Violation of water-salt metabolism biochemistry. Water-salt metabolism
Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation
Ministry of Education and Youth Policy of the Stavropol Territory
State budgetary educational institution
Higher professional education
"Stavropol State Pedagogical Institute"
Faculty of History and Philology
Department of Theory and Methods of Teaching Historical and Philological Disciplines
Course work
Methodology for organizing project activities in history and social studies
4th year student of the IF4I group
Dubinina A.V.
Scientific adviser:
Candidate of History, Science, Senior Lecturer, Department of Theory and Methodology of Teaching Historical and Philological Disciplines
Klopikhina Vasilina Sergeevna
Stavropol, 2014
Introduction
Conclusion
Bibliography
Introduction
Relevance.The modern educational process is unthinkable without the search for new, more effective technologies designed to promote the development of students’ creative abilities, the formation of self-development and self-education skills. These requirements are fully met by project activities in history and social studies in the educational process. The inclusion of the project method in the educational process was associated with a number of difficulties. Some teachers are wary of the innovation. After all, not every teacher is capable of becoming a truly scientific leader of a group of schoolchildren working on projects. This requires a highly qualified teacher, a sufficient level of knowledge of the subject being taught, and a willingness to invest additional time. The implementation of creative projects provides a system of effective feedback, contributes to the development of the personality of not only students, but also teachers taking part in project activities. Provides them with new opportunities to improve professional skills, further deepen pedagogical cooperation, which ultimately helps to optimize the educational process and increases the effectiveness of learning. Project activities interest students if they know that their project will be in demand. By choosing the topic of a project and completing it, schoolchildren learn to identify the needs of applying their strengths, find opportunities to demonstrate their initiative, abilities, knowledge and skills, test themselves in real work, show determination and perseverance. Object of study__
is the process of teaching history and social studies to high school students based on project activities Subject of study__
practice of applying the method of project activities in history and social studies. Purpose of the course work__study the methodology of project activities for high school students. Work hypothesis__If the method of project activities is used in the process of teaching history and social studies, then the creative abilities of students in the field of project activities in history and social studies will develop. Coursework objectives: .
Analyze the principles of project-based learning technology. Explore the classification of projects in history and social studies. Reveal the algorithm of activities of teachers and students in project-based learning technology. Explore the organization of project activities. The methodology for organizing project activities in history and social studies for high school students is a fairly studied topic; even at the Roman Academy of Arts, works were created that were called progetti, that is, projects. Their fundamental features were: focus on students (since their work was independent); orientation to reality (since the subject of the work was practical problems); orientation towards the final product (as a plan, sketch, model were developed). Student developments were not usually implemented, so it can be considered that this was the first understanding of the project in a pedagogical context. The project method, born as a result of practical needs in the higher education system in technical disciplines, was transferred to the school. The design method developed as a controversial phenomenon. One of its types was based on the development of theoretical knowledge and research skills (the place of work on the project was the drawing room and laboratory, and the method itself ended with technical drawings, data summaries, calculations, analyses; importance was attached to the educational value of the project; professors influenced its success). T.M. Matveeva, E.A. Mishchenko, S.E. Shishov says that the first method of organizing project activities in history and social studies was used in 1908 by D. Snedzen, the head of the education department of agricultural schools in the USA. At the beginning of the 19th century, the lifestyle of farmers did not allow their children to attend school regularly, as they were involved in agricultural work in the spring and autumn. American educators believed that practical training was the basis of training future farmers. Students received a number of tasks at school to complete at home, which bore the general name “home project.” This is how a methodology for organizing project activities in history and social studies arose. In 1911, the US Bureau of Education legalized project activities. The project method began to be developed in 1919 in the city of Dalton, it is also known as the Dalton Plan. Its main feature is the creation of a personal curriculum and individual organization of educational material for each student. The child could move at a comfortable pace, cooperating with other students at the right moments and turning to the teacher for advice. At certain intervals he reported and “defended” his project. Within the framework of the Dalton Plan, the goal of education remained the acquisition of a body of knowledge without taking into account the immediate need of the child. Most of the authors A.N. Brenchugina-Romanova, E.S. Polat, V. Rokhlov, L.O. Filatova and others believe that the theory and practice of project activities in history and social science began to actively develop in the late 19th - early 20th centuries. In their opinion, the project method originated in the second half of the 19th century in US agricultural schools and was based on the theoretical concepts of “pragmatic pedagogy”, In the pedagogical encyclopedia, by I.A. Kolesnikova, M.P. Gorchakova-Sibirskaya and B. Valyasek believe that the method of organizing project activities in history and social studies was introduced into a broad pedagogical context by the follower of John Dewey W.H. Kilpatrick (1871-1965), who defined it as a wholeheartedly carried out purposeful activity, carried out in certain social conditions, taken as a typical feature of school life. V.Kh. Kilpatrick defined a school program as a series of experiences interconnected in such a way that the information acquired from one experience serves to develop and enrich a whole stream of other experiences. Only activities that are connected with the surrounding reality and are based on current interests can have this property. And this is only possible if the curriculum is not common to all schools, but individual, developed in the joint work of teacher and student.V. H Kilpatrick identified three main components of the new pedagogical system: educational material arising from the nature and interests of students; expedient activity; learning as a continuous restructuring of life and its rise to the highest levels. In fact, the project method at this stage represented learning through the organization of “target acts” that allowed students to navigate specific situations. The purpose of the training was to equip students with methods of problem solving, searching, and research. According to Kilpatrick, the teacher should aim to support and use children's inherent love of developing plans. The connection of acquired knowledge with a new goal is one of the most fruitful sources of new interests, especially interests of an intellectual nature. It is in this aspect that the term “project” was used. A project (according to V. Kilpatrick) is any activity performed “with all the heart”, with a high degree of independence, by a group of children united at the moment by a common interest. V. Kilpatrick identified four types of projects: Translating thoughts into external form. II. Receiving aesthetic pleasure. III. Solving a problem, solving a mental difficulty, a problem. IV. Obtaining new data, increasing the degree of knowledge and talent. According to V. Kilpatrick, a project can be staging a play in a school theater (type I project), examining and discussing a picture (type II project), mastering an activity, for example, writing at the high school level (type IV project). Thus, all student interests are reflected in a variety of projects. In Russia, almost in parallel with the developments of American teachers. Under the leadership of S.T. Shatsky in 1905 organized a small group of employees who tried to actively use various types of design in the practice of working with children. At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. In the domestic methodology for organizing project activities in history and social studies for high school students, a new approach is being formed, according to which the student in his work must proceed from the fact of his perception. Observations and experimentation constitute the main and obligatory feature of project activities. In search of the most suitable name, teachers used such definitions as practical (V.A. Gerd), experimental-research (A.P. Pinkevich), research (B.E. Raikov), experimental-indicative, laboratory method (K.P. Yagodovsky). After the translation in Russia in 1925 of the book by V.Kh. Kilpatrick, educational project activities in history and social studies for high school students have become widespread as a specific form of pedagogical activity. In the literature there is no single point of view on who is the author of the methodology for organizing project activities in history and social studies in Russian schools. V.A. Kalney, T.M. Matveeva, E.A. Mishchenko, S.E. Shishov, V. Rokhlov believe that the founder is S.T. Shatsky. He included in the methodology for organizing project activities in history and social studies the “adaptation” of the student to the material (choosing the appropriate material for a particular purpose) and to the instrument (the ability to use instruments). G.V. Narykov is named by P.P. as one of the founders of the project-based teaching method. Blonsky. The scientist attached social meaning to learning with the implementation of this method. It is in project-based learning that the teacher becomes not the main source of knowledge, but a consultant, assistant, “companion” of students in their creative transformative activities., B.V. Ignatiev. After the revolution, the methodology for organizing project activities in history and social studies in Russia was used in schools by personal order of N.K. Krupskaya. In 1930, the People's Commissariat of Education approved programs for elementary schools and for FES schools, which recommended using the methodology for organizing project activities in history and social studies, and replacing school classes with units and teams. The project method was then also called the problem method. The authors proposed building training on the basis of the student’s purposeful activities, in accordance with his personal interests. Initially, it was assumed that it was very important to arouse students' personal interest in acquiring specific knowledge that could be useful to them in life. The problem, for the solution of which it was necessary to apply knowledge or acquire new ones, was taken from real life and was significant for the student. Independent work to resolve the problem, obtaining a specific result and presenting it publicly were in the nature of project activities. Students were given only knowledge that could find practical application in their lives. T.A. Novikova says that in the USSR in the first years of Soviet power, the methodology for organizing project activities in history and social studies was partially used in the practice of experimental and some private schools, but was condemned in the decree of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks dated September 5, 1931 “On primary and secondary school" since it did not give students the opportunity to master a system of knowledge in the field of specific training courses. However, in Soviet times, as part of extracurricular socially useful activities, sometimes events were carried out that essentially represented the implementation of projects. And only in the 80s, the project method again came into the pedagogical practice of our country from abroad along with the technology of computer telecommunications. project-based learning high school student history Chapter 1. Conceptual basis for organizing project activities for high school students
1.1 Principles of project-based learning technology
In modern schools, the task of updating the content of education, understood not only as a certain amount of information, but also as the activities of schoolchildren and their attitude to the material being studied, has become urgent. In these conditions, it is necessary to understand the meaning of the work, determine its goals and objectives, and look for ways to solve them. All these components are included in the content of project activity and fundamentally distinguish it from classical methods. In the process of working on a project, students must set a goal themselves, determine ways to achieve it, find, summarize and analyze the necessary information, and draw conclusions. The result should be the acquisition of complete knowledge on the subject and mastery of certain research knowledge. The technology of project-based learning is considered in the system of personality-oriented education and contributes to the development of such personal qualities of schoolchildren as independence, initiative, the ability to be creative, allows them to recognize their pressing interests and needs and is a technology designed for the consistent implementation of educational projects. The concept of “project” in a broad sense is everything that is conceived or planned. Translated from Latin, “project” means “thrown forward”, i.e. idea in the form of a prototype of objects. When implementing project technology, a specific product is created, often the result of joint work and reflection of students, which brings them satisfaction, due to the fact that schoolchildren, as a result of working on the project, experienced a situation of success and self-realization. Project technology, acquiring the features of a cultural and historical phenomenon, creates conditions for value rethinking, dialogue, when mastering the content of school education, application and acquisition of new knowledge and methods of action. This technology, used in domestic schools, is not fundamentally new in world pedagogy. It arose in the 20s. XX century in USA. Project technology was called the method of problems, the method of projects and was associated with the ideas of the humanistic direction in education. The main ideas of this technology were developed by J. Dewey and his student W. Keel-Patrick. These scientists believed that learning should be focused on students' purposeful activities consistent with their personal interests. In their opinion, the main didactic unit of the educational process is a problem taken from real life and personally significant for students. They must independently or jointly in a group solve it, applying the necessary experience, sometimes from different fields of science, and get a really tangible result. The whole problem and ways to solve it, thus, acquire the contours of project activity. In our country, the ideas of project-based learning are associated with the name of the outstanding Russian teacher P.F. Kapterev, who believed that project-based learning is aimed at comprehensive exercise of the mind and development of thinking. Subsequently, project-based learning in Russia developed in parallel with the developments of American scientists and is associated with the names of P.P. Blonsky, A.S. Makarenko, S.T. Shatsky, V.N. Shulgina. However, due to the fact that this technology began to be introduced into schools insufficiently thoughtfully and consistently, in the 30s. XX century began to be viewed as “non-pedagogical”. Only recently, due to changes in modern education, has there been renewed interest in this technology. The goal of project technology is for schoolchildren to independently “comprehend” various problems that have vital meaning for students. This technology involves students “living” a certain period of time in the educational process, as well as their involvement in a fragment of the formation of a scientific understanding of the world around them, the construction of material or other objects. The materialized product of design is an educational project, which is defined as a detailed solution to a problem independently adopted by students. In a project, along with the scientific (cognitive) side of the solution, there is always an emotional-value (personal) and creative side. It is the emotional-value and creative components of the content that determine how significant the project is for students and how independently it is completed. The main thesis of the modern understanding of project-based learning technology sounds like this: “everything I learn, I know, why I need it and where and how I can apply this content.” As emphasized above, this technology is always focused on independent activities of students - individual or group, which students perform for a certain period of time, and involves a set of problem-based teaching methods that are creative in nature. This technology is built taking into account the principles of humanization, communication, individualization, activity-based, value-based approaches, focused not only on the formation of knowledge and skills in students, but on the self-realization of their personality. The most significant features of project-based learning are its dialogical nature, problematic nature, integrative nature, and contextuality. Dialogicity allows students, in the process of completing a project, to enter into dialogue both with their own self and with others. It is in dialogue that the “free self-revelation of the individual” takes place (M.M. Bakhtin). Dialogue in project technology performs the function of a specific sociocultural environment that creates the conditions for schoolchildren to accept new experiences and rethink previous meanings, as a result of which the information received becomes personally significant. Problematicism arises when resolving a problematic situation, which determines the beginning of active mental activity, manifestations of independence in students, due to the fact that they discover a contradiction between the content known to them and the inability to explain new facts and phenomena. Solving a problem often leads to original, non-standard methods of action and results. Contextuality in design technology allows you to create projects that are close to the natural life activities of students, to understand the place of the science they are studying in the general system of human existence, In the context of what universal cultural activity should schoolchildren's educational projects be carried out? The main areas of human activity developed by M.S. can be taken as a basis. Kagan: practical-transformational, scientific-cognitive, value-orientation, communicative, artistic-aesthetic. Educational projects in the context of practical and transformative activities can be modeling, technical and applied, experimental and measuring, etc. Such projects are most typical for the subjects of physics, chemistry, mathematics, and technology. Educational projects that simulate scientific and educational activities are based on real and mental experiments and allow students to imagine the process of scientific research in any school subject. Educational projects with elements of value-oriented activities are related to the fundamental values of humanity: problems of environmental conservation, issues related to demographic problems, energy problems, problems of food supply and are discussed in lessons of geography, history, biology and social studies. Educational problems related to human communicative needs include problems of communication, computer science, energy and information transfer and are discussed in computer science, physics, etc. lessons. Integrative design technology “means the optimal synthesis of existing concepts of knowledge acquisition and theories of schoolchildren’s learning.” Any project is closely related to the activities for its implementation. Moreover, the activity is carried out in conditions of free exchange of opinions, choice of methods of implementation (in the form of an essay, report, graphic diagrams, etc.), and a reflective attitude towards the subject of one’s activity. The construction of an educational process focused on students completing projects is built not in the logic of the subject being studied, but in the logic of the students’ activities. Hence, informational pauses are allowed in the project cycle to assimilate the content of new material; projects are expected to be completed at an individual pace in the form of advanced independent tasks of a research and practical nature under the guidance of a teacher based on the students’ own choice. The choice in project technology is carried out at various stages and can be external: the choice of the project itself, the choice of the type of task, role, partners in the activity, the choice of material and the form of its presentation in the project, the choice of the method of performing the work, the choice of supports. The internal choice of students is determined by the needs, abilities of the student, his values, subjective experience, emotional mood and relationships with other students. So, in the process of updating education, the task of a person-oriented approach to the student’s implementation of a project becomes important, during which the student acquires new knowledge as well as research skills; as a result of the project, the student receives not only a solution to the problem but also personal self-realization. And it solves the essential features of project-based learning: dialogical, problematic, integrative, contextual. 1.2 Classification of projects in history and social studies
In modern science, they distinguish between technical design (development and implementation of projects for previously known goals) and humanitarian design (problematic organization of thinking and activity). The most complete classification of projects in domestic pedagogy is the classification proposed in the textbook by E.S. Polat, M.Yu. Bukharkina. It can be applied to projects used in teaching any academic discipline. And Classification of educational projects according to Collings: Game projects are children's activities whose immediate purpose is participation in group activities. Excursion projects are an expedient study of problems related to the surrounding nature and social life. Narrative projects are those in which children developed with the goal of “getting pleasure from the story in the most diverse form” - oral, written, vocal, artistic, musical. Constructive projects - aimed at creating a specific, useful product. I.S. Sergeev proposes a classification of projects according to the dominant activity of students. This classification includes: A practice-oriented project is aimed at solving social problems that reflect the interests of project participants or an external customer. A research project is similar in structure to a scientific study. This is the activity of students to solve a creative, research problem with a previously unknown solution, which assumes the presence of the main stages characteristic of scientific research: Information project - aimed at collecting information about any object or phenomenon for the purpose of analyzing, summarizing and presenting information to the audience. A creative project involves the most free and unconventional approach to its implementation and presentation of the results. Role-playing project. The structure in such projects is only outlined and remains open until the work is completed. Participants take on specific roles determined by the nature and content of the project. These can be literary characters or fictional heroes. Social or business relationships are imitated and complicated by hypothetical game situations. The results of the work are outlined at the beginning of their implementation, but only fully emerge at the very end. High degree of creativity. In practice, it is usually impossible to see this or that project in its pure form; one can only talk about the dominant focus of the activities of the participants in a particular project. In teaching practice, as a rule, group and personal educational projects are used. Their features should be noted in terms of advantages. Benefits of group projects: Project team members develop collaboration skills; The project can be carried out in depth and in many ways; Each stage of work on a project, as a rule, has its own situational leader and, conversely, each student, depending on his strengths, is most actively involved in a certain stage of work; Within the project group, subgroups can be formed that propose different ways to solve the problem, ideas, hypotheses, points of view; this competitive moment, as a rule, increases the motivation of the participants and has a positive effect on the quality of the project. Advantages of personal projects: The work plan can be built with maximum accuracy; The student develops a full sense of responsibility, since the completion of the project depends only on him; The student gains experience at all stages of the project - from the inception of the idea to the final reflection; The formation of the most important general educational skills (research, presentation, evaluation) turns out to be a controlled process. Studying the literature on this issue, one can notice that both in the theory and practice of education, the distinctive features of the traditional approach and the project approach have been determined: the so-called “knowledge-based”, on the one hand, and “ability-based”, on the other. “Knowledge-based” is built on traditional foundations: a classroom-based teaching system, the predominant illustrative and explanatory teaching method, a frontal form of organizing the educational space, control and questioning of the reproductive type and other similar characteristics. The goal of this approach is the formation of knowledge, skills and abilities. The leading type of activity is reproducing. “Ability” focuses on the personality of the student. One of the indicators of personality development is students’ mastery of such mental operations as: synthesis, comparison, generalization, classification, induction, deduction, abstraction. But the most significant is the emergence of a need, interest, and motive for personal growth, changing oneself, developing the emotional-imaginative sphere, and gaining experience in emotional-value relationships. The project method in didactics is understood as a set of educational and cognitive techniques that allow students to acquire knowledge and skills in the process of planning and independently performing certain practical tasks with the obligatory presentation of the results. Based on the predominant method or type of activity, applied, research, information, role-playing projects are distinguished. Applied projects are distinguished by the following features: a clearly defined result of the activity; careful consideration of the project structure; clear distribution of functions between participants; registration of activity results with their subsequent presentation and review; Research projects involve: students’ activities in solving creative problems with a previously unknown result; the presence of stages characteristic of any scientific work. Information projects are aimed at studying the characteristics of processes, phenomena, objects and involve analysis and generalization of identified facts. The structure of an information project is similar to the structure of a research project, which often serves as the basis for their integration. The structure of role-playing game projects is just being outlined. They are characterized by: constructing a hypothetical game situation; performing certain roles that simulate business, social and other relationships; the result remains unknown until the end of the work. Role-playing projects allow participants to gain certain social experience. In accordance with the subject area, mono-projects and interdisciplinary projects are distinguished. By the nature of contacts, projects can be local, intra-school, regional, national, international; by the number of performers - individual and collective; by duration - short-term, medium-term and long-term. In real practice, integration of various types of projects most often occurs, which is due to specific goals and objectives. Thus, project-based learning is a useful alternative to the classroom system, but it should not replace it. In the structure of the main educational program, the Program of research and project activities, which “should be aimed at students mastering a set of educational and cognitive techniques and practical actions to solve personally and socially significant problems and find ways to resolve problematic issues through independent actions.” Independent “finding ways to resolve problematic issues” is ensured by project competence, which means that the student can, if motivated, organize his own activities to solve the problem that has arisen. Project competence consists of: · knowledge of design technology, · project skills and · experience in project activities When developing project competence, readiness for project activities is formed. Project activity always arises only where a specific problem is identified and formulated." - E.S. Polat. Thus, to solve the tasks set in the Federal State Educational Standard it is necessary:
student’s readiness for project activities, a real motivating problem for activity, a clearly drawn up program of design and research activities to solve the formulated problems. The teacher’s readiness for students’ project and research activities means: · teacher's design and research competence · Teacher's proficiency in the method of educational projects and research teacher's ability to apply instructional design and inquiry in various organizational forms · knowledge of the possibilities of instructional design and research for solving various educational problems Forms of educational design in the educational process. The research and design activity program must contain:
· goals, objectives and main directions of research and project activities of students at the level of basic general education, description of the principles of the project-problem model of learning; · planned results of students’ research and project activities; · forms of organizing research and project work of students; · methodology and tools for monitoring students’ performance of research and design work, · criteria for their evaluation and presentation of final results. Student's educational trajectory -a chain of educational projects and research must have the following properties: · the relevance of the problems and tasks of projects and research to the age of the student; . level: · Formation of general educational skills for project activities of the 1st level of complexity · Formation of elements of project activity of the 1st level of complexity · Short-term projects with simple group interactions and individual ones · Students’ use of project activities to organize their learning 2nd level:
· Formation of subject skills as universal · Element-by-element formation of level 2 project activities · Group short-term and medium-term projects level 2 · Application of design in self-learning, self-organization of group work in the school environment, life self-determination 3. level: · Development of elements of level 3 project activities · Participation in complex level 3 group projects with an assessment of the social significance of the project as a whole and one’s own contribution · Independent design of solutions to personal problems and tasks Methodological justification · To draw up a correct chain of projects and research, it is necessary to draw up a methodological description of each project and research using a methodological passport. · Sequences of student projects and research fit consistently into the programs of in-class and extracurricular activities with subject and extra-curricular content. · The program of project and research activities of the Main Educational Program for the Federal State Educational Standard should reflect the goals and objectives of all chains, both general and individual. The effectiveness of a student’s project-based learning is recorded after each completed project or research by adding to his portfolio signs of informal recording of the student’s personal achievements The milestone assessment of a student’s achievements in project-based learning should record: · progressive development of design competence, · compliance of the results obtained with the objectives set in the project or study, · manifestation of initiative and creativity in solving personal problems and difficulties in the process of independent work, · educational results obtained, · recommendations for solving unsolved educational problems. So in modern science there is a distinction between technical and humanitarian design. In humanitarian design, based on the predominant method or type of activity, applied, research, information, role-playing projects are distinguished. Chapter 2. Practice of organizing project activities at school
2.1 Algorithm for the activities of teachers and students in project-based learning technology
When using the project-based teaching method, the teacher turns into an organizer of activities, a consultant and a colleague in solving problems, obtaining the necessary knowledge and information from various sources. Working on an educational project allows you to build a conflict-free pedagogy, relive the inspiration of creativity together with children again and again, transform the educational process, a process from a boring forced exercise into productive creative work. An educational project from the teacher’s point of view is an integrative didactic means of development, training and education, which allows students to develop and develop specific design and research skills and abilities, namely to teach: Problematization (considering the problem field and identifying sub-problems, formulating the leading problem and setting tasks arising from this problem); Goal setting and planning of meaningful student activities; Self-analysis and reflection on the effectiveness and success of solving the project problem Presentation of the results of your activities and progress of work. Presentations in various forms, using a specially prepared design product (layout, poster, computer presentation, drawing, model, theatricalization, video, audio and stage performance); Searching and selecting relevant information and acquiring the necessary knowledge Practical application of school knowledge in various, including atypical situations; Selecting, mastering and using suitable technology for manufacturing a design product; Conducting research. When using the project method, the teacher carefully prepares for such lessons in advance. These are not "everyday" technologies. At the beginning of the academic year, it is advisable to highlight those topics, questions, sections of the course program on which it would be desirable to conduct a project in order to give students the opportunity to delve into the material more deeply and in detail, to give them the opportunity to independently understand it not at the level of reproduction, but at the level of application given material to solve some significant problem, to acquire new knowledge. Of course, the student’s initiative in choosing a topic is initially limited by the scope of the school course and the capabilities of the teacher, who initially acts as the scientific supervisor of the project. The highest level of projects is provided, as it should be, for high school students. Topics are narrowed down, requiring reference to specialized literature and sources. Choosing a project topic is not the easiest task for a manager. Sometimes a student takes aim at a problem that is clearly beyond his ability. Here it is important not just to reject it, but to do it tactfully, showing the student all the difficulties of the upcoming work and not scaring him away from the study altogether. Often such a refusal is associated with insufficient sources, the search for which involves working in an archive, a museum, or traveling to other cities. It happens that topics simply “lie on the surface,” but the simpler and closer it is, the more difficult it is to see it. This paper provides a number of recommended topics and learning objectives for history projects. The local history themes of the projects are of great interest. Local history provides a young person with the most complete range of original materials, allows him to talk about things that are close and often “tangible”, gives him a chance to find something of his own, to bring his own conclusions to the study of the issue. Preparing, designing and presenting a project is a much more difficult task, both for the teacher and for students, than performing traditional tasks, therefore, in our opinion, it is necessary to have, in addition to the work plan, a diary of project activities, which will help set the sequence of actions. It is necessary to convey to students clear requirements for the design and presentation of the project, and criteria for evaluating the project. The use of the project method in history and social studies lessons, first of all, has the following goal - increasing the practical, skill-building focus of the content. In this case, priority is given to active, interactive, gaming, laboratory methods, research activities, and methods of creative self-expression. The creation of a problem-motivational environment in the classroom is carried out in various forms: conversation, discussion, brainstorming, independent work, organizing a round table, consultation, seminar, laboratory, group work, role-playing games. History as an academic subject is fertile ground for project activities. Teachers often face problems such as lack of reading interest among students, narrow horizons, lack of analysis and generalization skills. Interesting work in groups gives the children the opportunity to get a feel for the subject, gain new knowledge, and the teacher to solve the above problems. Rules for successful project activities 1.There are no leaders in the team. All team members are equal. 2.Teams do not compete. .All team members should enjoy communicating with each other and the fact that they are working together on a project task. .Everyone should enjoy feeling confident. .Everyone must be active and contribute to the common cause. .All team members performing the project task are responsible for the final result. General approaches to project structuring:
.You should always start by choosing the topic of the project, its type, and the number of participants. 2.Next, you need to think through possible options for problems that are important to study within the framework of the intended topic. The problems themselves are put forward by students at the suggestion of the teacher (leading questions, situations that help identify problems, a video series with the same purpose, etc.). A brainstorming session followed by a group discussion is appropriate here. .Distribution of tasks into groups, discussion of possible research methods, information search, creative solutions. .Independent work of project participants on their individual or group research and creative tasks. .Intermediate discussions of the obtained data in groups (in lessons or during classes in a scientific society, in group work in a library, media library, etc.). .Project defense, opposition. .Collective discussion, examination, assessment results. Action plan for students in the project. 1.Each group participating in the project receives a “Student Action Plan for the Project,” which includes: 2.Selecting a project (research) topic. .Let's set a goal. (Why am I doing this? What result do I want to achieve?) Write down the answers. .If this is research, then you need to put forward an assumption - a hypothesis. (Make your guess about what the result will be and why?) Write down your answers. .Choose a method. (What needs to be done to get the result?) Write down your action plan, the time for completing each step. .We collect data (we set up experiments, collect the necessary information, material, formalize it, check our actions according to the time determined for each step). .We get results. (If something failed, this is also a result). .Let's analyze the results. (We compare the results obtained with this hypothesis). .Let's draw conclusions. (We are planning further activities). We evaluate the actions in the group. .We defend the result as a team. We get a general assessment of the results. These reminders help students successfully move toward achieving their goal of creating a project. Criteria for assessing student work. 1.The degree of independence in performing various stages of work on the project. 2.The degree of involvement in group work and the clarity of fulfillment of the assigned role; .Practical use of subject and general school knowledge; .The amount of new information used to complete the project; .The degree of comprehension of the information used; .Level of complexity and degree of proficiency in the techniques used; .Originality of the idea, method of solving the problem; .Understanding the project problem and formulating the purpose of the project or research; .Level of organization and presentation: oral communication, written report, provision of visual objects; .Mastery of reflection; .Creative approach in preparing presentation visual objects; Turning to the project methodology in the educational process makes it possible to take into account the individual developmental characteristics of schoolchildren and contributes to better consolidation of the material received in the lessons. So, project activities in a form accessible to students can be used at any level. A high school student who independently thinks about and selects the necessary information unobtrusively consolidates the necessary material. The use of the project method has shown its effectiveness. This is due to the increased interest of students in studying subjects, the development of their skills in independent, search and creative work. 2.2 Organization of project activities for high school students
There are many different pedagogical technologies that could meet the new challenges of education. But the conversation will focus primarily on the project activities of schoolchildren, which psychologists consider structure-forming for building a learning space at school. In modern pedagogical literature one can come across both the term “project method” and the term “project activity”. The project method is a set of techniques, operations of mastering a certain area of practical or theoretical knowledge, a way of organizing the process of cognition. Therefore, if we talk about the project method, then we mean a way to achieve a didactic goal through a detailed development of the problem (technology), which should result in a very real practical result. The method is based on an idea that is the essence of the concept of “project”. The project method is focused on independent activities of students - individual, pair, group, which students perform for a certain period of time. Project activity is a psychological category. School for a high school student is a place where his growing up is ensured. To solve the problem of age, the school must provide the child with the opportunity to experiment with his own action, the opportunity to try, changing his position from focusing on the plan to achieving a result, and then be sure to turn to the plan again. A project in the context of education is an effective action, but carried out in laboratory conditions specially organized by the teacher. Thus, the project activity of students is outside the content of education: it does not imply a radical change in the curriculum, the content of educational subjects (the same subject-centrism remains), the lesson remains the main unit of the educational process, the whole class moves at the same speed and along the same trajectory to the goal intended by the teacher, while the project activities of the children themselves determine and direct the content of education. The project method in the hands of a teacher is a kind of pedagogical tool with the help of which certain didactic tasks are solved, that is, first of all, the tasks of an adult. Project activity is a way of organizing the educational space and students. The implementation of the project form in practice leads to a change in the teacher’s position. From a carrier of ready-made knowledge, he turns into an organizer of educational and cognitive activities of his students. In this regard, the psychological climate in the classroom must also change, because The teacher has to reorient his teaching and educational work and the work of students to various types of activities, to the priority of research, search, and creative activities. Under these conditions, the teacher performs only the functions of managing and correcting their activities. They set tasks for themselves, plan and solve them, monitor their actions and evaluate their results, and determine their own individual educational trajectory. A project as a form of work requires the presentation of results to others, which cannot be specified by a five-point assessment system. So, the main ideas of designing a modern school should be centered around the principle of design. This principle can be discovered for a child only in a situation of contrasting different forms of school content and organization. Such oppositions reveal themselves in different academic subjects and in different types of work within one subject. In this case, the diversity must have a certain center, around which and in relation to which this diversity can only appear as a multitude of images of something unified, and not fall apart into unrelated elements. The main difficulty and main task with this approach is to ensure unity of action, that is, the unity of the school. Generality can be ensured only if: a) a single plan; b) team type of work of the school team. The project activity of high school students and teachers can become a center that can hold around itself various types of student activities (educational, play, work). Taking into account the individual characteristics of the student, his success in studying subjects, natural inclinations, self-control skills, etc., the teacher helps to choose in the lesson the type and type of educational task, the method of its implementation, and also helps to regulate the amount of work performed, thus developing skills for recording the effectiveness of learning . Considered from this point of view, the individual educational route is one of the subjects of schoolchildren’s project activities. This route allows us to construct a time sequence, forms and types of organization of interaction between teachers and children, and a range of types of work, differently than the curriculum. During subsequent training, the student will have to track his own progress in the formation of UUD. The main tool for constructing individual educational trajectories are sheets of self-design of educational activities (LSED). Students complete self-design sheets (LSDS) together with their parents. On the one hand, this forms the order of the gymnasium for educational services, on the other hand, it attracts parents to participate in the management of the educational process, creates the prerequisites for self-educational and self-evaluation activities. The student fills out the self-design sheet independently, determining his individual educational trajectory. This type of activity is aimed at developing skills of self-assessment, self-regulation, and conscious formulation of educational requests. Analysis of self-design sheets allows us to trace the formation of competencies in the field of health conservation, socialization, goal setting, and self-design. A form of self-assessment and assessment of the results of progress along an individual educational trajectory (IEP) is the student’s portfolio, which reflects step-by-step progress towards the goal, successes and achievements. Finding and developing zones of success and talent for each high school student, taking into account his age and individual characteristics, is the main goal of a modern school. Indeed, every person wants to feel significant, successful and capable. And it doesn’t matter which academic or extracurricular area will play the main role in building an educational route. Therefore, a student’s individual educational program includes a sheet of student self-design of educational activities (LSED) + an individual program of additional education (extracurricular activities) + an individual health program + an individual educational plan (state standard). In August 2010, on the recommendation of the school's NMC, changes were made both to the content of academic subjects and to the methods of organizing the educational space. Changes in the high school work program concerned the following points: The subject content of the training courses has been optimized: We made changes to the planning of studying the subject, implementing concentrated training by tightening the timing of the program. We strengthened the integrative side of teaching through the organization of subject days, the organization and implementation of interdisciplinary projects, integrative project tasks in educational and extracurricular activities. When organizing and conducting educational projects, multi-age cooperation (volunteer movement) of students is actively used in order to provide students with the opportunity not only to understand the boundaries of their own subject knowledge, but also to see and “try on” new ways of working in the classroom, which at the next stage of training will be leading in organizing project forms of educational activities. Such forms of training provide an opportunity, on the one hand, to reflect on one’s ways of working in a group or team, and on the other hand, to act in a non-standard situation that requires the integrated use of skills and knowledge acquired within individual academic disciplines. This technology also makes it possible not only to minimize the impact of the intensification of the educational process, but also to create conditions for the successful adaptation of first-graders to school, gaining positive social experience, thereby creating conditions for achieving the results provided for by the new educational standards. It is also important to ensure continuity and psychological support, which will allow current first-graders to successfully move from the primary stage of education to the secondary level in four years and also become volunteers. The activities of students and teachers determine the weekly school schedule, and not vice versa, as is customary in a traditional school. Now the schedule has become non-linear and can change every week. The organization of project activities has several phases: “launch” - joint planning and design of tasks for the academic year; solving jointly posed problems through individual educational routes both inside and outside the academic subject; reflective phase - presentation of the “product”, the result of an individual educational route, construction of “maps” of movement along one’s educational route. In the practice of developmental education, students develop skills in project activities through solving design problems. A project task is a task that is close in form and content to a “real” situation and is focused on the use by students of a number of methods of action, means and techniques not in the standard (educational) form. There is no “label” on such a task indicating which topic or academic subject it relates to. The result of solving such a problem is always a real “product” (text, diagram or layout of a device, the result of an analysis of the situation, presented in the form of tables, diagrams, graphs) created by students. He can be further “cut off” from the task itself and live his own separate life. Requirements for the “design” task: has a general plot, a real situation is set in which children need to use a set of methods of action known or unknown to them; consists of several tasks interconnected by a plot that help students solve the problem; you can move from task to task either sequentially or selectively (depending on the level of preparedness of the group); tasks may have certain “noises” (distracting maneuvers) that create various obstacles to solving the task; the final task of a task can be a general “assembly” that allows you to put together everything that the group did in separate tasks (for the teacher this is a “key” task, the subject of a general assessment of the solution to the problem). The system of tasks included in this type of task may require different “strategies” for solving it (in some tasks the tasks must be performed sequentially, revealing individual aspects of the task, in other tasks it is possible to perform tasks in any sequence, in others the required sequence of tasks is hidden and should be identified by the students themselves, etc.). The main intrigue lies in using the results of completed tasks in the general context of solving the entire problem. Project tasks can be both subject and interdisciplinary, starting and final, thematic, and inter-age. The main condition is the possibility of transferring methods of action (knowledge, skills) known to children into a practical situation that is new to them, where the result will be a real children's product. Completing such tasks usually takes several lessons. The inclusion of tasks of this type in the educational process allows the teacher, during the school year, to systematically monitor the development of, first of all, methods of work and methods of action of students in non-standard situations outside of a specific (individual) academic subject or a single topic, that is, to monitor the formation of educational activities in students. schoolchildren. It should also be noted that regular use of such tasks helps to increase the cognitive interest of students. From the perspective of the competency-based approach, the main direct result of educational activities is the formation of key competencies. And it is precisely the project task here that acts as an instrument for the level of development of the ability to learn, interact in a group, and work with different sources of information (author A.B. Vorontsov). Lesson as a project task A lesson as a project task consists of several tasks that are interconnected by a common plot and serve as guidelines for solving the task as a whole. Before setting a project task, a specific practical problem situation must be described. It is fixed in the formulation of the lesson objective and is implemented through a system of tasks. The main condition for design tasks is the possibility of transferring methods of action known to children into a practical situation that is new to them, where the result will be a real children's “product”. Lessons - project tasks help to increase the cognitive interest of students, develop the ability of schoolchildren to independently solve problems based on independent experience, and provide the opportunity for all students to achieve the desired result. The main goal of the project tasks is to promote the formation of different ways of educational cooperation among high school students. It is in such lessons that the teacher has the opportunity to observe the ways of working of both individual students and a separate group of students. The main method is embedded observation. A system for solving design problems, which includes all stages of future design, may be one of the ways to prepare schoolchildren for project activities in adolescence. In addition to the lead teacher, other (free from classes) teachers, parents and high school students can be involved in such work (volunteer movement). Armed with special “observation cards” (expert sheets) and connected to children's groups, experts observe the process of solving the problem at all stages, without interfering in any way, and record their observations. The teacher’s analysis of all the expert sheets after solving the design problem gives a complete picture of how the students structured their work at all stages of the solution. Public speeches by experts, in which both positive and negative aspects of the work of groups of schoolchildren on a project task, identified during the process of expert observation, are also essential for the development of educational cooperation in the classroom. It is important to find out to what extent the organization of work in the group contributed to the quality of the resulting solution. The new educational standard pays special attention to students acquiring experience in participating in project activities. As experience shows, organizing such activities is a difficult task for many teachers, so we return to the problem of using this form of educational work in teaching practice. In recent years, project assignments have increasingly become part of the mass practice of teaching social studies. The reason for this lies in the opportunities that project activities open up for the development of general academic (interdisciplinary) skills and socialization of students. Student projects in the educational work system The advantages of project activity consist primarily of: that it includes a set of exploratory, problem-based, inherently creative educational activities, techniques and methods. When completing projects, students show a large degree of independence, use not only integrated knowledge from various social sciences, but also supra-subject skills (plan their activities, divide a task into stages, determine ways to search, accumulate, classify and process the necessary information, present the results of work in public speech, etc.). Among the goals of schoolchildren’s project activities are: stimulating students' cognitive independence in the field of individual content interests and subject preferences; creating conditions for the implementation of skills and competence in it. related to work planning, development of a step-by-step program of action from concept to finished product; improving communication skills in the process of group work and public speaking, at presentations. Among the projects used in teaching social studies. The following varieties can be distinguished: applied (the result of such a project can be directly used in the practice of this school); informational (involves analysis, synthesis and presentation of specific information by project participants to a wide audience); role-playing, gaming (participants take on certain roles determined by the content of the project, determine lines of behavior in a gaming situation); research (involve solving a creative research problem; determining the main stages of work characteristic of scientific research). The approximate requirements for completing a training project are as follows; ) must correspond to the project assignment (project topic); ) can be performed individually or in a group with the definition of the exact content of the activities of each group member; analyze each person’s own answers to the questionnaire and draw a conclusion about what motives prevail in his educational activities, what prevents him from studying better; Based on a summary of the collected materials, prepare a computer presentation and present it in class. The main tasks (stages) are fully implemented in the final product (computer presentation). The work is presented to the class (a public presentation is made), and questions for the presentation are answered. The work is designed taking into account citation requirements and contains links to sources. For each criterion, it is possible to assign from 1 to 3 points: score - the criterion is weakly expressed; point - the criterion is clearly expressed, but there are some shortcomings; points - no comments. The maximum possible score is 15. Mark "5" - 15-12 points; "4" - 11-9 points; "3" - 8 points or less. An unsatisfactory grade will not be given for project work. If a student fails to complete the work, it is removed from the presentation and is not graded. Project for fifth graders Let's get acquainted in more detail with the Organization of project activities using the example of its organization in the 5th grade of the Moscow City Linguistic Gymnasium No. 1513 when studying the topic "School" and the sub-topics "Classmates, peers, friends." The project activities included the following main stages: ) preparatory (organizational, or launch period); ) main (project implementation); ) presentation (public presentation of the work performed, presentation of the product obtained on the main product, answers to questions); ) evaluative (discussion of the revised project and assessment of project activities). There were 30 people in the class included in the project work. To complete the project, the class pins cases or groups (in accordance with the wishes of the students themselves): “historians”, “sociologists”, “journalists”. Due to the fact that there were too many “historians”, this group included a subgroup “historians-2”. In the lesson that preceded the actual project work, each group was given sample topics that they had to develop and present to the class. “Historians-2” were tasked with asking their parents about their school life and presenting a generalized image of the Soviet school in the second half of the 20th century. The “sociologists” had to create a group portrait of the class based on summarizing the data from the questionnaire they themselves developed. The “journalists” had to prepare a report on the work of all groups in the form of publishing a class newspaper. During the week that separated the schoolchildren from the lesson of presenting the results of the project work, the students repeatedly asked the teacher what they should do, what they needed to bring to the lesson, whether they understood the task correctly, and were advised on how best to prepare for the lesson. It was during this preparatory work that many schoolchildren showed their worth. Project tasks for this stage of education in primary school have their own specific construction: the formulation of the task, the sequence of objective actions through a system of tasks are clearly specified by the author of the project task. The project task as a whole will be solved only if the group can cope with all the proposed tasks, including the final task as a place for “assembling” all the results obtained from individual tasks. Lessons organized in the form of a project task at the beginning of 1st grade differ significantly from lessons at the end of the school year. As students master various methods of activity and forms of cooperation with people around them, ways of obtaining new information, the prototype of the resulting “product” becomes more complex. There is a transition from game forms of creating a learning task to modeling. An educational model can be called an image that captures the general relationship of a certain integral object and provides its further analysis. Basic steps when creating a model: Analysis of the material (text) to be modeled. "Translation" into the language of symbols and signs. Students should denote identical elements and relationships with the same symbols and signs, and different ones with different ones. Model transformation action. Correlation of the resulting model with reality. How, then, are lessons structured in first grade? To design a lesson, the teacher needs: determine the result of the lesson in the form of a child's ability being formed (children must discover a new way of acting; discover that they know how to work in some way, and understand when and how they use it; learn to work in some way faster and more clearly, etc. .d.); imagine at what level of this ability children will begin the designed lesson. This is not always easy to do. Often it seems to a teacher, like any adult, that there are things that everyone understands. Arriving at the lesson, he is surprised to discover that children perceive the most clear and simple things somehow differently or understand them at all; select tasks from the teaching materials using the description of the tasks, the program and an approximate thematic plan. This should be done by determining the approximate time required for children to complete tasks (taking into account certain types of work). provide for the main logical moments of the lesson (what changes the type or direction of children’s activities), where various options for the further development of events are possible; There are on average 5-7 such moments. These points must be thought out in detail, designed, including accurately formulated and written down verbatim questions or instructions; think about what children will do during logical segments of the lesson (discuss something, perform actions in a workbook, look at observation objects, check a neighbor’s work, etc.). These types of work should replace each other, with preference given to manual work. Even when a diagram is drawn up, let everyone try to draw it themselves or copy it from the board. For each such segment, the teacher must decide questions about the form of implementation (whole-class discussion, group work, pair work, independent work), the necessary materials, the form of presentation - non-presentation of the result; foresee and outline at what moments it is necessary to check whether children are in control of what they are doing (prepare “traps”, organize self- and mutual checks). It is also important to outline the points of assessment in advance (although they often happen unpredictably): when, what, who, by what criteria should be assessed, whether the criteria will be discussed, etc.; provide for reflective moments at each lesson: children summing up the work, assessing their mood, setting goals for future work, planning the progress of the task, etc. There cannot be many such moments, each of them should not last more than 1 minute, and you need to ensure that so that they do not acquire the character of patterned repetition or rituals. The emergence of project tasks in the educational process requires the teacher to radically reconsider his approaches to organizing the learning process, and therefore an increase in time for preparing for classes. To free up temporary resources, cooperation and coordination of efforts of teachers of different grades of primary school is necessary. Regular inclusion of project tasks in the teaching process of primary school will be a good starting point for a smooth transition to project-based forms of educational activity in teenage school. So, when organizing project activities of students, the teacher acts as a mentor when the student implements the project, students unite in problem groups to achieve their goals and, in the process of implementing the project, provide mutual assistance and also present projects that criticize and come to a general consensus; in the process of implementing the project, the student goes through stages from the collection of information, its processing, analysis, synthesis, comparison to the design of the project and moves on to the most important and difficult stage in the implementation of the project - his presentation, at the end of which his opponents express the opposite point of view to him. Upon completion of the project presentation, the project is considered completed in whole or in part. Conclusion
The qualitative structural and socio-economic changes of recent decades are called the transition to a post-industrial society. They lead to a change in the traditional paradigm of general education. Life requires from school graduates intellectual and moral development, the formation of critical and creative thinking, the ability to work with information, responsibility, initiative, communication, and independent thinking. And the project methodology in history and social studies has great potential: developmental, educational, educational, psychological. These opportunities can be implemented in combination with other methods and techniques to achieve a qualitatively new level of training and education. Are projects used today as part of the educational process at school, in additional education, and as a way to organize life in teenage associations? And, at least as far as schools are concerned, many questions remain with the use of the project approach: How to combine the project approach with the classroom-lesson system? How can we build a different learning process based mainly on a system of projects? How to link the current understanding of the educational standard with the values and ways of organizing life in the project? and so on. But it is already clear that the use of the project method largely helps to solve such painful problems as insufficient motivation of students, their alienation from the problems and values of education and culture in general, the isolation of knowledge from life, etc. And this impressive list of “victories” of the project method inspires new searches for opportunities to implement it in everyday teaching practice. It is known that working using the project method requires quite high pedagogical skills from the teacher. Therefore, teachers who offer their own developments of educational projects are more than innovating teachers, they are applied scientists and methodologists in this field at the same time. A teacher of mass pedagogical practice is certainly capable of using the project method, but only after special training. Training teachers in project activities is a necessary condition for introducing the method of educational projects into practice. Design thinking is necessary for adults and children. It must be specially awakened, systematically developed and carefully cultivated. Today, even in order to simply survive, not to mention leading a more or less humanly worthy existence, we must boldly move towards something new. That is, to be able to design our interaction with a constantly and unpredictably changing world. This means that we need to learn continuously and non-stop. Bibliography
1.Vorontsov A.B. Promising directions of scientific and practical developments of the educational system D.B. Elkonina - V.V. Davydova. Discussion of problems of primary education in Russia. // #"justify">2. Vorontsov A.B., Egorkina S.V., Kharazova L.V., Zaslavsky V.M. Project task as a means of gradual transition to project-based forms of organizing the educational process in teenage schools. // www.ouro.ru/files/news/240106/prirodov. doc .Vorontsov A. Design task as a tool for monitoring schoolchildren’s methods of action in a non-standard learning situation. // #"justify">. Vorontsov A. Formula for your own growing up. Project activity as a path to growing up. // http: ps.1september.ru/2001/78/9. htm .Pryn E.I. Methodological basis for solving design problems. // #"justify">8. Bychkov A.V. Project method in modern school. M., 2006.47 p. Magazine - Additional education. No. 3/2005. LLC "Vityaz - M"., 2007. article - The role of design technologies in the process of socialization of the individual. 41-42 pp. Magazine - Additional education. No. 6/ 2008. Vityaz-M LLC., 2008. article - Organization of design activities. 28 pp. Information and methodological magazine - Out-of-school student. No. 6/2008. "Upbringing and additional education of children and youth." article - The role of social projects in extracurricular education of schoolchildren. 24-25 s. Krupenina M.V., Ignatieva B.V. On the way to the project method. - M., 2006.6-20 p. Levin. New ways of school work (project method). - M., 2007.7-12 p. Melnikov V.E., Migunov V.A., Petryakov P.A. Project method in teaching the educational field "Technology". - Vel. Novgorod, 2008.34, 48 p. Project method in technological education of schoolchildren. - St. Petersburg. 2009.64 p. Matyash M.V. Psychology of project activities of schoolchildren in the conditions of technological education / Ed. Rubtsova V.V. - Mozyr: RIF "White Wind". 2009.118-120 p. Polat E.S. New pedagogical technologies / Manual for teachers - M., 2005. Kralya N.A. The method of educational projects as a means of enhancing students’ educational activities: educational and methodological manual / ed. Yu.P. Dubensky. Omsk: Omsk State University Publishing House, 2005. - 59 p. The concept of modernization of Russian education for the period until 2010. M.: "Drofa", 2007, p. 4. Selevko G.K. Encyclopedia of educational technologies, M. Research Institute of School Technologies, p. 228. Selevko G.K. The concept of modernization of Russian education for the period until 2010. M.: "Drofa", 2003, p. 7. Project activities of schoolchildren in history and social studies lessons // teaching history and social studies at school Ivanova, E.L. Rutkovskaya.
Sections: History and social studies
Time is inexorably picking up speed, and human ideas about themselves and their own capabilities are also changing rapidly. One educational environment replaces another. At all times, society has strived to increase its intellectual potential. We live in an interesting and controversial time, when the progress of science and technology has become an integral part of human life and society. And today, during the reign of scientific and technological progress, humanity is once again turning to eternal values: humanity, tolerance, family, respect for each other.
The development of society today dictates the need to use new information technologies in all spheres of life. A modern school should not lag behind the demands of the time, which means that a modern teacher should use a computer in his activities, because The main task of the school is to educate a new generation of literate, thinking citizens who can independently acquire knowledge.
Many years of experience have shown that new computer technologies have a high effect, provided that they are supported by advanced pedagogical technologies.
As part of the implementation of the Concept of modernization of Russian education and in accordance with modern state educational policy, the result of the activities of an educational institution is the formation of a set of “key competencies” that contribute to the socialization of the personality of a young person, namely:
- ability to adapt;
- social responsibility;
- ability to communicate;
- tolerant attitude towards others;
- social responsibility.
Social studies lessons, like history and cultural studies lessons, allow us to enhance student activity, which allows us to develop social partnership skills.
The purpose of using project technology is for students to independently comprehend problems and problematic situations that have vital meaning for students. It makes it possible for children to gain real experience of participating in the life of the community and solving socially significant problems. During project activities, students have the opportunity to correlate the general ideas learned in lessons with real life in which they, their friends, parents, teachers are involved, as well as with public life, with social events occurring on the scale of a microdistrict, city and country generally. Thus, the project allows us to bridge the gap between school education and life, and is a link between educational and research activities.
This method involves students “living” a certain period of time in the educational process, as well as their involvement in a fragment of the formation of a scientific understanding of the world around them, and the construction of cognitive models. The materialized product of design is an educational project, which is defined as a detailed solution to a problem in the form of developments independently applied by students. We emphasize that the didactic unit in the project method is a problem taken from real life and personally significant for students (economic, legal, environmental, etc.). Thus, the problem and ways to solve it take on the contours of project activity.
When solving a project, along with the scientific and cognitive side of the content, there are always emotional, value (personal), activity and creative sides. Moreover, it is the emotional-value and creative components of the content that determine how significant the project is for students and how independently it is completed.
The project encourages the student to: demonstrate intellectual abilities; moral and communication qualities; demonstrate the level of knowledge and subject skills: demonstrate the ability for self-education and self-organization.
During the development of the project: students synthesize knowledge during their search; integrate information from related disciplines; looking for more effective ways to solve project problems; communicate with each other.
Project activities clearly demonstrate the possibilities of mono- and multi-subject, individual and group educational routes of the project. The essential features of this method are the subjectivity of the student, dialogism, creativity, contextuality, manufacturability and independence of students that arise in the process of implementing the project method.
Organizing education in history, social studies, law, and cultural studies using the project method creates optimal conditions for turning students into “subjects” of activity. Each student becomes an equal member of a creative team, work in which contributes to the development of social roles, fosters commitment and responsibility in completing tasks on time, and mutual assistance in work. The feelings, attitudes, thoughts and actions of schoolchildren are involved in project activities.
Dialogue allows students, in the process of completing a project, to enter into dialogue both with their own “I” and with others. It is in dialogue that the “free self-revelation of the individual” takes place (M.M. Bakhtin). Dialogue in the project method performs the function of a specific sociocultural environment that creates conditions for schoolchildren to accept new experiences and rethink previous meanings, as a result of which the received legal, social, legal information becomes personally significant.
Creativity is associated with the resolution of a problem situation, which determines the beginning of active mental activity and independence of students, as a result of which they discover a contradiction between the legal, social, economic content known to them and the inability to quickly apply them in practice. Solving a problem often leads to original, non-standard methods of activity and results of implementation. Any project is always the creativity of students.
Contextuality in this method allows you to create projects that are close to the natural life activities of students, to understand the place of “Law”, “Social Studies”, “Cultural Studies” in the general system of human existence.
Integrity means the optimal synthesis of knowledge for students to implement the problem being studied, drawing on content from other subjects.
Manufacturability is associated with the organization of students’ cognitive activity according to certain stages of project activity.
In order to stimulate the cognitive activity of students in social studies lessons in 9th grade, I conduct practical and laboratory classes with solving problem problems and discussing typical situations. Students become familiar with the Constitution of the Russian Federation and the City Charter with interest.
To implement the skills and competencies associated with planning work, developing a step-by-step program of action from concept to finished product, I practice involving ninth graders in project activities.
Projects encourage students to set goals, master general academic skills, demonstrate intellectual abilities, demonstrate communication skills, develop group work skills, and build relationships. Joint activities provide ample opportunities for both the teacher and the student to build subject-subject relationships.
Before studying the topic “Human Rights” (about a month in advance), the research project “YOUR RIGHTS” was launched.
The guys gave this project a creative name
"Guys let's be friends!"
This project:
- Practice-oriented
- Student category - 9th grade
- group
- implementation period - 1 month
- implemented according to the educational curriculum - grade 9 (author Kravchenko and Peskova).
- is aimed at implementing the following tasks:
Educational goals:
- Update students' knowledge on the section "Child's Rights"
Developmental goals:
Contribute to the formation -
- development of critical thinking
- information culture
Educational goals:
Contribute -
- formation of a communicative culture
- formation of the foundations of right-wing culture
- education of tolerance
The fundamental question of the project was:
Is the free world free?
During the introductory lesson, students identified the relevance of the topic, identified the problem, subject, object of research, goals and objectives. Teams were formed to carry out the project. Leaders emerged in the groups.
The first group was offered a research topic - Why does a person need rights?
The second group - To which “statue” do people take their hats off and the indifferent pass by?
Third - What to do if your rights are violated?
The project month included three main stages:
- preparatory(organizational, or launch period);
- basic(project implementation);
- presentational(public defense of completed work, presentation of the “product” obtained at the main stage, answers to questions from students and the teacher.
Project resources:
A) internal
- All 9th grade students
- Social studies teacher
- Head of the school library
B) technical
- Network of personal computers
- Camera
- Video recorder
- Camcorder
B) internal
- educational, methodological, scientific literature on issues of civic and legal education and upbringing
- Internet
During the implementation of the project, students were able to create quite competent works.
Group I prepared:
Timeline (message)
K+K (message, presentation about the constitution)
My rights are my wealth (crossword, booklet, test)
Group II:
I am a citizen (booklet, test)
The fairy tale is a lie, but there is a hint in it (presentation)
III group:
And I was offended (booklet)
Uncle Styopa - policeman (message)
The result of this project was a lesson - “Round Table” (duration 2 hours), which was supposed to lead children to the following conclusions:
- In order for human rights to be protected, it is not enough to write them on paper; it is necessary that the person himself wants and knows how to protect them: human rights are realized only through his will.
- Our rights end where the violation of another person's rights begins. If today we violate the rights of the weaker, tomorrow there will be someone who will violate our rights.
- Every right gives rise to certain responsibilities. Rights without duties lead to permissiveness, and duties without rights lead to arbitrariness.
- Everyone has as many rights as he wants and can have.
- People and states communicate with each other only in writing.
The most lively discussion was caused by the presentation - the game “Fairy Tale is a Lie, but There’s a Hint in It,” which the students created not only for themselves, but also to tell younger students about Children’s Rights.
During project activities, students' educational products are student research works. As a rule, the best projects in the competition can be presented at the school scientific and practical conference "Little Discovery".
Thus, practice-oriented projects are aimed at a specific practical result and are associated with the social values of students. Students shared the practical significance of the “YOUR RIGHTS” project in a newspaper article in the school press. Research topics are varied and reflect an individual approach to students when choosing a research topic.
This experience of social practical activity is passed on to students, forming in them a responsible attitude towards themselves and their actions, the ability to acquire and comprehend personal experience of tolerance and interaction with other people.
Literature and information resources:
- Methodological recommendations for the use of information and communication technologies in the cycle of socio-economic disciplines in secondary schools. Perm, PRIPIT. 2004 p.14
- Guzeev V.V. Educational outcomes planning and educational technologies. - M., Public Education, 2001. - P. 42-44, 57.; Didactics of secondary school. - M. 1982. - P. 192.
- New pedagogical and information technologies in the education system: A textbook for students. pedagogical universities and higher education systems. qualified ped. personnel / E.S. Polat, M.Yu. Bukharkina, M.V. Moiseeva, A.E. Petrov; Ed. E.S. Polat. - M.: Publishing center "Academy", 1999. - 224
- Chernov A.V. The use of information technology in teaching history and social studies. // Teaching history at school. 2001 No. 8. P.40-46
- Internet in humanities education. Ed. Polat E.S. M., Vlados, 2001 p.169
- Gospodarik Yu. Internet and the study of history. "History", No. 3, January, 2000 - supplement to gas. "First of September".
- Kravchenko A. I. Social studies: a textbook for grade 9, M.: Russkoe slovo, 2002.
- Kravchenko A. I. Social studies: a book for teachers, M.: Russian Word, 2002.
- Nikitin A. F. Child’s rights: a manual for students, M.: Bustard, 2000.
- Kravchenko A.I. Problem book in social studies: textbook for grades 8-9, M.: Russkoe slovo, 2002.
- http://www.rosino.ru/cgi - 10.25.05 bin/rosino.pl?cart_id=&page=&keywords=classic&number=16&search_request_button=Submit+Keyword -10.25.05
- http://www/ispa.com/news/?item=18586 -10.25.05
- http://www.lenta-ua.com - 10/25/05
In modern Russian education, there is a broad interpretation of the project as a concept and educational technology - the “project method”.
The project method is a teaching system in which students acquire knowledge and skills in the process of planning the implementation of gradually more complex practical tasks - projects.
The project method (projective methodology), as an educational technology, is a didactic category that denotes a system of techniques and methods for mastering certain practical and theoretical knowledge, one or another activity. This is a way to achieve a didactic goal through a detailed development of a problem (technology), which ends with a practical result, formalized in one way or another.
The project method in didactics is understood as a set of educational and cognitive techniques that allow students to acquire knowledge and skills in the process of planning and independently performing certain practical tasks with the obligatory presentation of the results.
In our work, we talk about the project method, meaning a way to achieve a didactic goal through a detailed development of a problem, which should result in a very real, tangible practical result, formalized in one way or another. This result can be seen, comprehended, and applied in real practical activities. To achieve such a result, it is necessary to teach children to think independently, find and solve problems, using for this purpose knowledge from different fields, the ability to predict results and possible consequences of different solution options, and the ability to establish cause-and-effect relationships.
During the period of rapid informatization of our society, there is a growing need for training and education of children who are able to live in an open society, who can communicate and interact with all the diversity of the real world, who have a holistic understanding of the world and its information unity. Therefore, for the development of children, the ability to collect the necessary information and put forward a hypothesis, draw conclusions and conclusions, use new information technologies to work with information, becomes important.
Full-fledged cognitive activity of schoolchildren is the main condition for the development of their initiative, active life position, resourcefulness and the ability to independently replenish their knowledge and navigate the rapid flow of information from various sources, including the Internet. These personality traits are nothing more than key competencies. They are formed in the student only under the condition of his systematic inclusion in independent cognitive activity, which in the process of completing a special type of educational tasks - design work - takes on the character of problem-search activity.
Project activities are in perfect agreement with the principles of modern education, such as:
principle of learning activities;
-the principle of controlled transition from activity in a learning situation to activity in a life situation;
the principle of a controlled transition from joint educational and cognitive activity and independent activity of the student;
the principle of relying on previous (spontaneous) development;
- creative principle.
In the subject of social studies, the project method allows for the implementation of problem-based learning, which activates and deepens knowledge, allows teaching independent thinking and activity, a systematic approach to self-organization, makes it possible to teach group interaction, and develop the creative initiative of students. The project method is always focused on students’ independent activities, individual, pair, and group, which students perform over a certain period of time. This approach fits seamlessly with a group approach to learning. The project method always involves solving some problem, which involves, on the one hand, the use of various methods and teaching aids, and on the other, the integration of knowledge and skills from various fields of science, technology, technology, and creative fields. The use of this method makes the learning process creative and the student relaxed and purposeful. When working on projects, a creative work environment reigns, in which any independent work is encouraged, the involvement of new, unstudied material, when intensive self-study and mutual learning take place, conditions are created for the self-development of a person’s creative individuality and the disclosure of his spiritual potential.
With the introduction of the project-based teaching method, which is based on research and creative activities, it becomes possible in computer science lessons to deepen and consolidate knowledge acquired in other subjects, and to fulfill the social orders of society.
21. Personality-oriented education in teaching social science disciplines.
The challenges facing modern education can be solved by turning to student-oriented pedagogy (E.V. Bondarevskaya, V.V. Serikov, I.B. Kotova, E.N. Shiyanov, O.V. Zaslavskaya, S.V. Kulnevich, V.V. Shogan). It is this that allows us to ensure and support the processes of self-knowledge, self-construction and self-realization of the child’s personality, the development of his unique individuality, and the formation of key competencies. This is due to the fact that the main principles of student-centered teaching are environmental conformity, cultural conformity, individual creative approach, life creativity and cooperation.
The student-centered approach involves the active participation of students in the educational process based on self-organization. As a result, schoolchildren develop the ability to comprehend and rethink the content of knowledge, develop a personal attitude towards it, and the ability to be creative. Personal qualities such as activity, responsibility, self-control, self-discipline, the ability to make choices, evaluate facts and events, respect other people’s opinions, and tolerance towards others develop. All this helps the child gain values and meaning in life, develops him as a person of culture and an integral personality, supports his individuality and creative originality.
Personally-oriented content requires adequate pedagogical technologies for its implementation. Their characteristic features are: cooperation, dialogue, creativity, focus on supporting the individual development of the child, providing him with the necessary space, freedom to make independent decisions, choose the content and methods of teaching, co-creation of the teacher and students. In this regard, the main teaching methods are: discussion, pedagogical support, reflexivity, creating a situation of choice and success, diagnostic, system modeling, design and creative activities.
The debatability of the content of education forms an understanding of the problematic ambiguity of the proposed provisions. The technique of comparative analysis of concepts and phenomena contributes to the formation of prerequisites for the self-organization of personal attitudes toward the awareness of internal sources, connections, and mechanisms of development of events. When organizing a discussion, special importance must be given to the conditions for its conduct, the creation of some environment that puts students in the position of experts, providing an opportunity for assessment, comparison, criticism, motivation, self-affirmation, self-realization, etc. The basis of the discussion is the creation of a problematic situation. During the discussion, participants learn not only to perceive the ideas, information, and opinions expressed, but also to respect the point of view of other people.
At the same time, the implementation of dialogue between teacher and students in the classroom becomes one of the key conditions for student-centered learning, creating a comfortable educational environment, and educating students in the spirit of tolerance. After all, the dialogical orientation in communication is, first of all, an orientation toward equal communication based on mutual respect and trust, an orientation towards mutual understanding of positions, mutual openness and communicative cooperation, the desire for mutual self-expression, development, and co-creativity.
At the same time, it is necessary to move away from the traditional dialogue built on the teacher’s question and the student’s answer. It is necessary to structure the question so that the student can freely express his opinion (What do you think...?, What is your opinion...?, etc.). Do not rush to evaluate the correctness of the answer, but give the opportunity to other students to express their guesses. As a result, during the discussion, students together with the teacher will be able to find the answer. Moreover, the teacher, without imposing his opinion as the only correct one, must direct the mental activity of students. It is then that the acquired knowledge will be comprehended and filled with personal meaning.
In this case, the lesson discussion:
– this is a friendly, comfortable environment when the student is not afraid to express his opinion, when he will not receive a negative assessment of his own personality or behavior;
– this is encouraging the activity of the one who asks the question and expresses his own opinion. Any opinion should not be ignored, everyone should delve into and discuss what is being said;
– this is an argument, defending one’s own position, clarifying what is not clear, an attempt to get to the bottom of the truth;
– this is a joint creative search, when everyone tries to solve a learning problem or task together;
– this is an opportunity for students to demonstrate and form their own position, manifestations of value-oriented activity.
Thus, when creating conditions for self-organized learning activities of students, pedagogical support plays an important role. It is implemented through specially organized activities of the teacher, who helps the student independently understand the content of the educational material. And here an important role is played by teaching schoolchildren the skills to work with educational material, historical texts, the ability to analyze, compare, and draw conclusions. Historical concepts should not be acquired as ready-made knowledge; it is necessary that they arise in the minds of schoolchildren as a result of logical deduction and construction. In this case, the achieved results of assimilation are the product of one’s own cognitive activity, organized and controlled by the teacher.
Creating a problem situation in the classroom helps to activate the cognitive activity of students. The process of problem-based learning consists of two necessary stages:
Setting up a practical or theoretical task that causes a problematic situation;
Searching for the unknown in it through independent research by the student, or together with the teacher.
As a result, the process of assimilation begins not with the presentation of a known sample to the student, but with the creation by the teacher of such conditions of educational activity that create a need for acquired knowledge, and the knowledge itself acts as an unknown subject to be assimilated. In this case, the search for the unknown in a problem situation coincides with the process of acquiring new knowledge. The teacher, by helping the student to comprehend the general ways of orientation in historical reality, thereby contributes to the development of his thinking and the formation of his personality.
Moreover, the optimal sequence of problem situations serving the assimilation of new knowledge, their specific system, can ensure the necessary development. At the same time, between the immediate problem situations there may be a rather complex system of other knowledge, which involves the problematic assimilation of necessary educational information, the completion of tasks that serve for the development of students, etc. Consecutive problem situations in this case represent the main links in the formation of a new action, in which new relationships and conditions are revealed that ensure a higher level of cognitive activity of schoolchildren.
An important point in developing the ability to obtain the necessary information is teaching students the rules for writing scientific works (research, abstracts, progress reports) and using the design method. The creation of projects and scientific research activities provide students with maximum opportunities for independent research and appropriation of information, to stimulate the skills of independent handling of the received material. At the same time, children get the opportunity to master productive techniques of mental activity.
The design method stimulates self- and mutual learning, the development of communication skills, as well as personal qualities - cognitive initiative, search activity, creativity, independence, business leadership. The implementation of the project occurs in stages: the movement goes from the idea to the result, and the completion of the project, discussion of the results of the work, and the opportunity to demonstrate it to other people gives the child a feeling of meaningfulness and justification for the efforts. In addition, collective work on a project relieves students from the unpleasant feeling of being under control, creates a sense of freedom, relieves intellectual fears, and promotes the emergence of internal motivation.
Rethinking of educational material also occurs as a result of creative activity. Creativity is reflection on the known, as a result of which a new, personal meaning of knowledge appears, its “meaning for oneself”, personal value is revealed.
Creativity when studying history can help develop a child's personality and his ability to self-develop, which, in my opinion, is the main task of the learning process. I would like the story to make children think, create, dream, create, feel.
In order for a student to feel my subject, he must pass the acquired knowledge through himself, his feelings and ideas, and create his own image of seeing a historical event. To do this, he must immerse himself in the time being studied, see it from all sides. Solving this problem is facilitated by the use of creative tasks and game modeling, which help fill children’s knowledge with emotional and personal content. The child becomes, as it were, a participant in historical events.
As a result of the use of personality-oriented technologies in the educational process, schoolchildren get the opportunity to remember in the process of reflection. Situations of choice and decision-making create conditions for productive and responsible cognitive activity, in which students not only discover something new for themselves, but also create this new thing, create it. At the same time, the child develops a conscious creative position.
Regulation of water metabolism is carried out neurohumorally, in particular, by various parts of the central nervous system: the cerebral cortex, diencephalon and medulla oblongata, sympathetic and parasympathetic ganglia. Many endocrine glands are also involved. The effect of hormones in this case is that they change the permeability of cell membranes to water, ensuring its release or readsorption. The body's need for water is regulated by the feeling of thirst. Already at the first signs of blood thickening, thirst arises as a result of reflex excitation of certain areas of the cerebral cortex. The water consumed is absorbed through the intestinal wall, and its excess does not cause blood thinning . From blood, it quickly passes into the intercellular spaces of loose connective tissue, liver, skin, etc. These tissues serve as a depot of water in the body. Individual cations have a certain influence on the flow and release of water from tissues. Na + ions promote the binding of proteins by colloidal particles, K + and Ca 2+ ions stimulate the release of water from the body.
Thus, vasopressin of the neurohypophysis (antidiuretic hormone) promotes the readsorption of water from primary urine, reducing the excretion of the latter from the body. Hormones of the adrenal cortex - aldosterone, deoxycorticosterol - contribute to sodium retention in the body, and since sodium cations increase tissue hydration, water is also retained in them. Other hormones stimulate the secretion of water by the kidneys: thyroxine - a hormone of the thyroid gland, parathyroid hormone - a hormone of the parathyroid gland, androgens and estrogens - hormones of the sex glands. Thyroid hormones stimulate the secretion of water through the sweat glands. The amount of water in the tissues, primarily free water, increases with disease kidneys, impaired function of the cardiovascular system, protein starvation, impaired liver function (cirrhosis). An increase in water content in the intercellular spaces leads to edema. Insufficient formation of vasopressin leads to increased diuresis and diabetes insipidus. Dehydration of the body is also observed with insufficient production of aldosterone in the adrenal cortex.
Water and substances dissolved in it, including mineral salts, create the internal environment of the body, the properties of which remain constant or change in a natural way when the functional state of organs and cells changes. The main parameters of the liquid environment of the body are osmotic pressure,pH And volume.
The osmotic pressure of the extracellular fluid largely depends on the salt (NaCl), which is contained in the highest concentration in this fluid. Therefore, the main mechanism for regulating osmotic pressure is associated with a change in the rate of release of either water or NaCl, as a result of which the concentration of NaCl in tissue fluids changes, and therefore the osmotic pressure also changes. Volume regulation occurs by simultaneously changing the rate of release of both water and NaCl. In addition, the thirst mechanism regulates water consumption. pH regulation is ensured by the selective release of acids or alkalis in the urine; Depending on this, the pH of urine can vary from 4.6 to 8.0. Disturbances in water-salt homeostasis are associated with pathological conditions such as tissue dehydration or edema, increased or decreased blood pressure, shock, acidosis, and alkalosis.
Regulation of osmotic pressure and extracellular fluid volume. The excretion of water and NaCl by the kidneys is regulated by antidiuretic hormone and aldosterone.
Antidiuretic hormone (vasopressin). Vasopressin is synthesized in neurons of the hypothalamus. Osmoreceptors of the hypothalamus, when the osmotic pressure of tissue fluid increases, stimulate the release of vasopressin from secretory granules. Vasopressin increases the rate of water reabsorption from primary urine and thereby reduces diuresis. The urine becomes more concentrated. In this way, the antidiuretic hormone maintains the required volume of fluid in the body without affecting the amount of NaCl released. The osmotic pressure of the extracellular fluid decreases, i.e., the stimulus that caused the release of vasopressin is eliminated. In some diseases that damage the hypothalamus or pituitary gland (tumors, injuries, infections), the synthesis and secretion of vasopressin decreases and develops diabetes insipidus.
In addition to reducing diuresis, vasopressin also causes a constriction of arterioles and capillaries (hence the name), and, consequently, an increase in blood pressure.
Aldosterone. This steroid hormone is produced in the adrenal cortex. Secretion increases as NaCl concentration in the blood decreases. In the kidneys, aldosterone increases the rate of reabsorption of Na + (and with it C1) in the nephron tubules, which causes NaCl retention in the body. This removes the stimulus that caused the secretion of aldosterone. Excessive secretion of aldosterone leads, accordingly, to excessive NaCl retention and an increase in the osmotic pressure of the extracellular fluid. And this serves as a signal for the release of vasopressin, which accelerates the reabsorption of water in the kidneys. As a result, both NaCl and water accumulate in the body; the volume of extracellular fluid increases while maintaining normal osmotic pressure.
Renin-angiotensin system. This system serves as the main mechanism for regulating aldosterone secretion; The secretion of vasopressin also depends on it. Renin is a proteolytic enzyme synthesized in juxtaglomerular cells surrounding the afferent arteriole of the renal glomerulus.
The renin-angiotensin system plays an important role in restoring blood volume, which can decrease as a result of bleeding, excessive vomiting, diarrhea, and sweating. Vasoconstriction by angiotensin II acts as an emergency measure to maintain blood pressure. Then the water and NaCl that come with drinking and food are retained in the body to a greater extent than normal, which ensures the restoration of blood volume and pressure. After this, renin ceases to be released, the regulatory substances already present in the blood are destroyed and the system returns to its original state.
A significant decrease in the volume of circulating fluid can cause a dangerous disruption of the blood supply to tissues before the regulatory systems restore blood pressure and volume. In this case, the functions of all organs, and, above all, the brain, are disrupted; a condition called shock occurs. In the development of shock (as well as edema), a significant role is played by changes in the normal distribution of fluid and albumin between the bloodstream and the intercellular space. Vasopressin and aldosterone are involved in the regulation of water-salt balance, acting at the level of the nephron tubules - they change the rate of reabsorption of components of primary urine.
Water-salt metabolism and secretion of digestive juices. The volume of daily secretion of all digestive glands is quite large. Under normal conditions, the water from these fluids is reabsorbed in the intestines; profuse vomiting and diarrhea can cause a significant decrease in extracellular fluid volume and tissue dehydration. A significant loss of fluid with digestive juices entails an increase in the concentration of albumin in the blood plasma and intercellular fluid, since albumin is not excreted with secretions; for this reason, the osmotic pressure of the intercellular fluid increases, water from the cells begins to pass into the intercellular fluid and cell functions are disrupted. High osmotic pressure of extracellular fluid also leads to a decrease or even cessation of urine formation , and if water and salts are not supplied from outside, the animal develops a coma.
GOUVPO UGMA Federal Agency for Health and Social Development
Department of Biochemistry
LECTURE COURSE
IN GENERAL BIOCHEMISTRY
Module 8. Biochemistry of water-salt metabolism.
Ekaterinburg,
2009
Topic: Water-salt and mineral metabolism
Faculties: therapeutic and preventive, medical and preventive, pediatric.2nd course.
Water-salt metabolism is the exchange of water and the body’s main electrolytes (Na +, K +, Ca 2+, Mg 2+, Cl -, HCO 3 -, H 3 PO 4).
Electrolytes are substances that dissociate in solution into anions and cations. They are measured in mol/l.
Nonelectrolytes are substances that do not dissociate in solution (glucose, creatinine, urea). They are measured in g/l.
Biological role of water
- Water is a universal solvent for most organic (except lipids) and inorganic compounds.
Water and the substances dissolved in it create the internal environment of the body.
Water ensures the transport of substances and thermal energy throughout the body.
A significant part of the body's chemical reactions occurs in the aqueous phase.
Water participates in the reactions of hydrolysis, hydration, and dehydration.
Determines the spatial structure and properties of hydrophobic and hydrophilic molecules.
In combination with GAGs, water performs a structural function.
All body fluids are characterized by common properties: volume, osmotic pressure and pH value.
Volume. In all terrestrial animals, fluid makes up about 70% of body weight.
The distribution of water in the body depends on age, gender, muscle mass, body type and amount of fat. The water content in various tissues is distributed as follows: lungs, heart and kidneys (80%), skeletal muscles and brain (75%), skin and liver (70%), bones (20%), adipose tissue (10%). In general, thin people have less fat and more water. In men, water accounts for 60%, in women - 50% of body weight. Older people have more fat and less muscle. On average, the body of men and women over 60 years old contains 50% and 45% water, respectively.
With complete deprivation of water, death occurs after 6-8 days, when the amount of water in the body decreases by 12%.
All body fluid is divided into intracellular (67%) and extracellular (33%) pools.
The extracellular pool (extracellular space) consists of:
- Intravascular fluid;
Interstitial fluid (intercellular);
Transcellular fluid (fluid of the pleural, pericardial, peritoneal cavities and synovial space, cerebrospinal and intraocular fluid, secretion of the sweat, salivary and lacrimal glands, secretion of the pancreas, liver, gall bladder, gastrointestinal tract and respiratory tract).
Osmotic pressure is the pressure created by all substances dissolved in water. The osmotic pressure of the extracellular fluid is determined mainly by the concentration of NaCl.
Extracellular and intracellular fluids differ significantly in composition and concentration of individual components, but the total total concentration of osmotically active substances is approximately the same.
pH is the negative decimal logarithm of proton concentration. The pH value depends on the intensity of formation of acids and bases in the body, their neutralization by buffer systems and removal from the body with urine, exhaled air, sweat and feces.
Depending on the characteristics of the exchange, the pH value can differ markedly both within cells of different tissues and in different compartments of the same cell (in the cytosol the acidity is neutral, in lysosomes and in the intermembrane space of mitochondria it is highly acidic). In the intercellular fluid of various organs and tissues and blood plasma, the pH value, like osmotic pressure, is a relatively constant value.
REGULATION OF WATER-SALT BALANCE OF THE BODY
In the body, the water-salt balance of the intracellular environment is maintained by the constancy of the extracellular fluid. In turn, the water-salt balance of the extracellular fluid is maintained through the blood plasma with the help of organs and is regulated by hormones.
1. Organs regulating water-salt metabolism
The entry of water and salts into the body occurs through the gastrointestinal tract; this process is controlled by the feeling of thirst and salt appetite. The kidneys remove excess water and salts from the body. In addition, water is removed from the body by the skin, lungs and gastrointestinal tract.
Body water balance
For the gastrointestinal tract, skin and lungs, the excretion of water is a side process that occurs as a result of their performance of their main functions. For example, the gastrointestinal tract loses water when undigested substances, metabolic products and xenobiotics are released from the body. The lungs lose water during breathing, and the skin during thermoregulation.
Changes in the functioning of the kidneys, skin, lungs and gastrointestinal tract can lead to disruption of water-salt homeostasis. For example, in hot climates, to maintain body temperature, the skin increases sweating, and in case of poisoning, vomiting or diarrhea occurs from the gastrointestinal tract. As a result of increased dehydration and loss of salts in the body, a violation of the water-salt balance occurs.
2. Hormones that regulate water-salt metabolism
Vasopressin
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH), or vasopressin, is a peptide with a molecular weight of about 1100 D, containing 9 AAs connected by one disulfide bridge.
ADH is synthesized in the neurons of the hypothalamus and transported to the nerve endings of the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland (neurohypophysis).
High osmotic pressure of the extracellular fluid activates osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus, resulting in nerve impulses that are transmitted to the posterior pituitary gland and cause the release of ADH into the bloodstream.
ADH acts through 2 types of receptors: V 1 and V 2.
The main physiological effect of the hormone is realized through V 2 receptors, which are located on the cells of the distal tubules and collecting ducts, which are relatively impermeable to water molecules.
ADH, through V 2 receptors, stimulates the adenylate cyclase system, as a result of which proteins are phosphorylated, stimulating the expression of the membrane protein gene - aquaporin-2. Aquaporin-2 is integrated into the apical membrane of cells, forming water channels in it. Through these channels, water is reabsorbed from urine into the interstitial space by passive diffusion and the urine is concentrated.
In the absence of ADH, urine does not concentrate (density<1010г/л) и может выделяться
в очень больших количествах
(>20 l/day), which leads to dehydration of the body. This condition is called diabetes insipidus.
The causes of ADH deficiency and diabetes insipidus are: genetic defects in the synthesis of prepro-ADG in the hypothalamus, defects in the processing and transport of proADG, damage to the hypothalamus or neurohypophysis (for example, as a result of traumatic brain injury, tumor, ischemia). Nephrogenic diabetes insipidus occurs due to a mutation in the ADH type V 2 receptor gene.
V 1 receptors are localized in the membranes of SMC vessels. ADH, through V 1 receptors, activates the inositol triphosphate system and stimulates the release of Ca 2+ from the ER, which stimulates the contraction of vascular SMCs. The vasoconstrictor effect of ADH occurs at high concentrations of ADH.
Natriuretic hormone (atrial natriuretic factor, ANF, atriopeptin)
PNP is a peptide containing 28 AA with 1 disulfide bridge, synthesized mainly in atrial cardiomyocytes.
The secretion of PNP is stimulated mainly by an increase in blood pressure, as well as an increase in plasma osmotic pressure, heart rate, and the concentration of catecholamines and glucocorticoids in the blood.
PNP acts through the guanylate cyclase system, activating protein kinase G.
In the kidneys, PNF dilates afferent arterioles, which increases renal blood flow, filtration rate, and Na + excretion.
In peripheral arteries, PNF reduces smooth muscle tone, which dilates arterioles and lowers blood pressure. In addition, PNF inhibits the release of renin, aldosterone and ADH.
Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system
Renin
Renin is a proteolytic enzyme produced by juxtaglomerular cells located along the afferent (afferent) arterioles of the renal corpuscle. Renin secretion is stimulated by a drop in pressure in the afferent arterioles of the glomerulus, caused by a decrease in blood pressure and a decrease in Na + concentration. Renin secretion is also facilitated by a decrease in impulses from the baroreceptors of the atria and arteries as a result of a decrease in blood pressure. Renin secretion is inhibited by Angiotensin II, high blood pressure.
In the blood, renin acts on angiotensinogen.
Angiotensinogen - ? 2-globulin, from 400 AK. The formation of angiotensinogen occurs in the liver and is stimulated by glucocorticoids and estrogens. Renin hydrolyzes the peptide bond in the angiotensinogen molecule, cleaving from it the N-terminal decapeptide - angiotensin I, which has no biological activity.
Under the action of the antiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) (carboxydipeptidyl peptidase) of edothelial cells, lungs and blood plasma, 2 AA are removed from the C-terminus of angiotensin I and angiotensin II (octapeptide) is formed.
Angiotensin II
Angiotensin II functions through the inositol triphosphate system of cells of the zona glomerulosa of the adrenal cortex and SMCs. Angiotensin II stimulates the synthesis and secretion of aldosterone by cells of the zona glomerulosa of the adrenal cortex. High concentrations of angiotensin II cause severe vasoconstriction of peripheral arteries and increase blood pressure. In addition, angiotensin II stimulates the thirst center in the hypothalamus and inhibits the secretion of renin in the kidneys.
Angiotensin II is hydrolyzed by aminopeptidases into angiotensin III (a heptapeptide with the activity of angiotensin II, but having a 4-fold lower concentration), which is then hydrolyzed by angiotensinase (protease) to AK.
Aldosterone
Aldosterone is an active mineralocorticosteroid synthesized by cells of the zona glomerulosa of the adrenal cortex.
The synthesis and secretion of aldosterone is stimulated by angiotensin II, low concentrations of Na + and high concentrations of K + in the blood plasma, ACTH, and prostaglandins. Aldosterone secretion is inhibited by low concentrations of K +.
Aldosterone receptors are localized in both the nucleus and cytosol of the cell. Aldosterone induces the synthesis of: a) Na + transport proteins, which transport Na + from the lumen of the tubule to the epithelial cell of the renal tubule; b) Na + , K + -ATPases c) K + transport proteins that transfer K + from renal tubule cells into primary urine; d) mitochondrial enzymes of the TCA cycle, in particular citrate synthase, which stimulate the formation of ATP molecules necessary for active ion transport.
As a result, aldosterone stimulates Na + reabsorption in the kidneys, which causes NaCl retention in the body and increases osmotic pressure.
Aldosterone stimulates the secretion of K +, NH 4 + in the kidneys, sweat glands, intestinal mucosa and salivary glands.
The role of the RAAS system in the development of hypertension
Overproduction of RAAS hormones causes an increase in the volume of circulating fluid, osmotic and blood pressure, and leads to the development of hypertension.
An increase in renin occurs, for example, with atherosclerosis of the renal arteries, which occurs in the elderly.
Hypersecretion of aldosterone – hyperaldosteronism – occurs as a result of several reasons.
The cause of primary hyperaldosteronism (Conn's syndrome) in approximately 80% of patients is an adrenal adenoma, in other cases it is diffuse hypertrophy of cells of the zona glomerulosa that produce aldosterone.
In primary hyperaldosteronism, excess aldosterone increases Na + reabsorption in the renal tubules, which stimulates ADH secretion and water retention by the kidneys. In addition, the excretion of K +, Mg 2+ and H + ions is enhanced.
As a result, the following develop: 1). hypernatremia, causing hypertension, hypervolemia and edema; 2). hypokalemia leading to muscle weakness; 3). magnesium deficiency and 4). mild metabolic alkalosis.
Secondary hyperaldosteronism is much more common than primary hyperaldosteronism. It may be associated with heart failure, chronic kidney disease, and renin-secreting tumors. Patients have elevated levels of renin, angiotensin II and aldosterone. Clinical symptoms are less pronounced than with primary aldosteronism.
CALCIUM, MAGNESIUM, PHOSPHORUS METABOLISM
Functions of calcium in the body:
Intracellular mediator of a number of hormones (inositol triphosphate system);
Participates in the generation of action potentials in nerves and muscles;
Participates in blood clotting;
Triggers muscle contraction, phagocytosis, secretion of hormones, neurotransmitters, etc.;
Participates in mitosis, apoptosis and necrobiosis;
Increases the permeability of the cell membrane for potassium ions, affects the sodium conductivity of cells, the operation of ion pumps;
Coenzyme of some enzymes;
- It is a coenzyme of many enzymes (transketolase (PFSH), glucose-6ph dehydrogenase, 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase, gluconolactone hydrolase, adenylate cyclase, etc.);
An inorganic component of bones and teeth.
- Inorganic component of bones and teeth (hydroxyapatite);
Part of lipids (phospholipids, sphingolipids);
Part of nucleotides (DNA, RNA, ATP, GTP, FMN, NAD, NADP, etc.);
Provides energy metabolism because forms macroergic bonds (ATP, creatine phosphate);
Part of proteins (phosphoproteins);
Part of carbohydrates (glucose-6ph, fructose-6ph, etc.);
Regulates the activity of enzymes (reactions of phosphorylation/dephosphorylation of enzymes, part of inositol triphosphate - a component of the inositol triphosphate system);
Participates in the catabolism of substances (phospholysis reaction);
Regulates the CBS because forms a phosphate buffer. Neutralizes and removes protons in urine.
An adult contains on average 1000 g of calcium:
- Bones and teeth contain 99% calcium. In bones, 99% of calcium is in the form of poorly soluble hydroxyapatite [Ca 10 (PO 4) 6 (OH) 2 H 2 O], and 1% is in the form of soluble phosphates;
Extracellular fluid 1%. Blood plasma calcium is presented in the form: a). free Ca 2+ ions (about 50%); b). Ca 2+ ions connected to proteins, mainly albumin (45%); c) non-dissociating calcium complexes with citrate, sulfate, phosphate and carbonate (5%). In the blood plasma, the concentration of total calcium is 2.2-2.75 mmol/l, and ionized calcium is 1.0-1.15 mmol/l;
Intracellular fluid contains 10,000-100,000 times less calcium than extracellular fluid.
- Bones and teeth contain 85% phosphorus;
Extracellular fluid – 1% phosphorus. In the blood serum, the concentration of inorganic phosphorus is 0.81-1.55 mmol/l, phospholipid phosphorus 1.5-2 g/l;
Intracellular fluid – 14% phosphorus.
Exchange of calcium, magnesium and phosphates in the body
With food per day, calcium should be supplied - 0.7-0.8 g, magnesium - 0.22-0.26 g, phosphorus - 0.7-0.8 g. Calcium is poorly absorbed by 30-50%, phosphorus is well absorbed by 90%.
In addition to the gastrointestinal tract, calcium, magnesium and phosphorus enter the blood plasma from bone tissue during the process of its resorption. The exchange between blood plasma and bone tissue for calcium is 0.25-0.5 g/day, for phosphorus – 0.15-0.3 g/day.
Calcium, magnesium and phosphorus are excreted from the body through the kidneys with urine, through the gastrointestinal tract with feces and through the skin with sweat.
Regulation of exchange
The main regulators of calcium, magnesium and phosphorus metabolism are parathyroid hormone, calcitriol and calcitonin.
Parathyroid hormone
Parathyroid hormone (PTH) is a polypeptide of 84 AKs (about 9.5 kDa) synthesized in the parathyroid glands.
The secretion of parathyroid hormone is stimulated by low concentrations of Ca 2+, Mg 2+ and high concentrations of phosphates, and inhibited by vitamin D 3.
The rate of hormone breakdown decreases at low Ca 2+ concentrations and increases if Ca 2+ concentrations are high.
Parathyroid hormone acts on bones and kidneys. It stimulates the secretion of insulin-like growth factor 1 and cytokines by osteoblasts, which increase the metabolic activity of osteoclasts. In osteoclasts, the formation of alkaline phosphatase and collagenase is accelerated, which cause the breakdown of the bone matrix, resulting in the mobilization of Ca 2+ and phosphates from the bone into the extracellular fluid.
In the kidneys, parathyroid hormone stimulates the reabsorption of Ca 2+, Mg 2+ in the distal convoluted tubules and reduces the reabsorption of phosphates.
Parathyroid hormone induces the synthesis of calcitriol (1,25(OH) 2 D 3).
As a result, parathyroid hormone in the blood plasma increases the concentration of Ca 2+ and Mg 2+, and reduces the concentration of phosphates.
Hyperparathyroidism
In primary hyperparathyroidism (1:1000), the mechanism of suppression of parathyroid hormone secretion in response to hypercalcemia is disrupted. Causes may include tumor (80%), diffuse hyperplasia, or cancer (less than 2%) of the parathyroid gland.
Hyperparathyroidism causes:
- destruction of bones, with the mobilization of calcium and phosphates from them. The risk of fractures of the spine, femur and forearm bones increases;
hypercalcemia, with increased reabsorption of calcium in the kidneys. Hypercalcemia leads to a decrease in neuromuscular excitability and muscle hypotension. Patients develop general and muscle weakness, fatigue and pain in certain muscle groups;
formation of kidney stones with an increase in the concentration of phosphate and Ca 2 + in the renal tubules;
hyperphosphaturia and hypophosphatemia, with decreased reabsorption of phosphates in the kidneys;
In renal failure, the formation of calcitriol is inhibited, which impairs the absorption of calcium in the intestine and leads to hypocalcemia. Hyperparathyroidism occurs in response to hypocalcemia, but parathyroid hormone is not able to normalize plasma calcium levels. Sometimes hyperfostatemia occurs. Osteoporosis develops as a result of increased mobilization of calcium from bone tissue.
Hypoparathyroidism
Hypoparathyroidism is caused by insufficiency of the parathyroid glands and is accompanied by hypocalcemia. Hypocalcemia causes increased neuromuscular conduction, attacks of tonic convulsions, convulsions of the respiratory muscles and diaphragm, and laryngospasm.
Calcitriol
Calcitriol is synthesized from cholesterol.
- In the skin, under the influence of UV radiation, most of cholecalciferol (vitamin D 3) is formed from 7-dehydrocholesterol. A small amount of vitamin D 3 comes from food. Cholecalciferol binds to a specific vitamin D-binding protein (transcalciferin), enters the blood and is transported to the liver.
In the liver, 25-hydroxylase hydroxylates cholecalciferol to calcidiol (25-hydroxycholecalciferol, 25(OH)D 3). D-binding protein transports calcidiol to the kidneys.
In the kidneys, mitochondrial 1?-hydroxylase hydroxylates calcidiol to calcitriol (1,25(OH)2D3), the active form of vitamin D3. Parathyroid hormone induces 1?-hydroxylase.
The synthesis of calcitriol is inhibited by hypercalcemia; it activates 24?-hydroxylase, which converts calcidiol into the inactive metabolite 24,25(OH) 2 D 3, while correspondingly active calcitriol is not formed.
Calcitriol affects the small intestine, kidneys and bones.
Calcitriol:
- in intestinal cells induces the synthesis of Ca 2+ -transferring proteins, which ensure the absorption of Ca 2+ , Mg 2+ and phosphates;
in the distal tubules of the kidneys stimulates the reabsorption of Ca 2+, Mg 2+ and phosphates;
at low Ca 2+ levels, it increases the number and activity of osteoclasts, which stimulates osteolysis;
with low levels of parathyroid hormone, stimulates osteogenesis.
Calcitriol deficiency disrupts the formation of amorphous calcium phosphate and hydroxyapatite crystals in bone tissue, which leads to the development of rickets and osteomalacia.
Rickets is a childhood disease associated with insufficient mineralization of bone tissue.
Causes of rickets: lack of vitamin D 3, calcium and phosphorus in the diet, impaired absorption of vitamin D 3 in the small intestine, decreased synthesis of cholecalciferol due to lack of sunlight, defect of 1a-hydroxylase, defect of calcitriol receptors in target cells. A decrease in the concentration of Ca 2+ in the blood plasma stimulates the secretion of parathyroid hormone, which, through osteolysis, causes the destruction of bone tissue.
With rickets, the bones of the skull are affected; the chest, together with the sternum, protrudes forward; tubular bones and joints of the arms and legs are deformed; the abdomen enlarges and protrudes; motor development is delayed. The main ways to prevent rickets are proper nutrition and sufficient sun exposure.
Calcitonin
Calcitonin is a polypeptide consisting of 32 AA with one disulfide bond, secreted by parafollicular K-cells of the thyroid gland or C-cells of the parathyroid glands.
The secretion of calcitonin is stimulated by high concentrations of Ca 2+ and glucagon, and suppressed by low concentrations of Ca 2+.
Calcitonin:
- suppresses osteolysis (reducing osteoclast activity) and inhibits the release of Ca 2 + from bone;
in the kidney tubules it inhibits the reabsorption of Ca 2+, Mg 2+ and phosphates;
inhibits digestion in the gastrointestinal tract,
A decrease in the concentration of Ca 2+ in the blood plasma is observed when:
pregnancy;
nutritional dystrophy;
rickets in children;
acute pancreatitis;
blockage of the biliary tract, steatorrhea;
renal failure;
infusion of citrated blood;
bone fractures;
polyarthritis;
multiple myelomas;
metastases of malignant tumors in the bones;
overdose of vitamin D and Ca 2+;
obstructive jaundice;
- rickets;
hyperfunction of the parathyroid glands;
osteomalacia;
renal acidosis
- hypofunction of the parathyroid glands;
overdose of vitamin D;
renal failure;
diabetic ketoacidosis;
multiple myeloma;
osteolysis.
An increase in the concentration of Mg 2+ in the blood plasma is observed when:
- tissue breakdown;
infections;
uremia;
diabetic acidosis;
thyrotoxicosis;
chronic alcoholism.
Manganese is a cofactor for aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases.
Biological role of Na + , Cl - , K + , HCO 3 - - basic electrolytes, importance in the regulation of CBS. Metabolism and biological role. Anion difference and its correction.
Heavy metals (lead, mercury, copper, chromium, etc.), their toxic effects.
Increased chloride levels in the blood serum: dehydration, acute renal failure, metabolic acidosis after diarrhea and loss of bicarbonates, respiratory alkalosis, head trauma, adrenal hypofunction, with long-term use of corticosteroids, thiazide diuretics, hyperaldosteronism, Cushing's disease.
Decreased chloride content in the blood serum: hypochloremic alkalosis (after vomiting), respiratory acidosis, excessive sweating, nephritis with loss of salts (impaired reabsorption), head injury, a condition with an increase in the volume of extracellular flexibility, ulcerative ulcer, Addison's disease (hypoaldosteronism).
Increased excretion of chlorides in the urine: hypoaldosteronism (Addison's disease), salt-losing nephritis, increased salt intake, treatment with diuretics.
Decreased urinary chloride excretion: Loss of chlorides due to vomiting, diarrhea, Cushing's disease, end-phase renal failure, salt retention due to edema.
The normal calcium content in blood serum is 2.25-2.75 mmol/l.
The normal excretion of calcium in urine is 2.5-7.5 mmol/day.
Increased calcium levels in the blood serum: hyperparathyroidism, tumor metastases into bone tissue, multiple myeloma, decreased release of calcitonin, vitamin D overdose, thyrotoxicosis.
Decreased calcium levels in the blood serum: hypoparathyroidism, increased calcitonin secretion, hypovitaminosis D, impaired reabsorption in the kidneys, massive blood transfusion, hypoalbunemia.
Increased excretion of calcium in the urine: prolonged exposure to sunlight (hypervitaminosis D), hyperparathyroidism, tumor metastases into bone tissue, impaired reabsorption in the kidneys, thyrotoxicosis, osteoporosis, treatment with glucocorticoids.
Decreased excretion of calcium in the urine: hypoparathyroidism, rickets, acute nephritis (impaired filtration in the kidneys), hypothyroidism.
The iron content in the blood serum is normal mmol/l.
Increased iron content in blood serum: aplastic and hemolytic anemia, hemochromatosis, acute hepatitis and steatosis, liver cirrhosis, thalassemia, repeated transfusions.
Decreased iron content in blood serum: iron deficiency anemia, acute and chronic infections, tumors, kidney disease, blood loss, pregnancy, impaired absorption of iron in the intestines.