Moscow State University of Printing. Ecological problems

"Ecological

Shmalko Maria, 11 "B"

ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION - the introduction of new, uncharacteristic physical, chemical and biological agents or exceeding their natural level.

MAIN TYPES OF POLLUTION

Physical

(thermal, noise, electromagnetic, light, radioactive)

Chemical

(heavy metals, pesticides, plastics and other chemicals)

Biological

(biogenic, microbiological, genetic)

Informational

(information noise, false information, anxiety factors)

Any chemical contamination is the appearance of a chemical substance in a place not intended for it. Pollution arising from human activity is the main factor in its harmful effects on the natural environment.

Chemical pollutants can cause acute poisoning, chronic diseases, and also have carcinogenic and mutagenic effects. For example, heavy metals can accumulate in plant and animal tissues, causing toxic effects. In addition to heavy metals, particularly dangerous pollutants are chlorodioxins, which are formed from chlorinated aromatic hydrocarbons used at production of herbicides. Sources of pollution surrounding dioxins include by-products of the pulp and paper industry, waste from the metallurgical industry, traffic fumes internal combustion engines. These substances are very toxic to humans and animals even at low concentrations and cause damage to the liver, kidneys, and immune system.

environmentally friendly additives and additives for fuels and oils;

environmentally friendly chemicals for recycling household waste

"Ecological

Problems

chemical industry""

Shmalko Maria, 11 "B"

ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION - the introduction of new, uncharacteristic physical, chemical and biological agents or exceeding their natural level.

MAIN TYPES OF POLLUTION

Physical

(thermal, noise, electromagnetic, light, radioactive)

Chemical

(heavy metals, pesticides, plastics and other chemicals)

Biological

(biogenic, microbiological, genetic)

Informational

(information noise, false information, anxiety factors)

Any chemical contamination is the appearance of a chemical substance in a place not intended for it. Pollution arising from human activity is the main factor in its harmful effects on the natural environment.

Chemical pollutants can cause acute poisoning, chronic diseases, and also have carcinogenic and mutagenic effects. For example, heavy metals can accumulate in plant and animal tissues, causing toxic effects. In addition to heavy metals, particularly dangerous pollutants are chlorodioxins, which are formed from chlorinated aromatic hydrocarbons used in the production of herbicides. Sources of environmental pollution with dioxins are by-products of the pulp and paper industry, waste from the metallurgical industry, and exhaust gases from internal combustion engines. These substances are very toxic to humans and animals even at low concentrations and cause damage to the liver, kidneys, and immune system.

Along with environmental pollution by new synthetic substances, great damage to nature and human health can be caused by interference in natural cycles of substances due to active production and agricultural activities, as well as the generation of household waste.

The atmosphere (air), hydrosphere (aquatic environment) and lithosphere (solid surface) of the Earth are subject to pollution. See also ATMOSPHERIC CHEMISTRY.

At first, human activity affected only the living matter of land and soil. In the 19th century, when industry began to rapidly develop, significant masses of chemical elements extracted from the bowels of the earth began to be involved in the sphere of industrial production. At the same time, not only the outer part of the earth’s crust began to be exposed, but also natural waters and the atmosphere.

In the middle of the 20th century. some elements began to be used in quantities comparable to the masses involved in natural cycles. The low efficiency of most modern industrial technology has led to the formation of a huge amount of waste that is not disposed of in related industries, but

are released into the environment. The masses of polluting waste are so large that they pose a danger to living organisms, including humans.

Although the chemical industry is not the main source of pollution (Fig. 1), it is characterized by emissions that are most dangerous for the natural environment, humans, animals and plants (Fig. 2). The term “hazardous waste” applies to any kind of waste that may cause harm to health or the environment when stored, transported, processed or discharged. These include toxic substances, flammable wastes, corrosive wastes and other reactive substances.

Depending on the characteristics of mass exchange cycles, the polluting component can spread over the entire surface of the planet, over a more or less significant territory, or have a local character. Thus, environmental crises resulting from environmental pollution can be of three types - global, regional and local

One of the global problems is the increase in carbon dioxide content in the atmosphere as a result of man-made emissions. The most dangerous consequence of this phenomenon may be an increase in air temperature due to the “greenhouse effect.” The problem of disrupting the global carbon mass exchange cycle is already moving from the environmental sphere to the economic, social and, ultimately, political spheres.

In December 1997, the Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (dated May 1992) was adopted in Kyoto (Japan) (see also KYOTO PROTOCOL). The main thing in the Protocol is the quantitative obligations of developed countries and countries with economies in transition, including Russia, to limit and reduce emissions of greenhouse gases, primarily CO2, into the atmosphere in 2008-2032. Russia's permitted level of greenhouse gas emissions for these years is 100% of the 1990 level. For EU countries as a whole it is 92%, for Japan - 94%. The US was supposed to have 93%, but this country refused to participate in the Protocol, since reducing carbon dioxide emissions means lower levels of electricity generation and, therefore, stagnation of industry. On October 23, 2004, the Russian State Duma decided to ratify the Kyoto Protocol.

Regional-scale pollution includes many industrial and transport wastes. First of all, this concerns sulfur dioxide. It causes the formation of acid rain, which affects plants and animals and causes diseases in the population. Technogenic sulfur oxides are distributed unevenly and cause damage to certain areas. Due to the transfer of air masses, they often cross state borders and end up in territories remote from industrial centers.

In large cities and industrial centers, the air, along with carbon and sulfur oxides, is often polluted by nitrogen oxides and particulate matter emitted by automobile engines and smokestacks. Smog formation is often observed. Although these pollutions are local in nature, they affect many people living compactly in such areas. In addition, damage to the environment is caused.

One of the main environmental pollutants is agricultural production. Significant masses of nitrogen, potassium, and phosphorus are artificially introduced into the circulation system of chemical elements in the form of mineral fertilizers. Their excess, not absorbed by plants, is actively involved in water migration. The accumulation of nitrogen and phosphorus compounds in natural bodies of water causes increased growth of aquatic vegetation, overgrowing of water bodies and pollution of them with dead plant debris and decomposition products. In addition, an abnormally high content of soluble nitrogen compounds in the soil entails an increase in the concentration of this element in agricultural food products and drinking water. It can cause serious illness in people.

As an example showing changes in the structure of the biological cycle as a result of human activity, we can consider data for the forest zone of the European part of Russia (table). In prehistoric times, this entire area was covered with forests; now their area has decreased by almost half. Their place was taken by fields, meadows, pastures, as well as cities, towns, and highways. The decrease in the total mass of some elements due to the general decrease in the mass of green plants is compensated by the application of fertilizers, which involves significantly more nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium in biological migration than natural vegetation. Deforestation and soil plowing contribute to increased water migration. Thus, the content of compounds of certain elements (nitrogen, potassium, calcium) in natural waters increases significantly.

MIGRATION OF ELEMENTS IN THE FOREST ZONE OF THE EUROPEAN PART OF RUSSIA

Organic waste is also a water pollutant. Their oxidation requires additional oxygen. If the oxygen content is too low, the normal life of most aquatic organisms becomes impossible. Aerobic bacteria that require oxygen also die; instead, bacteria develop that use sulfur compounds for their vital functions. A sign of the appearance of such bacteria is the smell of hydrogen sulfide, one of their metabolic products.

Among the many consequences of the economic activities of human society, the process of progressive accumulation of metals in the environment is of particular importance. The most dangerous pollutants include mercury, pigs and cadmium. Technogenic inputs of manganese, tin, copper, molybdenum, chromium, nickel and cobalt also have a significant impact on living organisms and their communities (Fig. 3).

Natural waters can be contaminated with pesticides and dioxins, as well as oil. Oil decomposition products are toxic, and the oil film, which isolates water from air, leads to the death of living organisms (primarily plankton) in the water.

In addition to the accumulation of toxic and harmful substances in the soil as a result of human activity, land damage is caused by the burial and dumping of industrial and household waste.

The main measures to combat air pollution are: strict control of emissions of harmful substances. It is necessary to replace toxic starting products with

non-toxic, switch to closed cycles, improve gas purification and dust collection methods. Of great importance is the optimization of the location of enterprises to reduce transport emissions, as well as the competent application of economic sanctions.

International cooperation is beginning to play a major role in protecting the environment from chemical pollution. In the 1970s, a decrease in the concentration of OZ was discovered in the ozone layer, which protects our planet from the dangerous effects of ultraviolet radiation from the Sun. In 1974 it was established that ozone is destroyed by atomic chlorine. One of the main sources of chlorine entering the atmosphere are chlorofluorocarbon derivatives (freons, freons) used in aerosol cans, refrigerators and air conditioners. The destruction of the ozone layer occurs, perhaps, not only under the influence of these substances. However, measures have been taken to reduce their production and use. In 1985, many countries agreed to protect the ozone layer. Exchange of information and joint research on changes in atmospheric ozone concentrations continue.

Taking measures to prevent the entry of pollutants into water bodies includes the establishment of coastal protective strips and water protection zones, the abandonment of toxic chlorine-containing pesticides, and the reduction of discharges from industrial enterprises through the use of closed cycles. Reducing the risk of oil pollution is possible by increasing the reliability of tankers.

To prevent pollution of the Earth's surface, preventive measures are needed - to prevent contamination of the soil with industrial and domestic wastewater, solid household and industrial waste, sanitary cleaning of the soil and the territory of populated areas where such violations have been identified is necessary.

The best solution to the problem of environmental pollution would be waste-free production that does not have wastewater, gas emissions and solid waste. However, waste-free production today and in the foreseeable future is fundamentally impossible; to implement it, it is necessary to create a unified cyclic system of flows of matter and energy for the entire planet. If the loss of matter, at least theoretically, can still be prevented, then environmental problems in the energy sector will still remain. Thermal pollution cannot be avoided in principle, and so-called clean energy sources, such as wind farms, still cause damage to the environment.

So far, the only way to significantly reduce environmental pollution is low-waste technologies. Currently, low-waste industries are being created in which emissions of harmful substances do not exceed maximum permissible concentrations (MPC), and waste does not lead to irreversible changes in nature. Complex processing of raw materials, combination of several industries, and use of solid waste for the production of building materials are used.

New technologies and materials, environmentally friendly fuels, and new energy sources are being created that reduce environmental pollution.

See also SMOG; CHEMISTRY OF HYDROSPHERE; KYOTO PROTOCOL. REDUCE ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION:

Waste-free production Low-waste production Integrated processing of raw materials New technologies and materials

CHEMICAL INDUSTRY AT THE TURN OF THE CENTURIES

(Continuation)

The Russian Congress "Chemical Industry at the Turn of the Century: Results and Prospects" was held in Moscow at the Ministry of Science and Technology of the Russian Federation from September 6 to 8, 1999. We publish some of the abstracts of the reports, mainly concerning the prospects of catalytic and related technologies.

Section; Environmentally friendly and resource-saving chemical technologies and chemical materials of the 21st century

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS OF THE CHEMICAL INDUSTRY AND THEIR SOLUTIONS: BASF EXPERIENCE

DYUMURZIN

(Representative office of BASF in Russia)

The BASF Group of Companies is a chemical concern that successfully operates in more than 170 countries around the world with different political, social and cultural conditions. The company's activities cover areas such as the production of raw materials and energy resources, various chemicals, agricultural products, plastics, dyes, textile auxiliaries, as well as consumer products such as varnishes, paints, information systems and medicines. Our activities are consistent with the concept of sustainable development, which was agreed upon as a joint goal of the world community at the UN conference in 2992 in Rio de Janeiro. Such development is understood as a process that meets the economic, environmental and social needs of today's society, while enabling future generations to achieve their own goals. The company's Responsible Care program involves a range of voluntary measures to continuously improve the environment, safety and health. BASF considers safety, health and environmental protection issues to be of utmost importance and priority, both in existing production facilities and in the development of new products and processes. The company's costs in 1998 related to environmental protection amounted to more than 1.5 billion marks.

Description of work

ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION - the introduction of new, uncharacteristic physical, chemical and biological agents or exceeding their natural level.

The environmental problems of the chemical industry have one very unpleasant quality. As a result of the production of this branch of human economic activity, substances appear or are synthesized that are 100% artificial and are not food for any organism on Earth. They do not enter the food chain, and therefore are not processed naturally. They can either accumulate, be disposed of or processed in the same artificial industrial way. Today, their processing lags significantly behind production and accumulation. And this is the main environmental problem.

History of origin, types

The first enterprises from which the birth of a new chemical industry began were plants for the production of sulfuric acid in 1736 in Great Britain and in 1766 in France, and continued with soda ash. In the mid-19th century, the chemical industry began to produce artificial mineral fertilizers for agriculture, plastics, synthetic rubber and artificial fibers.

The chemical industry has its own sub-sectors: inorganic and organic chemistry, ceramics, petroleum and agricultural chemistry, polymers, elastomers, explosives, pharmaceutical chemistry and perfumes. The main products it produces are: ammonia, acids and alkalis, mineral fertilizers, soda, chlorine, alcohols, hydrocarbons, dyes, resins, plastics, synthetic fibers, household chemicals and much more.

The largest chemical companies in the world: BASF AG (Germany), BayerAG (Germany), ShellChemicals (Holland and Great Britain), INEOS (UK) and DowChemicals (USA).

Sources of pollution

Problems of the chemical industry related to the environment not only in manufactured products, but also in waste and harmful emissions arising in the process and as a result of production.

These substances are secondary or by-products, but independent and possibly the main sources of environmental pollution.

Emissions and waste from chemical production are mainly mixtures and therefore their high-quality cleaning or disposal is difficult. These are carbon dioxide, nitrogen and sulfur oxides, phenols, alcohols, ethers, fluorides, ammonia, petroleum gases and other dangerous and toxic substances. In addition, the chemical industry produces toxic substances themselves. Not only for agricultural needs, but also for the armed forces, the storage and disposal of which requires a special regime.

Chemical production technology requires increased water consumption. It is used here for various needs, but after use it is not sufficiently purified and ends up back into rivers and reservoirs in the form of waste.

The introduction of mineral fertilizers and plant protection substances during agricultural work in itself negatively affects the composition, structure and connections of the biosystem that has developed in a given territory. Some species of flora and fauna are suppressed and, at the same time, the growth and reproduction of others, often unusual for it, is stimulated. Some of the residues of toxic substances penetrate deep into the soil and negatively affect the deeper layers of the earth and groundwater. The other part, with melted snow and precipitation, is washed off from the surface of the plowed land and ends up in rivers and reservoirs, where it affects the soils and flora of other regions.

Industry of Russia

In Russia, the environmental problems of the chemical industry are similar. The formation of the industry began in 1805 with the first factories for the production of sulfuric acid. Nowadays the industry is extremely developed and is represented in almost all areas existing in the world. The largest enterprises in this industry in Russia are: in petrochemicals - Sibur Holding (Moscow), Salavatnefteorgsintez (Salavat, Bashkortostan), in the production of synthetic rubbers - Nizhnekamskneftekhim (Nizhnekamsk, Tatarstan), fertilizers - Eurochem (Moscow) and others. The leading position in the industry is occupied by enterprises using hydrocarbons as raw materials. And this is completely natural.

The area of ​​pollution from petrochemical production can be up to 20 km from the source of emissions. The volume of emissions depends primarily on the capacity of the technological equipment and its quality, as well as on water treatment systems, exhaust gases and waste disposal systems.

Video - Impact of the chemical industry on the environment

The “human-environment” system is in a state of dynamic equilibrium, in which an ecologically balanced state of the natural environment is maintained, in which living organisms, including humans, interact with each other and the abiotic (non-living) environment surrounding them without disturbing this balance.

In the era of scientific and technological revolution, the increasing role of science in the life of society often leads to all sorts of negative consequences of the use of scientific achievements in military affairs (chemical weapons, atomic weapons), industry (some designs of nuclear reactors), energy (lowland hydroelectric power stations), agriculture (salinization soil, poisoning of river runoff), healthcare (production of untested drugs) and other areas of the national economy. A violation of the equilibrium state between a person and his environment can already have global consequences in the form of deterioration of the habitat, destruction of natural ecological systems, and changes in the gene pool of the population. According to WHO, 20-40% of people's health depends on the state of the environment, 20-50% on lifestyle, 15-20% on genetic factors.

Based on the depth of the environmental reaction, they are divided into:

Disturbance, temporary and reversible change in the environment.

Pollution, the accumulation of technogenic impurities (substances, energy, phenomena) coming from outside or generated by the environment itself as a result of anthropogenic impact.

Anomalies, stable but local quantitative deviations of the environment from the state of equilibrium. With prolonged anthropogenic impact, the following may occur:

Environmental crisis, a state in which its parameters approach the permissible limits of deviations.

Destruction of the environment, a condition in which it becomes unsuitable for human habitation or use as a source of natural resources.

To prevent such a harmful effect of the anthropogenic factor, the concept of maximum permissible concentrations of substances (maximum permissible concentrations of substances) was introduced - a concentration of substances that does not have a direct or indirect effect on a person, does not reduce performance, and does not affect health and mood.

Maximum concentrations of some pollutants in the air of the working area

To assess toxicity, the properties of the substance (solubility in water, volatility, pH, temperature and other constants) and the properties of the environment where it has entered (climatic characteristics, properties of the reservoir and soil) are determined.

Monitoring - observation (tracking) of the state of the environment in order to detect changes in this state, their dynamics, speed and direction. The summary data obtained as a result of long-term observations and numerous analyzes makes it possible to predict the environmental situation for a number of years in advance and take measures to eliminate adverse impacts and phenomena. This work is professionally carried out by special organizations - biosphere reserves, sanitary and epidemiological stations, environmental hospitals, etc.

Air sampling.

The air biosample may be relatively small;

In laboratory conditions, a biosample is formed from air in a liquid state;

The biological sample is taken using a collecting device: a sampling aspirator, a Rychter absorption device with an absorption solution. The shelf life of the samples taken is no more than 2 days;

In a confined space, an air sample is taken in the center of the room, at a height of 0.75 and 1.5 m from the floor

Water sampling.

Samples are taken using pipettes, burettes, and volumetric flasks (demonstration to students).

A liquid sample is taken from a closed volume after it has been thoroughly mixed.

A biological sample of a homogeneous liquid is taken from the flow at certain time intervals and in different places.

To obtain reliable results, biosamples of natural water must be analyzed within 1-2 hours after collection.

To take biosamples at different depths, special sampling devices are used - bathometers, the main part of which is a cylindrical vessel with a capacity of 1-3 liters, equipped with lids at the top and bottom. After immersion in the liquid to a given depth, the cylinder lids are closed, and the sample vessel is raised to the surface.

Sampling of solid matter.

A biosample of solid substances must be representative of the material being tested (contain the maximum possible diversity in the composition of the test material; for example, to control the quality of tablets, it is advisable to analyze not a single tablet, but to mix a certain amount of them and take a sample from this mixture corresponding to the average weight of one tablet ).

When taking samples, they strive for the greatest possible homogenization of the material, achieved mechanically (grinding, crushing).

Biosamples from solid biosubstrates are converted into a liquid-phase biosample.

For this purpose, special technological techniques are used: preparation of solutions, suspensions, colloids, pastes and other liquid media.

Preparation of aqueous soil extract.

Procedure: Grind the soil sample thoroughly in a mortar. Take 25 g of soil, transfer it to a 200 ml flask and add 50 ml of distilled water. Shake the contents of the flask thoroughly and let it sit for 5-10 minutes, and then, after briefly shaking, filter into a 100 ml flask through a dense filter. If the filtrate is cloudy, repeat filtration through the same filter until a clear filtrate is obtained.

Determination of indicators characterizing the organoleptic properties of water.

Organoleptic properties are standardized according to the intensity of their perception by humans. These are smell, taste, color, transparency, turbidity, temperature, impurities (film, aquatic organisms).

Experiment No. 1. Determination of water transparency.

Reagents: 3 water samples (from different areas of Penza).

Equipment: 3 measuring cylinders, plastic plate, marker.

Progress. Pour different water samples into a measuring cylinder. Place a white plastic plate with a black permanent cross on it at the bottom of each cylinder. Shake the water before measuring. Transparency, depending on the amount of suspended particles, is determined by the height of the water column in the cylinder (in cm), through which the contour of the cross is visible.

Determination of the smell of water.

Natural odors of water are associated with the vital activity of plants and animals or the rotting of their remains; artificial odors with the ingress of industrial or waste water.

There are aromatic, swampy, putrefactive, woody, earthy, moldy, fishy, ​​hydrogen sulfide, grassy and vague odors.

The strength of the odor is determined using a 5-point system:

score - no odor or very weak (usually not noticeable).

score - weak (discovered if you pay attention to it).

point - noticeable (easily noticed and can cause disapproving comments about the water).

point - distinct (capable of causing abstinence from drinking).

points - very strong (so strong that the water is completely undrinkable).

Determination of water color.

Color is a natural property of water due to the presence of humic substances, which give it a yellowish to brown color. Humic substances are formed during the destruction of organic compounds in the soil, are washed out of it and enter open water bodies. Therefore, color is characteristic of the water of open reservoirs and increases sharply during the flood period.

Reagents: water samples, distilled water.

Equipment: 4 beakers, a sheet of white paper.

Work progress: Determination is carried out by comparing it with distilled water. To do this, take 4 identical beakers and fill them with water - one distilled, the other - the test one. Against the background of a sheet of white paper, compare the observed color: colorless, light brown, yellowish.

Determination of indicators characterizing the chemical composition and properties of water.

Indicators such as dry residue, total hardness, pH, alkalinity, content of cations and anions: Ca 2+, Na +, HCO 3 -, Cl -, Mg 2+ characterize the natural composition of water.

Determination of water density.

Determination of pH (hydrogen value).

The pH value is affected by the content of carbonates, hydroxides, salts susceptible to hydrolysis, humic substances, etc. This indicator is an indicator of pollution of open reservoirs when acidic or alkaline wastewater is released into them. As a result of chemical and biological processes occurring in water and loss of carbon dioxide, the pH of the water can change rapidly, and this indicator should be determined immediately after sampling, preferably at the sampling site.

Detection of organic substances.

Procedure: Take 2 test tubes, pour 5 ml of distilled water into one of them, and into the other - the test tube. Add a drop of 5% potassium permanganate solution to each test tube.

Experiment No. 7. Detection of chloride ions.

The high solubility of chlorides explains their widespread distribution in all natural waters. In flowing water bodies, the chloride content is usually low (20-30 mg/l). Uncontaminated groundwater in areas with non-saline soil usually contains up to 30-50 mg/l of chlorion. In water filtered through saline soil, 1 liter can contain hundreds and even thousands of milligrams of chlorides. Water containing chlorides in a concentration of more than 350 mg/l has a salty taste, and at a chloride concentration of 500-1000 mg/l it has an adverse effect on gastric secretion. The chloride content is an indicator of contamination of underground and surface water sources and wastewater.

The chemical industry is a branch of the national economy that produces various types of chemical products for all sectors of industry, agriculture, and consumption. It produces basic chemical products - ammonia, inorganic acids, alkalis, mineral fertilizers, soda, chlorine and chlorine products, liquefied gases; products of organic synthesis - acids, alcohols, ethers, organoelement compounds, hydrocarbons, organic intermediates, dyes; synthetic materials - resins, plastics, chemical and synthetic fibers, chemical reagents, household chemicals, etc. Oil refining and petrochemical production occupy an important place in the industry. The main emissions from chemical plants are gases, vapors and dust of chemical compounds. Depending on the state of aggregation of the impurities contained in them, emissions from chemical enterprises are divided into classes: 1st class - gaseous and vaporous (SO2, CO, NO x, H2S, CS2, NH3, hydrocarbons, phenols, etc.); 2nd class – liquid (acids, alkalis, salt solutions, solutions of liquid metals and their salts, organic compounds); 3rd class – solid (organic and inorganic dust, soot, resinous substances, lead and its compounds, etc.); 4th grade – mixed (various combinations of classes). Emissions from chemical enterprises most often simultaneously contain several groups of substances, the bulk of which have an adverse effect on the components of the biosphere. Conventionally, these products can be divided into: substances used in the technological process and retaining their chemical properties when released into the environment; adverse reaction products or impurities; products of transformation with a change in initial properties and the appearance of new ones; substances that are mixtures of homogeneous substances. Increased release of ecotoxicants is observed when using high temperatures, thermal-oxidative reactions (pyrolysis), filtration processes, transportation and packaging of bulk materials, when cleaning equipment from residual raw materials, etc. Based on the degree of negative impact on all its components, substances such as CO,NO x, SO2, CO2, SO3 phenols, petroleum gases formed during the refining of oil and petroleum products, aromatic hydrocarbons, alcohols, ethers, halogenated hydrocarbons, ketones, etc., hydrogen sulfide, carbon disulfide, fluorides, ammonia, soot, etc. CO It is obtained from incomplete combustion of carbonaceous substances; it enters the air as a result of the combustion of solid waste, with exhaust gases and emissions from industrial enterprises. CO2 is a compound that actively reacts with components of the atmosphere, contributes to an increase in temperature on the planet and the creation of a greenhouse effect. SO2 is released during the combustion of sulfur-containing fuel or processing of sulfur ores, in non-ferrous and ferrous metallurgy, during chemical processes for the production of sulfuric acid, sulfites, production of fertilizers, cellulose, refining of petroleum products, etc. Some sulfur compounds are released during the combustion of organic residues of mining dumps. SO2 is poisonous and irritates the mucous membranes of the eyes and respiratory tract. Long-term inhalation of it, even in small quantities, leads to the development of chronic lung diseases. While in the air, it oxidizes to SO3 and, when combined with atmospheric moisture, forms sulfuric acid, which in the form of acid rain harms vegetation, especially coniferous forests, acidifies soil and water, accelerates the corrosion process of metals, and destroys building structures. SO3 formed during the oxidation of SO2. The final product of the reaction is an aerosol or solution of sulfuric acid in rainwater, which acidifies the soil and aggravates diseases of the human respiratory tract. The fallout of sulfuric acid aerosol from smoke flares of chemical plants is observed under low cloudiness and high air humidity. H2S and CS2. They enter the atmosphere separately or together with other sulfur compounds. The main sources of emissions are enterprises producing artificial fiber, sugar, coke plants, oil refineries, and oil fields. In the atmosphere, when interacting with other pollutants, they undergo slow oxidation to SO3. NO x. The main sources of emissions are enterprises producing nitrogen fertilizers, nitric acid and nitrates, aniline dyes, nitro compounds, viscose silk, and celluloid. NO x they themselves are very toxic and participate in chemical reactions in the formation of smog. NO x contribute to the formation of acid rain, which significantly affects the litho and hydrosphere. Excessive amounts of nitrogen compounds destroy the soil structure, reduce fertility, cause mineral imbalance in plants, and increase the content of nitrites and nitrates in crop and livestock products. The bulk of nitrogen oxides is formed during the combustion of all types of fossil fuels as a result of the oxidation of nitrogen at high temperatures in the furnaces of boilers and furnaces. Another source of NO intake x into the atmosphere are internal combustion engines. Fluorine compounds. Sources of pollution are enterprises producing aluminum, enamels, glass, ceramics, steel, and phosphate fertilizers. Fluorine-containing substances enter the atmosphere in the form of gaseous compounds - hydrogen fluoride or sodium and calcium fluoride dust. The compounds are characterized by a toxic effect and are strong insecticides. Chlorine compounds. They come into the atmosphere from chemical plants producing hydrochloric acid, chlorine-containing pesticides, organic dyes, hydrolytic alcohol, bleach, and soda. In the atmosphere they are found as impurities of chlorine molecules and hydrochloric acid vapors. The toxicity of chlorine is determined by the nature of the compounds and their concentration. Particularly hazardous substances originating from the chemical industry include persistent organic pollutants (POPs: pesticides - aldrin, chlordane, dieldrin, endrin, heptachlor, mirex, toxaphene and DDT; hexachlorobenzene; polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) - compounds used as components of electrical fluids, as well as those formed as by-products in some chemical industries; polychlorinated dibenzodioxins and dibenzofurans are compounds that are formed as by-products in some chemical industries, as well as in high-temperature processes or processes involving the use of chlorine (for example, during combustion household waste containing chlorinated polymers, when bleaching paper and chlorinating water, etc.)), which have a direct toxic effect on all components of the biosphere, is extremely slow destruction in the environment and the ability to accumulate in food chains.

Petrochemical synthesis – the main technological process of the petrochemical industry, including processes such as pyrolysis (splitting of oil and gas hydrocarbon molecules at a temperature of 630–700 ° C and high atmospheric pressure), hydration (water is added to the olefin molecule by heating the feedstock under a pressure of 70 atm) , dehydrogenation (removal of hydrogen from hydrocarbons at temperatures up to 600 °C), alkylation, polymerization, etc.). Many processes occur in the presence of catalysts (oxides of chromium, nickel, cobalt, etc.). Pollution of the environment with various chemicals is the main unfavorable factor in oil refining. For example: the production of synthetic ethyl alcohol by direct hydration of ethylene is a source of unsaturated hydrocarbons, ammonia vapor, ethyl alcohol; acetylene production is a source of hydrocarbons, hydrocyanic acid, dimethylamine and formic acid, dimethylformamide; production of synthetic phenol and acetone is a source of phenol, acetone, benzene, olefinic hydrocarbons, acetonephenol, isopropylbenzene, etc. The main causes of environmental pollution by petrochemical production are: insufficient tightness of communications, gland seals of pumps, leaks in flange connections, frequency of processes and manual operations , devices operating under excess pressure with heating of the raw materials used, unsatisfactory layout of buildings, low efficiency of cleaning agents. Oil refining methods are divided into primary and secondary. Primary methods are physical methods for separating oil, based on different boiling temperature ranges of its individual fractions - direct distillation. Secondary - chemical methods that involve the complete transformation of petroleum feedstock as a result of deep structural transformations of hydrocarbons under the influence of elevated temperatures and pressure using catalysts. These are various types of cracking and reforming of petroleum products.

The air pollution zone of powerful oil refineries extends over a distance of 20 kilometers or more. The amount of harmful substances released is determined by the capacity of the refinery and is: hydrocarbons – 1.5–2.8; hydrogen sulfide 0.0025–0.0035 per 1% sulfur in oil; carbon monoxide 30–40% of the mass of fuel burned; sulfur dioxide – 200% of the mass of sulfur in the burned fuel.

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