the sound [j]. In some borrowed words, the initial syllable [j] is denoted by this letter y: iod, yogi, etc. The phoneme [j] is not denoted by an independent letter when it is located before a vowel. Since in this position (at the beginning of a word between vowels, before a vowel) in writing, the combination of the sound [j] and a vowel is conveyed by one letter ya-ma; spruce; Christmas tree; yu--la. When the phoneme [j] comes after a consonant sound before a vowel, then the letters ъ and ь are written before the letters e, e, yu, i: six, drinks, otzd. You should not think that in this case the letters ъ and ь indicate the sound [j]. The letters ъ and ь are only indicators that the following letters e, ё, yu, i should be read not as [e, o, y, a], but as .

Question№ 27: Designation in writing of the hardness and softness of consonants. Vowels after sibilants and Ts. Meanings of vowel letters. Meanings of the letters b and b. The softness of consonants is indicated as follows. For paired consonants in terms of hardness / softness, softness is indicated: 1) by the letters i, e, e, yu, and: small - crumpled, mole - chalk, per - pen, storm - bureau, soap - milo (before e in borrowing, a consonant can be hard: mashed potatoes); 2) a soft sign - at the end of a word (horse), in the middle of a word at [l'] before any consonant (polka), after a soft consonant standing before a hard one (very, before) , and in a soft consonant standing before soft [g'], [k'], [b'], [m'], which are the result of changes in the corresponding hard ones (earrings - cf. earring) - see positions strong in hardness / softness .In other cases, a soft sign in the middle of a word to indicate the softness of paired consonants is not written (bridge, song, perhaps), because positional softness, like other positional changes in sounds, is not reflected in the letter. For unpaired consonants there is no need for additional designation of softness , therefore, graphic rules “cha, sha write with a” are possible. The hardness of paired consonants is indicated by the absence of a soft sign in strong positions (kon, bank), writing after the consonant the letters a, o, y, y, e (small, they say, mule, soap, peer); in some borrowings, a hard consonant is pronounced before e (phonetics). The hardness of unpaired hard consonants, as well as unpaired soft consonants, does not require additional designation, therefore it is possible that there may be a graphic rule about writing zhi and shi, orthographic rules about writing i and ы after c (circus and gypsies), o and e after zh and sh (rustle and whisper). Spelling of vowels after hissing and Ts. After the hissing consonants zh, ch, sh, shch the vowels a, u, i are written, and the vowels i, yu are never written , ы (thicket, bold). This rule does not apply to words of foreign origin (parachute) and complex abbreviated words in which any combination of letters is possible (Interjury Bureau). Under stress after sibilants it is written in, if you can find related words or another form of this word where e is written (yellow - yellowness); if this condition is not met, then o (clink glasses, rustle) is written. It is necessary to distinguish the noun burn and its related words from the past tense verb burn and its related words. The fluent vowel sound under stress after hissing ones is indicated by the letter o (sheath - nozho "n). Spelling of vowels after c. At the root after c is written and (civilization, mat); exceptions: gypsy, on tiptoe, tsyts, chicks are their cognate words. The letters i, yu are written after ts only in proper names of non-Russian origin (Zurich). Under stress, after ц it is written o (tso "kot). The choice of vowels; and or e. In foreign words it is usually written e (adequate); exceptions: mayor, peer, sir and their derivatives. If the root begins with the letter e, then it is retained and after prefixes or a cut with the first part of a complex word (save, three-story). After the vowel and is written e (requiem), after the remaining vowels - e (maestro). The letter and is written at the beginning of foreign words (yod, yoga). MEANINGS OF VOWEL LETTERS. VOWELS - these are sounds that consist only of the voice, in the formation of vowels the participation of the vocal cords and the absence of an obstacle in the oral cavity are required. Exhaled air passes through the mouth without encountering any obstacles. 10 letters are intended to indicate vowel sounds and are conventionally called vowels (a, y , o, ы, e, i, yu, e, i, e). There are 6 vowel sounds - [A] [O] [U] [Y] [I] [E]. In the Russian language there are more vowels than vowels sounds, which is associated with the peculiarities of the use of the letters i, yu, e, e (iotated). They perform the following functions: 1) indicate 2 sounds ([y"a], [y"y], [y"o], [th "e]) in the position after vowels, separating marks and at the beginning of a phonetic word: pit [y"aìma], my [may"aì], embrace [aby"at"]; 2) indicate the vowel and the softness of the preceding paired consonant sound in terms of hardness/softness: chalk [m"ol] - cf.: mole [mol] (an exception may be the letter e in borrowed words, which does not indicate the softness of the preceding consonant - puree [p"ureì ]; since a whole series of words of this kind borrowed by origin have become commonly used in the modern Russian language, we can say that the letter e in the Russian language has ceased to denote the softness of the preceding consonant sound, cf.: pos [t "e] l - pas [te] l ) ; 3) the letters e, e, yu after a consonant unpaired in hardness/softness indicate the vowel sound [e], [o], [u]: six [shes "t"], silk [silk], parachute [parachute]. In modern Russian, the letters b and b do not denote sounds, but perform only service functions. b performs three functions in the language: Indicates the softness of consonants, except for the hissing ones at the end of the word: mol, dal, free; and in the middle: take, coat. in such words it is also preserved before soft consonants: take, spit. A soft sign always denotes the softness of L before other consonants: ring, soap dish. Before soft consonants in the middle of a word, the softness of the consonants is not always indicated in writing. b is not written: chk barrel; chn nightlight; nch strum; nsch mason; rsch welder; shn assistant; st bones; nt cog. Used as a sign of a number of forms: nouns (3 cl. female form singular): night, mouse. verbs (2nd person, singular) look, say, verbs in the forms of the imperative mood: cry, hide .Together with Kommersant acts as a separator. They separate the vowel and the consonant preceding it: beat, enter, eat. Ъ as a separator is written before the letters i, ё, yu, e after the prefixes ab-, ad-, diz-, in-, inter-, con-, counter-, ob-, sub-, super-, trans-: trans-European.

Question№ 28: Sections of Russian spelling. Spellings. Types of spellings. Spelling is a branch of linguistics that studies the system of rules for the uniform spelling of words and their forms, as well as these rules themselves. The central concept of spelling is spelling. Spelling is a spelling regulated by a spelling rule or established in a dictionary order, that is, a spelling of a word that is selected from a number of possible ones from the point of view of the laws of graphics. Spelling is a case of choice where 1, 2 or more different spellings are possible. It is also a spelling that follows the rules of spelling. A spelling rule is a rule for spelling the Russian language, which spelling should be chosen depending on language conditions. Spelling consists of several sections: 1) writing significant parts of a word (morphemes) - roots, prefixes, suffixes, endings, that is, designating with letters the sound composition of words where this is not determined by graphics 2) continuous, separate and hyphenated writing; 3) the use of upper and lowercase letters; 4) hyphenation rules; 5) rules for graphic abbreviations of words. Principles of Russian spelling: 1. The leading principle of Russian orthography is the morphological principle, the essence of which is that morphemes common to related words retain a single outline in writing, and in speech they can change depending on phonetic conditions. Its essence is that phonetically positional changes - reduction of vowels, deafening, voicing, softening of consonants - are not reflected in writing. In this case, vowels are written as if under stress, and consonants as in a strong position, for example, a position before a vowel. Also, based on the morphological principle, a uniform spelling of words related to a specific grammatical form is drawn up. For example, ь (soft sign) is a formal sign of the infinitive. This principle applies to all morphemes: roots, prefixes, suffixes and endings.2. The second principle of Russian orthography is phonetic spelling, i.e. words are written the same way they are heard. This principle is implemented in three spelling rules - the spelling of prefixes ending in s/s (mediocre - restless, break - crucify), the spelling of the vowel in the prefix roz / raz / ros / ras (schedule - painting,) and the spelling of roots starting with and , after prefixes ending in a consonant (history - background).3. There is also a differentiating spelling (cf.: burn (noun) - burn (verb)) of the roots with alternations (add - fold) traditional spelling ().4. The traditional principle regulates the writing of unverifiable vowels and consonants (dog, pharmacy or letter and I after the letters Zh, Sh, Ts - live, sew), i.e. involves memorizing words. As a rule, these are foreign words and exception words. Let's look at other types of spellings: 1. Integrated, separate and hyphenated spelling Integrated, separate and hyphenated spelling is regulated by the traditional principle, taking into account the morphological independence of units. Individual words are written mostly separately, except for negative and indefinite pronouns with prepositions (not with anyone) and some adverbs (in an embrace), parts of words are written together or with a hyphen (cf.: in my opinion and in my opinion). 2. Use of capitals and lowercase letters The use of uppercase and lowercase letters is regulated by a lexical-syntactic rule: proper names and denominations (MSU, Moscow State University), as well as the first word at the beginning of each sentence, are written with a capital letter. The rest of the words are written with a lowercase letter. Transfer rules: The rules for transferring words from one line to another are based on the following rules: when transferring, first of all, the syllabic division of the word is taken into account, and then its morphemic structure: war, raz-bit, and not *vo-yn, *ra-zvit. One letter of the word is not carried over or left on the line. Identical consonants at the root of words are separated when transferred: kas-sa. Rules for graphic abbreviations of words: Abbreviation of words in writing is also based on the following rules: 1) only an integral, undivided part of a word can be omitted (lit-ra - literature, v/o - higher education); 2) when abbreviating a word, at least two letters are omitted; 3) you cannot shorten a word by throwing out its initial part; 4) the shortening should not fall on a vowel or the letters й, ъ, ь. Spelling analysis involves oral or written analysis of spelling patterns in a word. When performing a spelling analysis, you need to correctly write down a word given with a letter missing, or open the brackets, highlight the place of the spelling in the word, name the spelling and determine the conditions for its selection. If necessary, indicate a test word and give examples of this spelling.

Question№ 29: Representation by letters of the phonemic composition of words and morphemes. The principles of this section: phonemic, traditional, phonetic, morphological. Differentiating writing. The basic principle of spelling. The area of ​​orthography is significatively weak positions of phonemes. In the process of transmitting phonemic composition by letters, several principles of Russian orthography operate: 1) the phonemic principle, implemented in the case when the weak position of a phoneme can be verified by a strong position in the same morpheme; is based on the fact that the same letter denotes a phoneme in significatively strong and weak positions; 2) the morphematic (or morphological) principle of orthography is based on the requirement of uniform spelling of the same morphemes; covers those cases when the same morpheme in different words or forms of the same word has a different phonemic composition; 3) the traditional principle of Russian orthography is that a spelling is used that is fixed by tradition, which must be remembered; in school practice, such words with a hyperphoneme are fundamentally called dictionary words; 4) the phonetic principle, which lies in the fact that the letter does not denote a phoneme, but a sound appearing in a perceptually weak position: scatter - scatter. In the process of applying different principles, differentiating spellings arise, delimiting word forms in writing that coincide in phonemic composition: burn - burn, ink - ink, etc. Differentiating spellings (from the Latin differens - different) - different spellings that serve to distinguish homonyms in writing. Arson (noun) - set fire (past tense of the verb). Burn - burned. Overburned - overburned. Ball - point. Campaign - company (the origin of the words affects).

16. Emphasis. Word stress

Stress is the emphasis by some acoustic means on one of the components of speech:

Syllables as part of a phonetic word - word stress,

Words in syntagma - logical stress,

Syntagmas within a phrase are syntagmatic stress.

In Russian beat hl differs from unstressed in strength, quantity and quality of characteristics

ami. On average, a stressed vowel is 1.5-2 times longer than an unstressed one. The stress can be on any syllable and any part of words (rule, alphabet, bourgeoisie); in different grammatical forms of the same word, stress can move from one syllable to another (noga - noga, accepted - accepted). Nevertheless, there are certain regularities: for example, in the Russian language (unlike its close modern Church Slavonic) the ending “-й”/“-й” cannot be stressed. Some complex words, as well as words with the prefixes anti-, inter -, near-, counter-, over-, super-, ex-, etc. may have, in addition to the main one, a side (or secondary) stress. The collateral stress is usually the first in order (closer to the beginning of the word), and the main stress is the second (closer to the end of the word): perjury, near-earth, vice-president.

17. Phrase, clock, logical stress

Fr. - creates a general rhythmic pattern of the phrase. Syntagma is a group of words that represents a single semantic whole for a given context. The background syntagma is formed. For example, A tall, long-legged blonde / walked nearby. 2 syntagms, each having a single meaning. The divisions into syntagmas are associated with syntagmatic stress. The meaning of the statement depends on this. Recently / the visiting doctor appeared in the press. The recently arrived doctor / spoke in the press. Related to the question of the division of syntagmas is the question of non-words (clitics).

Logical definition is a means of semantically highlighting any significant unit of a statement. Superimposed on the obligatory verbal stress, L. at. usually enhances the phonetic characteristics of a word, emphasizing information that is new or controversial for one of the interlocutors. For example, in the phrase “Your sister has come” L.u. can highlight any of the three words.

A speech beat is a part of a phonetic phrase, limited by a short pause and characterized by intonation incompleteness. Grammatically, the speech tact corresponds to the common members of the sentence. If a speech beat consists of several phonetic words, highlighting one of the words (the most important) within the speech beat is called sigmatic stress.

Phrase stress is the highlighting of the most semantically important word in the speech stream; such stress is one of the beat stresses.

18. The concept of orthoepy. Russian literary pronunciation in its

ist development

Orthoepy is literally the correct pronunciation. 1) R.o. is a section of the science of language, dedicated to the norms of literary production and 2) R.o. – consistency of the rules of normative literary pronunciation. Science, which studies the variation of industrial norms. and develops pronunciation recommendations. Orthoepy: 1. sound.formation of words. 2. pronunciation of a group of words (foot by foot) 3. pronunciation of certain grammatical forms. 4. accentology.

Important language features were formed back in the first half of the 17th century as part of the spoken language of Moscow. Since the 18th century, St. Petersburg has been competing with Moscow. This struggle continued into the 19th century. Now the pronunciation of Mi L is almost the same

19. Orthoepic norm. Variants of norms. Pronunciation styles.

Trends in the development of Russian lit. pronunciation

The spelling norm is understood as the only possible or preferred variant of pronunciation compared to others that are less consistent with the pronunciation system. normativity scale: 1st level – word without options (guardianship, alcohol). 2nd – equal options (“and”) sparkling, flooded, lattice. 3rd – one is the main option, the second is acceptable (‘gave - additionally’gave).

Style is a unification of a system of language elements determined by the functional purpose. It is possible to distinguish pronunciation styles: neutral, high, colloquial.

20. The concept of vocabulary and lexicologists. Word. Lex. and gram-e

meanings of words

L. - section of linguistics, from the vocabulary of the language, vocabulary. In broad terms, see L.-teaching about words and stable phrases. Vuzkom, L. - deals only with words. They distinguish between description and diachrony of L. + comparison. Basic word a structural semantic unit of language that serves to name objects and their sacred properties. It has a variety of characteristics. Phonetic level - the word is formed using sound. Word-forming Ur-n-roots-base for creating new words. Morph-th Level-words form certain system groups.

By nomination method: 1. independent, 2. service, 3. pronominal, 4. interjections.

By phonetic basis: single-stressed, unstressed (clitics), multi-stressed

According to morph characteristics: changeable, unchangeable.

C.have lexical and grammatical meanings. The meaning of a word reflects this or that phenomenon of reality, characterizes a separate word and individuates it; G. meaning - characteristics of it as an element of a defined grammatical class.

21. Lex types. values

1) according to the degree of semantic motivation: involuntary/voluntary

2) by the method of nomination (direct figurative) 3) by the possibility of lexical compatibility or type of relationship between words 4) by the nature of the functions performed.

22. Unambiguous words. The phenomenon of polysemy. Transfer Types

word meaning

Single-meaning words - clearly expressed subject correlation (terms, names of trees, proper names) Polysemy - the ability of words to have several meanings. L. polysemy - the ability of one word to serve to designate different objects and phenomena of reality.

23. Systemic relations in vocabulary. Synonymy. Blue row.

Types of synonyms

Between the words that form the vocabulary of a language, certain relationships are found both in the nature of the meanings they express and in their phonetic design, i.e. by the similarity of their sound composition. From this point of view, in the vocabulary of the Russian language there are three types of systemic relationships between words: homonymous (coincidence of the sound of words with different meanings), synonymous (identity or similarity of the meaning of words with a complete difference in their sound), antonymic (opposite meaning of words with a difference in their sound ).S.-type of semantic relations of language = x units, lies in the complete or partial coincidence of their meanings. Types of synonyms: - semantically denote the same phenomenon and show different aspects or different degrees in it manifestations (fear-horror); - stylistic; - semantic-stylistic; semantic-stylish

24. Systemic relations in vocabulary. Antonymy. Types of Antonyms

Between the words that form the vocabulary of a language, certain relationships are found both in the nature of the meanings they express and in their phonetic design, i.e. by the similarity of their sound composition. From this point of view, in the vocabulary of the Russian language there are three types of systemic relationships between words: homonymous (coincidence of the sound of words with different meanings), synonymous (identity or similarity of the meaning of words with a complete difference in their sound), antonymic (opposite meaning of words with a difference in their sound A.-linguistic phenomenon reflecting the relationship of linguistic units with the opposite gender meaning. 2 types: - contrarian A. (words with complete opposite meaning) and complementary A. (between lexemes that occupy an intermediate position)

1.2 In the flow of speech, stress is distinguished between phrasal, rhythmic and verbal.

Word stress is the emphasis when pronouncing one of the syllables of a disyllabic or polysyllabic word. Word stress is one of the main external signs of an independent word. Verbal stress distinguishes words and word forms that are identical in sound composition (cf.: clubs - clubs, holes - holes, hands - hands). Function words and particles usually do not have stress and are adjacent to independent words, forming one phonetic word with them: [under-the-mountain], [on-the-side], [here-the-time].

The Russian language is characterized by forceful (dynamic) stress, in which a stressed syllable stands out compared to unstressed syllables with greater tension in articulation, especially the vowel sound. A stressed vowel is always longer than the corresponding unstressed sound. Russian stress is varied: it can fall on any syllable (exit, exit, exit).

Variation of stress is used in the Russian language to distinguish homographs and their grammatical forms (organ - organ) and individual forms of various words (moyu - moi), and in some cases serves as a means of lexical differentiation of a word (chaos - chaos) or gives the word a stylistic coloring (well done - Well done). The mobility and immobility of stress serves as an additional means in the formation of forms of the same word: the stress or remains in the same place of the word (garden, -a, -u, -om, -e, -y, -ov, etc. .), or moves from one part of the word to another (city, -a, -u, -om, -e; -a, -ov, etc.). The mobility of stress ensures the distinction of grammatical forms (buy - buy, legs - legs, etc.).

In some cases, the difference in the place of verbal stress loses all meaning

For example: cottage cheese and cottage cheese, otherwise and otherwise, butt and butt, etc.

Words can be unstressed or lightly stressed. Usually, function words and particles are deprived of stress, but they sometimes take on stress, so that a preposition with an independent word following it has the same stress: [for-winter], [out-of-town], [in the evening].

Two- and three-syllable prepositions and conjunctions, simple numerals in combination with nouns, connectives be and become, and some of the introductory words can be weakly stressed.

Some categories of words have, in addition to the main one, an additional, side stress, which is usually in the first place, and the main one in the second, for example: Old Russian. These words include:

1) polysyllabic, as well as complex in composition (aircraft construction),

2) complex abbreviations (Gôstelecenter),

3) words with prefixes after-, super-, arch-, trans-, anti-, etc. (transatlantic, post-October),

4) some foreign words (postscript, post factum).

Tactic stress is the emphasis in pronunciation of a more semantically important word within a speech tact.

For example: Am I wandering | along noisy streets, | am I entering | to a crowded temple, | am I sitting | between mad youths, | I surrender | to my dreams (P.)

Phrase stress is the emphasis in pronunciation of the most semantically important word within a statement (phrase); such an accent is one of the bars. In the example above, the phrasal stress falls on the word dreams. Phrase stress distinguishes sentences by meaning with the same composition and word order (cf.: It's snowing and It's snowing).

Bar and phrasal stress is also called logical.

1.3 Intonation distinguishes sentences with the same composition of words (with the same place of phrasal stress) (cf.: Is the snow melting and Is the snow melting?). The intonation of the message, question, motivation, etc. differs.

Intonation has an objective linguistic meaning: regardless of the functional load, intonation always combines words into phrases, and without intonation phrases do not exist. Subjective differences in the intonation of a phrase have no linguistic significance.

Intonation is closely related to other levels of language, and, above all, to phonology and syntax.

What intonation has in common with phonology is that it belongs to the sound side of language and that it is functional, but what distinguishes it from phonology is that intonation units have semantic significance in themselves: for example, rising intonation is mainly correlated with interrogativeness or incompleteness of an utterance. The relationship between intonation and sentence syntax is not always straightforward. In some cases, the grammatical patterns on which the utterance is constructed may have a typical intonation design. Thus, sentences with the particle http://fonetica.philol.msu.ru/intonac/m321.htm represent a grammatical pattern for constructing an interrogative statement.

Different syntactic structures can be framed with the same intonation, and the same syntactic structure can be framed with different intonations. The statements change accordingly. This indicates a certain autonomy of intonation in relation to syntax.

Reading and learning poems, songs, riddles. Conclusion So, in this study we made an attempt to develop a system of exercises for the formation of phonetic skills in the process of teaching Russian to English-speaking students. In the process of working to achieve the set goal, related problems were solved, which allows us to draw the following conclusions. Firstly, despite...

Only variations of the same phoneme<а>. The sounds of the Russian language can be considered from the point of view of the role they play as signs of the sound signaling system developed by native speakers of the Russian language to indicate a certain meaning in the process of speech communication. The sound shells of words and their forms in the speech stream (i.e. in natural conditions of speech communication) represent...

Technospheres, such as: special (professional and terminological) vocabulary; common; slang vocabulary. Questions about the classification of new vocabulary in the Russian language were analyzed, and the main problems of the vocabulary of the technosphere in the Russian language at the beginning of the 21st century were highlighted. In the second chapter, during the analysis of methods, means and models of word formation in the Russian language, common and...

Etc. Let's consider from which languages, as well as at what time certain words came to us. The vocabulary of the modern Russian language was significantly influenced by those languages ​​with which Russian (and earlier Old Russian and Proto-Slavic dialects) had been in contact for a long time. The oldest layer of borrowings is of East Germanic origin (these are words such as dish, letter, camel, much, hut, prince, cauldron, ...

In previous articles, we have already mentioned how to specify your speech in English and make it more expressive. Having discussed the types of vocabulary, we did not consider such an aspect of the language as pronunciation.

Unfortunately, teachers in schools rarely pay attention to it. Of course, it is impossible to be able to explain to a group of students about the intricacies of prosody and practice intonation or phrasal stress, without forgetting to explain the rule, within the time planned in the school schedule.

However, we will not lose sight of this aspect - the skill of correct pronunciation of vowels and consonants, determining logical stress and stress in polysyllabic words. After all, it is pronunciation that makes your speech in English expressive, understandable and natural-sounding.

So, stress in English is divided into three types:

• Verbal;
• Phrasal;
• Boolean.

Word stress

Word stress is the emphasis of a syllable in a word. If you are familiar with the transcription of the English language, then you probably paid attention to the [‘] sign, which appears in every word, even a monosyllabic one. This sign is used to indicate verbal stress and is placed before each stressed syllable.

One of the functions of semantic stress is the ability to distinguish one part of speech from another. For example:

Import /ɪmˈpɔːt/ (v.) – import, bring in;

Import /ˈɪmpɔːt/ (n.) – import, importation.

Phrase stress

Phrase stress is interpreted in different ways, but whatever the definition, its essence is the same - it is the highlighting of significant words in a sentence. The group of significant words includes the following parts of speech:

• Nouns

Mary is at ‘school - Mary is at school.

• Adjectives

The pen is 'black - The pen is 'black.

• Adverbs

He runs 'fast - He runs 'fast.

• Semantic verbs

He'said that! - He said it!

• Interrogative and demonstrative pronouns.

‘When will it happen? - When will this happen?

‘This is my book - ‘This is my book.

Logical stress

Logical stress is the most elusive and, one might say, unpredictable. After all, the speaker can use such stress when he wants to emphasize a specific word (i.e., make it significant). Sometimes when using logical stress, phrasal stress disappears.

This type of stress is used to contrast one word with another:

‘I did it first! – ‘I did it first! ("I" is contrasted with another pronoun, such as "You" or "He").

The above facts cannot be called rules, since they are not permanent, but natural. Therefore, when studying stress in English, you should remember the patterns of pronunciation of certain words.

Want to try some pronunciation exercises and understand word stress? We will look at these questions in the second part of this article. Stay tuned.