Vocabulary is professional and terminological. Terminological and professional vocabulary

Lecture No. 6

Lexical features of the professional Russian language. Terminological vocabulary. Professional vocabulary (professionalisms, professional slang words)

1. Terminological vocabulary.

2. Professional vocabulary. Professionalisms and professional slang words.

1. The use of terminological and professional vocabulary used by people of the same profession, working in the same field of science and technology, is socially limited. Terms and professionalisms are given in explanatory dictionaries with the mark “special”; sometimes the scope of use of a particular term is indicated: physics, medicine, mathematics, astronomer. etc.

Each area of knowledge has its own terminological system.

Term (from Latin terminus limit, border) a word or phrase that is the name of a certain concept of some field of science, technology, art, etc. Terms serve as specializing, restrictive designations characteristic of this field of objects, phenomena, their properties and relationships. Unlike words of general vocabulary, which are often ambiguous and carry emotional overtones, terms within the scope of application are unambiguous and lack expression.

Each term is necessarily based on a definition (definition) of the reality it denotes, due to which the terms represent an accurate and at the same time concise description of an object or phenomenon. Each branch of knowledge operates with its own terms, which form the essence of the terminological system of this science.

Terms exist within the framework of a certain terminology, that is, they are included in a specific lexical system of a language, but only through a specific terminological system. Unlike common language words, terms are not related to context. Within a given system of concepts, a term should ideally be unambiguous, systematic, stylistically neutral (for example, “phoneme”, “sine”, “surplus value”).

Terms and non-terms (words of the common language) can transform into each other. Terms are subject to word-formation, grammatical and phonetic rules of a given language, they are created by terminology of words of the national language, borrowing or tracing foreign language terminological elements. In some cases, when a word enters the terminology of different subject areas in this way, homonymy arises: for example, the word “ligature” borrowed from Latin (lat. ligatura ) in metallurgy it means “alloys for alloying”, in surgery “a thread used in ligating blood vessels”, in music theory a grapheme in which several simple “different-pitch” musical signs were written together as a single sign.

In modern science, there is a desire for semantic unification of systems of terms of the same science in different languages (unambiguous correspondence between terms of different languages) and for the use of internationalisms in terminology.

In logic, the same as a term is an element of formalized language corresponding to a subject or object in the usual grammatical sense, and the subject of a judgment in traditional logic. The most common understanding: an element of the premise of judgments (statements) included in the so-called categorical syllogism. Distinguish b O a major term that serves as a predicate (“logical predicate”) of a judgment that is the conclusion of a given syllogism, a minor term that is the subject (“logical subject”) of the conclusion, and a middle term that is not included in the conclusion of the syllogism at all (but is included in its premise judgments).

As part of the terminological vocabulary, several “layers” can be distinguished, differing in the sphere of use and the characteristics of the designated object.

First of all, these are general scientific terms that are used in various fields of knowledge and belong to the scientific style of speech as a whole: experiment, adequate, equivalent, predict, hypothetical, progress, reaction, etc. These terms form a common conceptual fund of various sciences and have the highest frequency use.

There are also special terms that are assigned to certain scientific disciplines, branches of production and technology; for example in linguistics: subject, predicate, adjective, pronoun; in medicine: heart attack, fibroids, periodontitis, cardiology, etc. The quintessence of each science is concentrated in these terminologies. According to S. Bally, such terms “are ideal types of linguistic expression to which scientific language inevitably strives” (Bally S. French Stylistics. M., 1961).

Terminological vocabulary is informative like no other. Therefore, in the language of science, terms are indispensable: they allow you to briefly and extremely accurately formulate a thought. However, the degree of terminology of scientific works is not the same. The frequency of use of terms depends on the nature of the presentation and the addressing of the text.
Modern society requires a form of description of the data obtained that would make the greatest discoveries of mankind accessible to everyone. However, often the language of monographic studies is so overloaded with terms that it becomes inaccessible even to a specialist. Therefore, it is important that the terminologies used are sufficiently mastered by science, and newly introduced terms need to be explained.

A peculiar sign of our time has been the spread of terms outside of scientific works. This gives grounds to talk about the general terminology of modern speech. Thus, many words that have a terminological meaning have become widely used without any restrictions: tractor, radio, television, oxygen. Another group consists of words that have a dual nature: they can function both as terms and as common words. In the first case, these lexical units are characterized by special shades of meaning, giving them special precision and unambiguity. Thus, the word mountain, which in common usage means “a significant elevation rising above the surrounding area” and has a number of figurative meanings, does not contain specific height measurements in its interpretation.

In geographical terminology, where the distinction between the terms “mountain” and “hill” is essential, a clarification is given: “a hill more than 200 m in height.” Thus, the use of such words outside the scientific style is associated with their partial determinologization.

2. Professional vocabulary includes words and expressions used in various fields of production, techniques, which, however, have not become commonly used. Unlike the terms of the official scientific names of special concepts, professionalisms function primarily in oral speech as “semi-official” words that do not have a strictly scientific character. Professionalisms serve to designate various production processes, production tools, raw materials, manufactured products, etc. For example, in the speech of printers, professionalisms are used: ending “graphic decoration at the end of the book”, tendril “ending with a thickening in the middle”, tail “the bottom outer margin of a page,” and also “the bottom edge of a book,” opposite the head of the book.

Professionalisms words and expressions characteristic of the speech of representatives of a particular profession or field of activity, penetrating into general literary use (mainly in oral speech) and usually acting as colloquial, emotionally charged equivalents of terms.

Professionalisms usually act as colloquial equivalents of terms corresponding in meaning: a typo in the speech of newspapermen blunder; steering wheel in the speech of drivers steering wheel; synchrophasotron in the speech of physicists pan, etc. Terms are legalized names of any special concepts, professionalisms are used as their unofficial substitutes only in the speech of persons associated with the profession, limited to a special topic. Often professionalisms have a local, local character. There is, however, a point of view according to which professionalism is synonymous with the concept of “term”. According to some researchers, professionalism is a “semi-official” name for a concept that is limited in use and is the vocabulary of hunters, fishermen, etc.

By origin, professionalism, as a rule, is the result of a metaphorical transfer of the meanings of words from everyday vocabulary to terminological concepts: by similarity, for example, between the shape of a part and everyday reality, the nature of the production process and a well-known action, or, finally, by emotional association.

Professionalisms are always expressive and are contrasted with the precision and stylistic neutrality of terms. However, they should not be confused with terms that are expressive in origin, for example: dirty pot in sugar production (food industry); such a term is the only option for defining the concept, and professionalism is always a synonym, a substitute for the main designation.

Professionalisms are similar to jargons and words of colloquial vocabulary in their reduced, rough expression, and also in the fact that they, like jargons and colloquialisms, are not an independent linguistic subsystem with its own grammatical features, but a certain lexical complex, relatively limited in quantity. Due to the expressiveness inherent in professionalisms, they relatively easily pass into the vernacular, as well as into the colloquial speech of a literary language, for example: pad “mistake” (from an actor’s speech), wiper “car windshield wiper” (from the speech of motorists).

Like terms, professionalisms are used in the language of fiction as a means of representation.

Professionalisms can be grouped according to the area of their use: in the speech of athletes, miners, doctors, hunters, fishermen, etc. A special group includes technicalisms - highly specialized names used in the field of technology.

Professionalisms, in contrast to their commonly used equivalents, serve to distinguish between closely related concepts used in a certain type of human activity. Thanks to this, professional vocabulary is indispensable for the laconic and precise expression of thoughts in special texts intended for a trained reader. However, the informative value of narrowly professional names is lost if a non-specialist encounters them. Therefore, professionalism is appropriate, say, in large-circulation trade newspapers and is not justified in publications aimed at a wide readership.

Individual professionalisms, often of a reduced stylistic sound, become part of the commonly used vocabulary: give away, storm, turnover. In fiction, professionalisms are used by writers with a specific stylistic task: as a characterological means when describing the lives of people associated with any production.

Professional slang vocabulary has a reduced expressive connotation and is used only in the oral speech of people of the same profession. For example, engineers jokingly call a self-recording device a snitch, in the speech of pilots there are the words nedomaz, peremaz, meaning “undershooting and overshooting the landing mark,” as well as bubble, sausage “probe balloon,” etc. In professional slang words like As a rule, there are neutral synonyms, devoid of colloquial connotations, that have a precise terminological meaning.

Professional slang vocabulary is not listed in special dictionaries, unlike professionalisms, which are given with explanations and are often enclosed in quotation marks (to distinguish them graphically from terms): “clogged” font “a font that has been in typed galleys or strips for a long time” ; “foreign” font “letters of a font of a different style or size, mistakenly included in the typed text or heading.”

Literature

1. Zvegintsev V.L. Language and knowledge / V.L. Zvegintsev / Questions of linguistics. - 1982. - No. 1. - 8 p.

2. Karaulov Yu. N. Russian language and linguistic personality / Yu. N. Karaulov. - M., 1987. - 195 p.

3. Leontyev A. A. Fundamentals of psycholinguistics / A. A. Leontyev. - M.: Smysl, 2003. - 287 p.

4. Minsky M. Frames for presenting knowledge: trans. from English / M. Minsky. - M.: Energy, 1979. - 189 p.

5. Rosenthal D. E., Golub I. B., Telenkova M. A. Modern Russian language.
M.: Iris-Press, 2002

Words, the use of which is characteristic of people of certain professions, having the scope of their use in any special branch of science or technology, constitute professional and special vocabulary.

We need these two definitions - professional and special - in order to distinguish, in the general layer of words identified in this way, firstly, officially accepted and regularly used special terms (they are special vocabulary) and, secondly, those characteristic of many professions expressively rethought, altered words and expressions taken from general circulation.

The difference between special terms and professional words (otherwise called professionalisms) can be shown in the following examples. In metallurgy, the term nastyl refers to the remains of frozen metal in a ladle, and workers call these remains a goat (nastyl is the official term, goat means professionalism). The concave grinder (special term) of the optics is also called a cup (professionalism). Physicists jokingly call the synchrophasotron a saucepan; doctors call a special type of temperature curve (with a sharp rise and fall in the patient’s temperature) a candle. Sandpaper is the official, terminological name, and sandpaper is a professionalism, widely used in non-professional vernacular, etc.

Special terminology usually “covers” the entire given special area of science or technology: all basic concepts, ideas, relationships receive their own terminological name. The terminology of a particular branch of knowledge or production is created by the conscious and purposeful efforts of people - specialists in this field. There is a tendency here, on the one hand, to eliminate doublets and ambiguous terms, and on the other, to establish strict boundaries for each term and its clear relationships with the other units that form a given terminological system.

Professionalisms are less regular. Since they are born in the oral speech of people engaged in a particular profession, they rarely form a system (no one specifically cares about creating such a system). Some objects and concepts have professional names, while others do not. The relationship between different professionalisms is also characterized by a certain randomness and uncertainty. The meaning of professionalism, which usually arises on the basis of a metaphorical rethinking of a word or phrase, often intersects with the meanings of other professionalisms.

Finally, in contrast to special terms, professionalisms are clearly expressive, expressive (due to their metaphorical nature), and this property of them is especially clearly revealed in the vicinity of an official, bookish special term, the meaning of which this professionalism duplicates (cf. the above examples).

In some cases, professionalisms can be used as official terms; their expressiveness is somewhat erased, but the underlying metaphorical meaning is felt quite well. Wed. terms such as lever arm, gear tooth, pipe elbow, etc.

Although special and professional vocabulary has a limited scope of use, there is a constant connection and interaction between it and the vocabulary of the whole people. Literary language masters many special terms: they begin to be used in contexts that are not typical for them, are re-interpreted, as a result of which they cease to be terms, or are determinologized. Compare the use in modern journalism, in colloquial speech, and sometimes in fiction of such phrases as ideological vacuum, bacillus of indifference, orbit of glory, corrosion of the soul, contact with the population, etc.

Special terms and professionalisms play a special role in modern poetry, where they are one of the signs of the “intellectualization” of verse.

The most terrible of depreciations is coming - depreciation

hearts and souls.

(V. Mayakovsky)

And you won’t sharpen any shovels,

To raise all these layers again,

Where does atomic decay occur? The elusive elements of the word.

(L. Martynov)

And the melody of a high-voltage plea was printed, like a copybook, in a separate publication.

(P. Antokolsky)

In literary prose, professionalisms and special terms are used not only for the speech characteristics of heroes, but also for a more accurate description of production processes, relationships between people in official and professional settings. This is, for example, the role of this vocabulary in the novels of G. Nikolaeva (“industrial” vocabulary), the stories of M. Prishvin (hunting terms), in the essays of V. Ovechkin and E. Dorosh (agricultural terminology), etc.

In the Russian language, along with common vocabulary, there are words and expressions used by groups of people united by the nature of their activities, i.e. by profession. These are professionalisms.
Professionalisms are characterized by greater differentiation in the designation of tools and means of production, in the names of specific objects, actions, persons, etc. They are widespread mainly in the colloquial speech of people of one profession or another, sometimes being a kind of unofficial synonyms for special names. Often they are reflected in dictionaries, but always with the mark “professional”. In newspaper and magazine texts, as well as in works of art, they usually perform a nominative function, and also serve as a figurative and expressive means.
Thus, in the professional speech of actors they use the complex abbreviated name chief director; in the colloquial speech of builders and repairmen, the professional name for capital repairs is used; the service personnel of computer centers are called machine operators and computer technicians; on fishing boats, workers who gut fish (usually by hand) are called skippers, etc.
According to the method of education, we can distinguish:
1) actual lexical professionalisms, which arise as new, special names. For example, in this way the above-mentioned word shkershchik arose in the speech of professional fishermen from the verb shkerit - “to gut the fish”; in the speech of carpenters and joiners, the names of various types of planes: kalevka, zenzubel, tongue and groove, etc.;
2) lexical-semantic professionalisms that arise in the process of developing a new meaning of a word and its rethinking. This is how, for example, professional meanings of words arose in the speech of printers: fir trees or paws - a type of quotation marks; header - a general heading for several publications, paddock - a spare, additional set not included in the next issue; in the speech of hunters, professional names for animal tails differ: for a deer - kuiruk, burdock, for a wolf - a log, for a fox - a pipe, for a beaver - a shovel, for a squirrel - fur, for a hare - a flower, a bunch, a burdock, etc.;
3) lexical and word-formative professionalisms, which include words like spare wheel - spare mechanism, part of something; glavrezh - chief director, etc., in which either a suffix or a way of adding words, etc. is used.
Professionalisms are usually not widely used in literary languages, i.e. their scope of use remains limited.
Terminological vocabulary includes words or phrases used for a logically precise definition of special concepts or objects in any field of science, technology, agriculture, art, etc. Unlike common words, which can have multiple meanings, terms within a particular science are usually unambiguous. They are characterized by a clearly limited, motivated specialization of meaning.
The development of science and technology, the emergence of new branches of science is always accompanied by the abundant appearance of new terms. Therefore, terminology is one of the most mobile, fast-growing and rapidly changing parts of the national vocabulary (compare just some of the names of new sciences and branches of production: automation, allergology, aeronomy, biocybernetics, bionics, hydroponics, holography, cardiac surgery, cosmobiology and many other sciences related to space studies, plasma chemistry, speleology, ergonomics, etc.).
The ways of forming terms are different. For example, there is a terminology of words existing in the language, i.e. scientific rethinking of well-known lexical meaning. This process goes in two ways: 1) by abandoning the generally accepted lexical meaning and giving the word a strict, precise name, for example: signal in information theory “a changing physical quantity that displays messages”; 2) through the full or partial use of those features that serve as the basis for the lexical meaning of a word in popular usage, i.e. name by similarity, contiguity, etc., for example: hole - defective electron in nuclear physics; drapri - a type of aurora form; journal - intermediate part of the machine shaft, etc. Note that the expressive-emotional meanings inherent in words with diminutive suffixes usually disappear during terminology. Wed. also: tail (for tools, devices), foot (part of the machine frame; part of devices), etc.
To form terms, the following phrases are widely used: nuclear-powered icebreaker, smoke eliminator, crank, current rotator; affixation method: casting, lining, constellation, melting, heater; the addition of foreign language elements: air, auto, bio, etc. The method of terminology of phrases is widely used: elementary particles, primary radiation, cosmic rays, optical density, space medicine, etc.
Foreign borrowings play a major role in terminological systems. For a long time, many Dutch and English nautical terms have been known; Italian and French musical, art, and literary terms; Latin and Greek terms are found in all sciences. Many of these terms are international (see § 10).
The spread of scientific and technical terminology, its penetration into various spheres of life leads to the fact that in the language, along with the process of terminology of commonly used words, there is also a reverse process - the mastery of terms in the literary language, i.e. their determinologization. For example, the frequent use of philosophical, art, literary, physical, chemical, medical, industrial and many other terms has made them words in common use, for example: abstraction, argument, dialectics, materialism, thinking, concept, consciousness; concert, plot, style; amplitude, battery, contact, circuit, reaction, resonance; analysis, vitamin deficiency, diagnosis, immunity, x-ray; nylon, combine, conveyor, motor; incandescence, adhesion, recoil, filtering, etc. Often finding themselves in a context with commonly used words, the terms are metaphorized and lose their special purpose, for example: anatomy of love, geography of feat, sclerosis of conscience, inflation of words.
Determinologized words are widely used in different styles of speech: colloquial, bookish (in journalism, works of art, etc.). Along with them, professionalisms and terms are often used. However, the excessive saturation of artistic and journalistic works with scientific and technical terminology reduces their value and was condemned back in the late 20s and early 30s by A.M. Gorky, who wrote: “...There is no need to abuse workshop terminology, or the terms should be explained. This definitely needs to be done, because it gives the book wider distribution and makes it easier to assimilate everything that is said in it.”

More on topic 13. Professional and terminological vocabulary:

1.19. Special vocabulary (professional and terminological)
§1. Use of dialect, professional and terminological vocabulary in speech
1.5.4. Unique suffixes of nouns formed according to the model of borrowed words, replenishing the terminological vocabulary

Terms- words or phrases naming special concepts of any sphere of production, science, art. Each term is necessarily based on the definition of the reality it denotes, due to which the terms represent an accurate and at the same time concise description of an object or phenomenon. Each branch of knowledge operates with its own terms, which form the essence of the terminological system of this science.

As part of the terminological vocabulary, several “layers” can be distinguished, differing in the sphere of use and the characteristics of the designated object.

1. First of all, these are general scientific terms that are used in various fields of knowledge and belong to the scientific style of speech as a whole: experiment, adequate, equivalent, predict. These terms form a common conceptual fund of various sciences and have the highest frequency of use.

2. There are also special terms that are assigned to certain scientific disciplines, branches of production and technology; for example, in linguistics: subject, predicate, adjective; in medicine: heart attack, cardiology, etc.

Terminological vocabulary is informative like no other. Therefore, in the language of science, terms are indispensable: they allow you to briefly and extremely accurately formulate a thought. However, the degree of terminology of scientific works is not the same. The frequency of use of terms depends on the nature of the presentation and the addressing of the text.

Peculiar a sign of our time has become the spread of terms outside of scientific works. This gives grounds to talk about the general terminology of modern speech. Thus, many words that have a terminological meaning have become widely used without any restrictions: tractor, radio, television, oxygen. Another group consists of words that have a dual nature: they can function both as terms and as common words. In the first case, these lexical units are characterized by special shades of meaning, giving them special precision and unambiguity. Thus, the word mountain, which in broad usage means “a significant elevation rising above the surrounding area” and has a number of figurative meanings, does not contain specific height measurements in its interpretation.

In geographical terminology, where the distinction between the terms “mountain” and “hill” is essential, a clarification is given - “a hill more than 200 m in height.” Thus, the use of such words outside the scientific style is associated with their partial determinologization.

Terminology dictionaries- dictionaries containing the terminology of one or more special fields of knowledge or activity, that is, reflecting the achievements of terminological lexicography (terminography) - one of the sections of general lexicography.

Ticket 12. Dialect, slang, colloquial vocabulary: typology, principle of expediency of use. Dictionary of dialect vocabulary.

1. Dialect group- a group of words whose scope of use is limited by one or another territorial location. At its core, these are the dialects of the peasant population, which still retain certain phonetic, morphological, syntactic and lexical-semantic features. This makes it possible to distinguish phonetic dialectisms (zh[o]na instead of wife, p[i]snya, m[i]sto instead of song, place), morphological dialectisms (for example, saw with my own eye[s]) and lexical dialectisms , among which lexical and lexical-semantic ones stand out.

Lexical dialectisms are words that coincide with general literary ones in meaning, but differ in their sound complex. They name the same concepts as identical words in the literary language, that is, they are synonyms. Thus, lexical dialectisms are the words: baskoy (northern) - beautiful, veksha (northern) - squirrel, rowing (southern) - disdain, etc.

Lexico-semantic dialectisms are words that coincide in spelling and pronunciation with literary ones, but differ from them in their meaning. They are homonyms in relation to literary words. For example, cheerful (southern, and Ryazan) - smart, beautifully decorated and cheerful (lit.) - full of strength, healthy, energetic.

For the most part, dialect words are not included in the general literary language. But through colloquial speech, dialectisms penetrate into the literary language. Russian writers of the 20th century also used them (M.A. Sholokhov, V. Rasputin, V.M. Shukshin, etc.).

For a modern literary language, dialectisms provide less and less figurative means, even when people from a peasant environment are depicted, since the growth of culture of the entire population, as well as the influence of the media, contributes to the increasingly active convergence of local dialects with the literary language.

Dialect dictionaries are a type of explanatory dictionaries that describe the vocabulary of one dialect or group of dialects. The formation of Russian dialect lexicography falls on the middle. 19th century, although interest in folk dialects arose in the 18th century, when numerous lists of local words began to appear in various ethnographic, historical, economic and geographical descriptions. Examples: “Frequency Dictionary of the Modern Russian Literary Language” by E. A. Steinfeldt (1963), “Pskov Regional Dictionary with Historical Data” (1967).”

2. Slang vocabulary.

Jargon is a social variety of speech used by a narrow circle of native speakers, united by common interests, occupations, and position in society. In modern Russian, youth jargon or slang is distinguished, professional jargon, and camp jargon is also used in places of deprivation of liberty.

The most widespread is youth slang, popular among students and young people. Jargons, as a rule, have equivalents in the common language: dorm-dormitory, stipuh-scholarship, spurs-cheat sheets, etc. The appearance of many jargons is associated with the desire of young people to express their attitude to a subject or phenomenon more clearly, more emotionally. Hence such evaluative words: awesome, cool, killer, thrill, etc. All of them are common only in oral speech and are often absent from dictionaries.

The camp jargon used by people placed in special living conditions reflected the terrible life in places of detention: zek (prisoner), gruel (pottage), informer (informer).

3. Colloquial vocabulary.

Vernacular is a variety of the Russian national language, the speaker of which is the uneducated and semi-educated urban population.

Vernacular speech is realized in the oral form of speech; at the same time, naturally, it can be reflected in fiction and in the private correspondence of people who speak the vernacular. The most typical places for the implementation of vernacular: family (communication within the family and with relatives), court (witness testimony, reception with a judge), doctor’s office (patient’s story about an illness). In modern vernacular, two modern layers are distinguished - a layer of old, traditional means that clearly reveal their dialectal origin, and a layer of relatively new means that came into common speech mainly from social jargons. Therefore, a distinction is made between vernacular-1 and vernacular-2. The speakers of vernacular-1 are elderly city dwellers with a low educational and cultural level (mainly elderly women); among speakers of vernacular-2, representatives of the middle and younger generations predominate, also without sufficient education (a significant part are men).

Examples: maybe (maybe a particle), ahti; not so hot (not very good).

Ticket 13. Borrowed vocabulary: typology, features of use and orthology. Etymological dictionary. Dictionary of foreign words

Borrowing- one of the ways to replenish vocabulary. Throughout its existence, the Russian people have entered into economic, political, and cultural ties with other peoples, and borrowing is the result of these contacts. Borrowing is based on the principle of expediency. In the original language, there are no more than 10-14% of borrowed words (in certain periods about 20%), but the basis of an independent language is the original vocabulary. “Alien” words were deciphered in different ways: some became synonyms for Russian (barbarisms), others, generalizing realities that do not exist in Russian reality, have synonyms (exoticisms).

Borrowing

From Old Slavonic Language of translations of Greek church literature, translations made by Kirillov and Methodius. The basis is ancient Greek, Macedonian dialect. Main features: 1) partial consonance - -ra, -la-, -re, -le (gate, head, succession) in place of Russian complete consonance (votora, head, succession) 2) combinations ra-, la- at the beginning of the word (equal , rook) instead of Russian ro-, lo- (even, boat) 3) initial e instead of Russian o (united - one, esen - autumn) 4) combination zh (walking, ignorant) in place of Russian zh (walking, ignorant) 5 ) prefixes through-, pre-, water-, from-, bottom-, pre- (excessive, purpose, reward, choose, shoots, expel) 6) roots good-, good-, evil-, sacrifice- 7) individual words : cross, rod, power, universe, disaster, hair shirt, goalkeeper, guard, helmet. 8) sch-Russian h (lighting - candle) 9) Russian u - Old Slavonic yu

The fate of Old Slavonicisms:

Usage in speech:

1) create book speech

2) call realities alien to our lives

3) recreate the flavor of the era

4) create a speech portrait

5) create macaronic (inappropriately rich in borrowings) speech

Functional characteristics of borrowed words:

1) words limited in use - words that have retained their “foreignness” to varying degrees (file, holding, sprite)

a) terms of narrow use that do not have synonyms in Russian speech (phoneme, aviso, assimilation)

b) words used to denote the national life of other peoples (exoticisms) (arba, aryk, Taliban)

c) words that have retained their “native” sound and spelling (c"estlavie - such is life)

d) “slang foreigners” - words used as “fashionable” in certain social strata (horror film, dreadlocks)

2) words not limited in use - words that do not stand out against the background of the original vocabulary.

a) words that have lost any signs of non-Russian origin (picture, chair, bed, iron)

b) words that retain some signs of “foreignness” (veil, jury), word-formative (trainee, antibiotics), paradigmatic (cinema, cafe, salami)

c) internationalisms - words that are understood equally in several closely related languages (terror, dictatorship, telephone)

The Russian vocabulary was expanded in two directions:

§ The emergence of new words from word-forming elements existing in the language (roots, prefixes, suffixes).

§ As a result of economic, cultural, and political connections with other peoples, new borrowing words penetrated into the Russian language.

The vocabulary of the modern Russian language consists of native Russian words (Indo-Europeanisms, common Slavic, East Slavic, Russian vocabulary proper) and borrowed words (from Slavic, non-Slavic languages, Scandinavian, Turkic, Latin, Greek and other borrowings).

Main reasons for borrowing:

1. The need to name new things, phenomena, concepts: computer; blazer (special cut fitted jacket); grant (monetary allowance issued by special funds and intended for material support of scientific research); digest (a special type of magazine containing a summary of materials from other publications).

2. The need to differentiate the concepts: makeup artist (from the French visage - face) and the previously borrowed designer (artist-designer, from English, design - idea, drawing, project); player (from English, to play - play) and Russian. player (player - a compact player with headphones, player - a device for playing music on records).

3. The need for specialization of concepts: marketing (market), management (management), audit (revision, control), realtor (real estate entrepreneur), paparazzi (intrusive gossip reporters), killer (professional, hired killer), leasing ( rent-to-own based on income).

Reasons for borrowing

1) linguistic

a) absence of a name for an object or phenomenon (camera, hamburger, computer)

b) the desire for semantic and stylistic differentiation

c) the effect of the law of speech economy (fireproof cabinet - safe)

2) connection

a) awareness of foreign words as more prestigious

b) assessment of borrowing as signs of SOME development

c) the use of borrowings as euphemisms

d) the influence of language fashion

Borrowing conditions:

1) Presence of contacts between the donor language and the receiving language

2) the willingness of society to accept borrowings

13-17% of borrowed words in a language is considered optimal. The borrowing process is a part metaphorically comparable to a pendulum (“pendulum effect”)

Exoticisms- words that characterize the specific features of the life of different peoples and are used when describing non-Russian reality: horseman, persimmon, lavash, dollar. Exoticisms have no Russian synonyms.

Barbarisms– foreign words transferred to Russian soil, the use of which is individual in nature. Barbarisms have not been mastered by the Russian language, are not enshrined in dictionaries and sound like alien, have synonyms in Russian: teenager, upgrade, businessman. Speech saturated with barbarisms is called macaronic.

Signs of borrowed words

1. The presence of the initial letter “a”: lampshade, April, scarlet, army, pharmacy.

2. The presence of the letter “e” in the root of the word: mayor, aloe, emotions, phaeton.

3. The presence of the letter “f” in the word: decanter, spacesuit, February.

4. The presence of combinations of two or more vowels in the roots of words: diet, duel, halo, poem, guard.

5. 5 The presence of combinations of consonants “kd”, “kz”, “gb”, “kg” in the roots of words: joke, station, barrier, warehouse.

6. The presence of combinations “ge”, “ke”, “he” in the root: legend, food, trachea.

7. The presence of combinations “bu”, “vu”, “kyu”, “mu” in the roots of words: bureau, engraving, ditch, communiqué.

8. The presence of double consonants in the roots of words: villa, progress, profession, session, bath.

9. Pronunciation of a hard consonant sound before vowels [e] (letter “e”): model [de], test [te].

10. Inflexibility of words: protégé, cashew, barbecue.

Basic rules for pronunciation of borrowed words:

Weak reduction or its absence. In some words, instead of O, it is pronounced [O]: beau monde, trio, poet.

In borrowed proper names there is no reduction and no softening of the consonants before E: Voltaire, Chopin.

In some words, [E] clearly sounds at the beginning of the word: aegis, duelist, evolution.

The pronunciation of hard/soft consonants before E depends on the degree of assimilation: completely - only softly (museum, brunette, canned food, overcoat); recently borrowed - only firmly (computer, printer, showman, sandwich); equal options - both ways (dean, session, swimming pool, cream - crEm - acceptable).

Of the morphological features, the most important is indeclinability: taxi, coffee, coat. Word-forming features include foreign language prefixes and suffixes: deduction, interval, regress; dean's office, student, editor, technical school.

One of the methods of borrowing is tracing - constructing lexical units based on the model of the corresponding words of a foreign language by accurately translating their significant parts or borrowing individual meanings of words.

There are tracing papers:

Lexical, word-formation- arise as a result of the literal translation into Russian of a foreign word in parts: hydrogen, oxygen, skyscraper, spelling.

Semantic– original words that receive new meanings under the influence of another language: painting as a “work of painting” and as a “movie” - a tracing paper of the English polysemantic word picture.

Another way of borrowing is semi-calques - words that combine literally translated foreign language and Russian word-forming elements: humanity - Latin root, Russian suffix -OST: television - Greek -TELE and Russian - VISION basis.)

Motivated e is a word that denotes an object whose designation is not in our speech

Unmotivated– vice versa

In our time, new borrowings are associated with the scientific and technological revolution, changes in the sphere of politics, economics, culture, with “Americanization”, “computer language”. For example, among the latest borrowings, the most famous are: iPhone, ICQ, holding, computer, bluetooth, bestseller, windsurfing, auditor, monitoring and many others.

Liberalization of the language has also led to excessive, unmotivated use of borrowings in speech. Many cases of using borrowings are meaningless; people try to use them as much as possible just to look prestigious. For example, when new borrowings replace already Russified foreign words (display - screen, hit - hit, show - spectacle) or original Russian words (victory - victory, linguist - linguist). Along with borrowings, the modern Russian language is characterized by excessive use of abbreviations: UIN, OBEP, OODUUM and PDN ATC, GO and Emergencies.

Errors in the use of foreign words arise due to ignorance of the meaning of words and their semantics. This often leads to the emergence of pleonasms (a free vacancy, the most optimal solution), grammatical and morphological errors (with beautiful blinds), and a violation of the appropriateness of the statement (if the meaning of the foreign word is not clear to the entire audience).

Etymological dictionaries - explain the history of the appearance of a word in a language (Fasmer M. “Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language”).

Dictionaries of foreign words - describe borrowed words (E.N. Zakharenko, L.N. Komarova, I.V. Nechaeva “New Dictionary of Foreign Words”). Recently, dictionary entries of such dictionaries contain both encyclopedic and linguistic information.

Ticket 14. Old Slavonicisms: signs, place in various spheres of functioning of the modern Russian language, expressive capabilities

Russian language- a historically established linguistic community, genetically belongs to the group of East Slavic languages, which go back to a common source - the common Slavic language, common and uniform (to varying degrees) for all Slavic tribes.

Native vocabulary- unites the vocabulary of the Indo-European period, Common Slavic, East Slavic and later times. Common Slavic vocabulary occupies a special place; according to linguists, there are no more than 2000 such words, but these are high-frequency words, making up approximately a quarter of words in everyday communication.

Borrowing

From Old Church Slavonic The language of translations of Greek church literature, translations made by Cyril and Methodius. The basis is ancient Greek, Macedonian dialect. Main features: 1) partial consonance - -ra, -la-, -re, -le (gate, head, succession) in place of Russian complete consonance (votora, head, succession) 2) combinations ra-, la- at the beginning of the word (equal , rook) instead of Russian ro-, lo- (even, boat) 3) initial e instead of Russian o (united - one, esen - autumn) 4) combination zh (walking, ignorant) in place of Russian zh (walking, ignorant) 5 ) prefixes through-, pre-, voz-, from-, bottom-, pre- (excessive, purpose, reward, choose, shoots, expel) 6) roots good-, good-, evil-, sacrifice- 7) individual words : cross, rod, power, universe, disaster, hair shirt, goalkeeper, guard, helmet. 8) Old Slavic-Russian h (lighting - candle) 9) Russian u - Old Slavonic yu

From other languages Greekisms - bread, bed, notebook Latinisms - audience, excursion Turkisms - stocking, shoe, suitcase Anglicisms - electorate, export, relic Gallicisms (from French) - blouse, veil, bureau, attaché From Dutch - admiral, wheelhouse From German - assault, climbs, bow

The fate of Old Slavonicisms:

Some replaced the original Russian words (food - pyshcha, thing - vech)

The part has acquired a functional connotation and is used in scientific and official business texts (post restante, claim, condolences)

For a long time there were the main education terms (mammals)

The part has kareyads (correspondences) in the modern Russian literary language and is characterized by bookishness, elation, rhetoric (hail, hair, mouth)

Old Church Slavonic vocabulary adds sublimity to the text. In the poetry of classicism, acting as the main component of the odic vocabulary, Old Slavonicisms determined the solemn style of “high poetry.”

§ Derzhavin is considered the first exponent of individual creativity. “The Vision of Murza”: high style (truncated adjectives, high vocabulary, suffixes and prefixes of Old Church Slavonic origin)

§ Lomonosov managed to clearly distinguish between Old Church Slavonic and Russian words. The basis of the theory of 3 styles is the classification of sayings of the Russian and Slavic languages.

Ticket 15. Passive vocabulary

Language as a system is in constant movement and development, and the most mobile level of language is vocabulary. She first of all reacts to all changes in society, filling herself with new words. At the same time, the names of objects and phenomena that are no longer used in the life of peoples fall out of use.

The language consists of active vocabulary words that are constantly used in speech, as well as passive vocabulary words, such as obsolete and new words.

Outdated words- these are words that have ceased to be actively used in the lexicon, but have not yet disappeared from it, are still understandable to speakers of a given language, and are known from literature. Such words are listed in explanatory dictionaries and marked obsolete.

The process of archaization occurs gradually. The reasons for archaization are different: they can be extra-linguistic in nature (the refusal to use the word is associated with social transformations), or can be determined by linguistic laws (the words oshyu, odesnu fell out of use, as the words shuitsa and right hand came out). In rare cases, there is a revival of the word: gymnasium, lyceum, Duma (after the 17th year they were considered historicisms).

Types of obsolete words:

1. Historicisms - names of disappeared objects, phenomena, concepts: oprichnik, chain mail, gendarme, hussar, tutor, Bolshevik, NEP. As a rule, the appearance of historicisms is caused by extra-linguistic reasons: social transformations in society, the development of production, etc. Historicisms have no synonyms in modern Russian. This is explained by the fact that the very realities that these words denoted are outdated. Historicisms can be words that differ in the time of their appearance: during very distant eras (oprichnina, voivode), in very recent times (tax in food, district).

2. Archaisms - names of existing objects and phenomena, for some reason replaced by other words: necessary - necessary, verb - to speak, know - to know. Archaisms have modern synonyms in the Russian language.

There are archaisms:

1. Lexical - outdated in all their meanings: lzya (possible), barber (hairdresser), therefore, zelo (very).

2. Lexico-word-formative - individual word-formation elements are outdated: necessary, transgress, fisherman.

3. Lexico-phonetic – phonetic design is outdated: Mladoy, Breg, Noshch, Aglitsky (English).

4. Lexico-semantic - words that have lost their individual meanings: guest - merchant, dream - thought.

The largest group consists of lexical archaisms.

Neologisms- new words that have not yet become familiar and everyday names of corresponding objects and concepts. Over time, new words are assimilated and move from passive to active vocabulary.

This term is used in the history of language to characterize the enrichment of vocabulary in certain historical periods - for example, we can talk about neologisms of the time of Peter the Great, neologisms of individual cultural figures (M.V. Lomonosov, N.M. Karamzin and his school), neologisms of the period of the Patriotic War wars, etc.

Tens of thousands of neologisms appear every year in developed languages. Most of them have a short life, but some are fixed in the language for a long time, entering not only its living everyday fabric, but also becoming an integral part of literature.

Having been fully mastered by the language, neologisms cease to be neologisms, becoming ordinary words of the main stock of the language.

In addition to general linguistic ones, speech may contain author’s (individual, individual-stylistic) neologisms (occasionalisms), which are created by authors for certain artistic purposes. They rarely go beyond the context, do not become widespread, and, as a rule, remain part of an individual style, so their novelty and unusualness are preserved.

Depending on the method of appearance, a distinction is made between lexical neologisms, which are created according to productive models or borrowed from other languages, and semantic ones, which arise as a result of assigning new meanings to already known words (landslide, cool).

Depending on the conditions of creation, there are general language neologisms that appeared along with a new concept or reality (collective farm, Komsomol, five-year plan) and individual author’s ones, which were introduced into use by specific authors (prosecutors - Mayakovsky; constellation, full moon, attraction - Lomonosov).

Also highlighted occasional neologisms are lexical units, the emergence of which is determined by a certain context: in heavy snake hair, wide-noisy oak trees. Artistic and literary occasional neologisms are called individual-stylistic. They serve as an expressive means in the context of one specific work.

Depending on the purpose of creation, neologisms are divided into nominative and stylistic. The former perform a nominative function - they name an object (pre-perestroika, riot police, federals, feminization), while the latter give figurative characteristics to objects that already have names (pioneer, collapse, steep, chaos, starship). The former almost never have synonyms and are highly specialized terms, while the latter have synonyms.

Use of obsolete words:

They give the speech a solemn, sublime sound: Arise, prophet, and see, and listen...

In works of art to create the flavor of the era: How the prophetic Oleg is now planning to take revenge on the foolish Khazars...

Sometimes high vocabulary is used to create satire.

Use of neologisms:

To indicate new realities: feminization, riot police.

As a means of artistic expression of speech: in heavy snake hair, wide-noisy oak trees.

Terminological vocabulary

Socially restricted use terminological And professional vocabulary used by people of the same profession, working in the same field of science and technology. Terms and professionalisms are given in explanatory dictionaries with the mark “special”; sometimes the scope of use of a particular term is indicated: physicist, medicine, mathematician, astronomer. etc.

Each area of knowledge has its own terminological system.

Terms- words or phrases naming special concepts of any sphere of production, science, art. Each term is necessarily based on a definition (definition) of the reality it denotes, due to which the terms represent an accurate and at the same time concise description of an object or phenomenon. Each branch of knowledge operates with its own terms, which form the essence of the terminological system of this science.

As part of the terminological vocabulary, several “layers” can be distinguished, differing in the sphere of use and the characteristics of the designated object.

1. First of all this general scientific terms that are used in various fields of knowledge and belong to the scientific style of speech as a whole: experiment, adequate, equivalent, predict, hypothetical, progress, reaction etc. These terms form a common conceptual fund of various sciences and have the highest frequency of use.

2. They differ and special terms that are assigned to certain scientific disciplines, branches of production and technology; for example in linguistics: subject, predicate, adjective, pronoun; in medicine: heart attack, fibroids, periodontitis, cardiology etc. The quintessence of each science is concentrated in these terminologies. According to S. Bally, such terms “are ideal types of linguistic expression to which scientific language inevitably strives”1.

Modern society requires a form of description of the data obtained that would make the greatest discoveries of mankind accessible to everyone. However, often the language of monographic studies is so overloaded with terms that it becomes inaccessible even to a specialist. Therefore, it is important that the terminologies used are sufficiently mastered by science, and newly introduced terms need to be explained.

A peculiar sign of our time has been the spread of terms outside of scientific works. This gives grounds to talk about the general terminology of modern speech. Thus, many words that have a terminological meaning have received widespread use without any restrictions: tractor, radio, television, oxygen. Another group consists of words that have a dual nature: they can function both as terms and as common words. In the first case, these lexical units are characterized by special shades of meaning, giving them special precision and unambiguity. Yes, word mountain, which in broad usage means “a significant elevation rising above the surrounding terrain” and has a number of figurative meanings, does not contain specific height measurements in its interpretation.

TO professional vocabulary includes words and expressions used in various fields of production and technology, which, however, have not become commonly used. Unlike terms - the official scientific names of special concepts, professionalisms function primarily in oral speech as “semi-official” words that do not have a strictly scientific character. Professionalisms serve to designate various production processes, production tools, raw materials, manufactured products, etc. For example, professionalisms are used in the speech of printers: ending- "graphic decoration at the end of the book" tendril- "ending with a thickening in the middle", tail- “the lower outer margin of the page”, as well as “the lower edge of the book”, opposite head books.

Professionalisms can be grouped according to the area of their use: in the speech of athletes, miners, doctors, hunters, fishermen, etc. A special group includes technicalisms- highly specialized names used in the field of technology.

Certain professionalisms, often of a reduced stylistic sound, become part of the commonly used vocabulary: give out on the mountain, storming, turnover. In fiction, professionalisms are used by writers with a specific stylistic task: as a characterological means when describing the lives of people associated with any production.

Professional slang vocabulary has a reduced expressive connotation and is used only in the oral speech of people of the same profession. For example, engineers jokingly call a self-recording device sneaker, in the speech of pilots there are words underdose, overdose, meaning “undershooting and overshooting the landing mark,” as well as bubble, sausage- “probe”, etc. Professional slang words, as a rule, have neutral synonyms devoid of colloquial connotations that have a precise terminological meaning.

Professional slang vocabulary is not listed in special dictionaries, unlike professionalisms, which are given with explanations and are often enclosed in quotation marks (to distinguish them graphically from terms): “clogged” font - “a font that has been in typed galleys or strips for a long time” ; “foreign” font - “letters of a font of a different style or size, mistakenly included in the typed text or heading.”