The main problems and characteristic features of modern philosophy. The main problems and directions of philosophy of modern times
1. Socio-historical and cultural features of the New Age. Formation of science.
2. Characteristic features and main problems of modern philosophy.
3. Philosophy of F. Bacon.
4. Empiricism of T. Hobbes and sensationalism of J. Locke.
5. Formation of subjective idealistic philosophy (J. Berkeley, D. Hume).
1. Socio-historical and cultural features of the New Age. Formation of science.
New time(XVII – XIX centuries) – a period of major changes in the history of mankind.
In socio-economic terms This period is characterized by the establishment of a new, capitalist mode of production. The main socio-political forces are the classes of capitalists and wage workers. The change in the social system was accompanied by bourgeois revolutions (1609 in the Netherlands, 1640 in England, later in France). In the 17th century England was the most industrially developed country; the processes of formation of bourgeois relations took place here at the fastest pace.
The change in social system has brought significant changes to spiritual life of society, led to a weakening of the spiritual dictatorship of the Church. The religious worldview still retains significant ideological influence in society, but is losing its dominant position in relation to science and philosophy. The new worldview laid down in the Renaissance, in which the main value is man and his mind, is finally affirmed.
the formation and development of bourgeois relations, which entailed significant changes in the economy, politics, social relations, became the objective basis formation of science as a special system of knowledge, an independent type of spiritual activity and a social institution. there was a need to apply scientific knowledge in production and social practice. speculative scholastic disciplines are giving way to a new science that has an experimental, experimental character. Under the influence of developing capitalism, science is becoming the most important productive force. The formation of science as an independent phenomenon is associated with the appearance in the 16th – 17th centuries. works of Kepler, Galileo, Newton. Independent branches of natural science knowledge gradually emerged; mathematics, physics, and mechanics received the greatest development during this period. In the 17th century The first communities of scientists were formed, and in the 18th – early 19th centuries. science becomes the basis of university education, i.e. becomes professional.
Scientists and philosophers of this time see their main task in developing human cognitive abilities and increasing his power over nature.
2. The main problems and characteristic features of the philosophy of the New Age.
The philosophy of modern times developed in close cooperation with science, primarily mathematics, physics, and mechanics. The most important object of philosophical analysis is the nature of scientific knowledge, its sources, methods of scientific knowledge. Come to the fore problems of epistemology .
In the same time ontological problems also have not lost their relevance. The rapid development of science has necessitated the creation of a new, holistic picture of the world based on scientific ideas. In this regard, philosophy was faced with the task of systematizing and generalizing factual material, establishing cause-and-effect relationships between natural phenomena, and substantiating the unity of man and nature.
Anthropological issues is being updated in modern European philosophy in connection with the dissemination of a new view of man, in which priority is given to his cognitive and creative-transformative abilities.
Radical socio-political transformations in the modern era, changes in the social and class structure of society, and bourgeois revolutions led to the interest of thinkers in problems of social development. A significant place in the works of many philosophers is occupied by problems of social philosophy : government structure, origin and essence of the state, the problem of society and the individual, ways and means of transforming social relations.
Characteristic features of new European philosophy.
1) The ideal of modern philosophy becomes accurate knowledge; a special role in obtaining it is given to mechanics as the science of the movement of material bodies in space. As a result, the key principle in philosophy becomes mechanism, which considers a person and the world around him as a complex mechanism that functions and develops according to the laws of mechanics.
2) In the philosophy of modern times, a new idea of the goals of scientific knowledge is emerging. A fundamentally new type of philosophizing – rational-pragmatic, according to which scientific knowledge should have a practical orientation and serve to solve economic and social problems. A characteristic feature of new European thinking is practicality.
3) In resolving the issue of the sources and methods of knowing the world in the theory of knowledge of the New Age, the following directions emerge: rationalism, empiricism, sensationalism. Rationalism(Latin rationalis - reasonable) (R. Descartes, B. Spinoza) - an epistemological principle that considers the activity of the human mind to be the main means of knowledge. Empiricism(Greek empeiria - experience) (F. Bacon, T. Hobbes) recognizes experimental, experimental data as the most important source of knowledge about the world. Sensationalism(Latin sensus - sensation) (J. Locke), emphasizes the special role of the senses in the process of cognition.
4) Due to the fact that religion is losing its influence on the scientific and philosophical worldview, new principles are being formed that determine the attitude towards Christian teaching:
- deism- an ideological movement that recognizes God as the source, the primary cause of existence, but assumes that after creation the world develops according to its own laws, God does not interfere in the processes taking place. The principles of deism are reflected both in philosophy (*F. Bacon, French enlighteners Voltaire, Rousseau, etc.) and in science (*I. Newton, in whose teaching God is considered the source of movement and development of the world, but it is believed that after creation, the world develops according to its own, internal laws);
- atheism(formed in the 18th – 19th centuries) – a movement that, from a scientific point of view, denies the existence of God (*La Mettrie, Holbach, Diderot).
3. Philosophy of F. Bacon.
Francis Bacon (1561 - 1626) - English thinker and statesman, founder of philosophical materialism and experimental science of the New Age. The main works of F. Bacon: “New Organon” - a work on the methodology of scientific knowledge, “New Atlantis” - a social utopia that reveals the role of science and technology for the comprehensive development of society, etc.
F. Bacon made scientific knowledge the main subject of philosophical understanding; his focus was on questions about the goals and methods of scientific knowledge. The task of science, according to Bacon, is to reveal natural patterns, which will lead to the expansion of human capabilities and strengthening of his power over nature (“ Knowledge is power"). Scientific knowledge must meet the practical needs of society and serve to solve economic and social problems. Therefore, the question of the reliability of knowledge comes to the fore.
In his works, Bacon develops materialistic views of nature. He claims that the first cause of the world is God, but further the world is subject to the action of natural laws (deism). Therefore, Bacon positively resolves the question of the knowability of the world. However, he argues that on the path of knowledge there are many misconceptions that prevent the acquisition of reliable knowledge. These misconceptions (" idols") constantly accompany the cognitive process and indicate its complexity and inconsistency. Some of the idols are due to the imperfections of human nature, others are associated with the influence of external factors. Bacon identifies 4 types of “idols” of knowledge:
1) " idols of the family“are a consequence of the limitations of the human mind, the imperfection of the senses;
2) " idols of the cave“are determined by the individual characteristics of a person: each person has his own internal subjective world (his own “cave”), which affects his assessment of reality;
3) " market idols» arise in the process of communication and are caused by misunderstanding due to the incorrect use of words and linguistic expressions;
4) " theater idols"appear as a result of the influence of scientific and philosophical authorities, their uncritical assimilation.
Bacon considers the main means of overcoming “idols” to be the choice of the correct method (“path”) of knowledge. Bacon reveals the problem of choosing a scientific method allegorically and describes 3 ways of knowledge:
1) " spider's path"represents an attempt to derive the truth by purely rational means, through theoretical reflection;
2) " ant's path» involves only the use of empirical, experimental data without their theoretical generalization;
3) " the path of the bee“is based on the unity of sensory and rational knowledge, on the movement from obtaining experimental data to their theoretical understanding.
Thus, Bacon substantiates the experimental-inductive method of scientific research. Induction involves moving from the particular to the general, from individual facts to general provisions and conclusions. According to Bacon, knowledge is based on sensory data, which requires experimental verification and then theoretical generalization.
The main significance of Bacon's philosophy lies in its empirical and practical orientation, in the attempt to develop an effective method of scientific knowledge.
4. The empiricism of T. Hobbes and the sensationalism of J. Locke.
Thomas Hobbes (1588 - 1679) - English philosopher, a prominent representative of empiricism and mechanism. [ He was born a very sick child; doctors believed that he would not survive; but he lived until he was 92, played tennis until he was 70, and at 86 he translated the Iliad and Odyssey from ancient Greek..]
In his views on nature, Hobbes takes the position of mechanistic materialism. The surrounding world for him is not a living organism, but a collection of material bodies that are located in a certain geometric order, appear and disappear. The most important properties of any body are extension and shape, movement and rest. Differences between bodies appear only in quantitative relations. Hobbes understands movement in nature only as a mechanical process: movement is the movement of a body from one place to another. Space and time depend on the movement of bodies: there is no time in general, but only time in specific material systems.
IN theories of knowledge Hobbes combines elements of empiricism and rationalism. He believes that the source and basis of knowledge are sensations. The cognitive process is the comparison, combination and separation of ideas that arise on the basis of sensory sensations. Hobbes drew attention to the role of language in the process of cognition. Words are signs that designate certain objects and phenomena and convey our ideas to others, therefore language is a necessary means of knowledge and communication between people.
An important place in the philosophy of T. Hobbes occupies doctrine of the state. His work “Leviathan” provides a rationale for the theory of social contract. According to the philosopher, man is by nature selfish and ambitious, therefore the natural state of society is a “war of all against all.” But human nature also gives rise to the desire for self-preservation. To ensure its security, to maintain peace and implement the laws created by the human mind, there is a state. The state is created as a result of a natural contract by the people themselves, who give it part of their rights, receiving in return a guarantee of security and law and order.
John Locke (1632 - 1704) - English thinker, a prominent representative of sensationalism and skepticism.
In his main work, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, Locke substantiates the origin of knowledge from sensations. Locke argues that there are no innate ideas in the mind; a person’s consciousness at the moment of birth is a “blank slate.” All ideas arise in the process of the influence of things that exist independently of us on our senses (“There is nothing in the mind that was not previously in the senses”). As an example, Locke cites religious consciousness: if innate ideas (the idea of God) existed, then there would be no unbelieving peoples and atheists.
Locke divides sensory experience into external and internal. Ideas of external experience arise during the perception of objects in the surrounding world by the senses: vision, hearing, touch, etc. - and reflect the objective qualities of objects. Inner experience gives a person an idea of his mental state, his soul, and arises in the course of thought and reflection.
In the field of social philosophy, J. Locke developed the theory of the social contract, substantiated the idea of law as the most important means of protecting a person from the arbitrariness of the state, and formulated a position on the need for separation of powers.
5. Formation of subjective idealistic philosophy (J. Berkeley, D. Hume).
George Berkeley(1685 - 1753) - English philosopher who opposed materialist philosophy. Berkeley argued that the world does not exist independently of man, but is a complex of sensations and perceptions. Only that which can be perceived exists, so “to be” means “to be in perception.”
Matter, according to Berkeley, is an “empty and beautiful word,” the support of atheists and the subject of debate among philosophers. The external world cannot be a source of sensations; the sensations themselves (ideas) are the only reality (*idea of smell, color). Ideas are given from God as the highest and wise cause and are assimilated by the human soul. Berkeley names the brightness and universality of ideas as a criterion for the truth of knowledge.
David Hume(1711 – 1776) – English philosopher, historian, psychologist. Hume believed that a person deals not with the external world, but with the flow of his sensations and ideas. The question of the existence of the external world is insoluble: “We know nothing about the world around us.” In the process of cognition, a person simply constructs the world from his impressions. The flow of impressions is heterogeneous: some of them seem to be the most vivid and stable - they serve as a support for practical life. The task of knowledge is not to explain the world, but to be able to orient a person in practical life.
Philosophy of the New Age, specifics and main problems
If the philosophy of the Middle Ages was an attempt to comprehend the phenomenon of religion, to give a philosophical justification for theocentrism, then at the end of the 16th and beginning of the 17th century, philosophical knowledge encountered new realities that forced it to change the object of its critical reflection. New times entered life and developed under the slogans of freedom, equality, and individual activity. The main instrument for the implementation of these slogans was rational knowledge. One of the classics of modern philosophy, Francis Bacon, expressed this in his famous statement: “Knowledge is power, and he who masters knowledge will be powerful.” Taking mechanics and mathematics as a model, philosophy must create an absolute, complete philosophical system for all times and peoples.
In the process of solving this problem, two main directions were formed in the philosophy of the New Age: empiricism and rationalism. Forefather empiricism became the English philosopher Francis Bacon. His ideas found their development in the philosophical systems of J. Locke, D. Berkeley, D. Hume. The main thesis of empiricism: there is nothing in the mind that is not in the feelings; feelings and experience are sources of knowledge, reason is only a systematizer of sensory data. The inductive method introduced at that time by Bacon, which was based on observations, analysis, comparison and experiment, corresponds to experimental knowledge.
Adherents rationalism in the philosophy of the New Age there were R. Descartes, B. Spinoza, G. Leibniz, who considered the main source of knowledge to be thoughts and concepts inherent in the mind from birth (innate ideas), or in the form of inclinations, predispositions of the mind.
This explains specific features philosophy of the New Age: the predominance of epistemological issues over ontological ones; clearly expressed interest in the methodology of scientific knowledge; educational orientation; criticism of religion and theology.
Within the framework of the philosophy of the New Age, the following were predominantly developed: Problems: conditions and boundaries of everyday, scientific and philosophical knowledge; the problem of truth in knowledge; sensory and rational knowledge, their relationship; the nature of methods of scientific knowledge; classification of sciences; the relationship between the one and the many in substance; the nature of state and law; the influence of culture on human development, cultural and natural in man.
This era is permeated by man’s desire to subordinate the surrounding natural and social world to his influence through rational domination over it. From this point of view, rationalism is seen as the basis of all Western culture, starting around the 16th century. At the same time, it should be understood as a belief in the ability of the human mind to fully, without reserve, cognize and control the world. However, the attempt to transfer the methods of mechanics and mathematics into philosophy led to the fact that at that time it acquired a metaphysical and mechanistic character.
Mechanism philosophy of the New Age is that all processes, including biological and social, are considered as purely mechanical processes. Metaphysicality philosophy of the New Age lies in the inability to understand the world as a process, as a matter that is in continuous historical development.
On the other hand, the philosophy of the New Age is not thematically and substantially homogeneous; it is represented by various national schools and personalities. But, despite all the differences, the essence of philosophical aspirations is the same for everyone: to prove that there is a fundamental identity between the factual and logical state of affairs. On the question of how this identity is realized, as noted above, there are two philosophical traditions: empiricism and rationalism. The controversy between them was very fruitful for the development of philosophical knowledge. Empiricism is represented mainly by English natural-scientific materialism, and rationalism was popular in continental Europe: in France and Germany.
XVI-XVIII centuries The focus of the new philosophy is the theory of knowledge and the development of a method of knowledge common to all sciences. It is impossible to cognize God, nature, man, society, according to philosophers of the New Age, without first finding out the laws of the cognizing Reason. F. Bacon, T. Hobbes, R. Descartes, J. Locke, G. Leibniz.
What is the world around us and what is the place and purpose of man in the world? What underlies everything that exists: material or spiritual? Is the world subject to any laws? Can a person know the world around him, what does this knowledge represent? The problem of knowledge, scientific methods, social structure. Problems of epistemology come to the fore. The connection between the sensory and the rational is revealed, the problems of truth and other epistemological issues are explored.
Two main directions of philosophy of the New Age:
1. Empiricism is a direction in the theory of knowledge that recognizes sensory experience as the only source of knowledge.
2. Rationalism (Latin: rational) highlights the logical basis of science, recognizes reason as the source of knowledge and the criterion of its truth.
22. The emergence of a natural science picture of the world: G. Galileo’s contribution to resolving the issue of the objectivity of knowledge.
In ontology (starting with G. Galileo), the concept of matter is radically revised.
1) It consists of tiny particles (atoms) that have certain shapes and speeds. Identification of matter and substance.
2) Matter is a substantial form of nature, which is characterized by spatiotemporal and quantitative attributes (place, time, movement).
3) Matter was equal to itself and unchangeable.
In the fight against scholasticism. Aristotelian-Ptolemaic tradition. G. developed the principles of mechanistic. materialism. In his understanding of matter, he was close to the atomists; he proposed the idea of material substance as a single unchanging basis of nature, which has a certain definition. structure and requiring exclusively mechanics and mathematics for its description. means - “figures, numbers and movements.”
In epistemology, he developed the idea of the boundlessness of “extensive” knowledge of nature, noting at the same time the possibility of achieving absolute. truth, i.e. “intensive” knowledge. G. adhered to the theory of dual truth, which was progressive at that time, trying to delimit the scientific. research from theology.
The starting point of knowledge, according to G., is sensory experience, which, however, in itself does not provide reliable knowledge. It is achieved through systematic real or mental experimentation, based on strict quantitative and mathematical principles. description. G. identified two main ones. method of experimental research of nature. Analytical by the “resolution” method using the means of mathematics, abstractions of idealization and passage to the limit.
Reliable knowledge is ultimately realized in an explanatory theoretical framework. scheme as the unity of the synthetic and analytical, sensual and abstract.
23. The difference between the method of natural sciences and the method of the humanities. Question 46.
24. German classical philosophy: optional
a) philosophy of I. Kant;
b) philosophy of G.V.F. Hegel.
The highest achievement of German classical philosophy was the dialectic of Hegel (1770-1831). whose great merit is that he was the first to present the entire natural, historical and spiritual world in the form of a process, i.e. in continuous movement, change, transformation and development, and made an attempt to reveal the internal connection of this movement and development. The significance of Hegel's philosophy lay in the fact that it presented in a systematic form the dialectical worldview and the corresponding dialectical method of research. Three laws of dialectics (the essence of the history of development). 1. The law of transition of quantitative relations into qualitative ones (when quantitative relations change after a certain stage, a change in quality occurs due to the destruction of the measure). 2. Law of direction of development (negation of negation). Naked negation is something that comes after a given object, completely destroying it. Dialectical negation: something from the first object is preserved - a reproduction of this object, but in a different quality. Water is ice. Development occurs in a spiral. 3. The law of unity and struggle of opposites. The reason for development is the unity and struggle of opposites. Opposites interact, that is, they fight. The struggle leads to three outcomes: mutual destruction, illumination of one of the parties, or compromise.
25. Non-classical European philosophy of the 19th century: optional
a) philosophy of A. Schopenhauer;
Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860) follower of Kant. Supporter of voluntarism (will is the highest principle of existence).
b) philosophy of S. Kierkegaard;
In the views of the founder of existentialism, Kierkegaard, objective being expresses the “unreal existence” of a person.
c) philosophy of F. Nietzsche.
Philosophy of life. In Phil. life on the first the plan puts forward the non-thinking abilities of a person: feeling, will or intuition. Consciousness is contrasted with the unconscious, the deep source of human behavior. Development for Nietzsche has no meaning. Regression. But the formation of a new person is possible. The concept of eternal return. The principle of conservation of force in the universe, energy, etc. Realizing the absurdity of his approach based on science, he uses an allegorical image - an endless road lying behind us, and a gate in front of us with the inscription “moment”. "Knowledge is power." Science can only skim the surface. The point is to possess an object, not to know it. Science is a convenient delusion; it does not need the world as such. Immoralism is confrontation with traditional (Christian) morality. Christianity overturns traditional concepts of good and evil. Nietzsche believed that religion should be abolished, and in fact it was abolished. A new type of people must appear - the “blond beast”. They will behave according to the laws of this race, and in relation to others the way they want. Politics is power without morality. The patient is a parasite of society. The weak need to be pushed, to be helped to fall. Stages of human spiritual development. 1. A camel is an easy-going animal. I have to carry everything that is laid down and endure all the hardships. 2. In the desert he transforms into a lion - I want, I have the right, I can. Destructive nature. 3. Next, after satisfying the desire, the lion turns into a child. The child creates. Highest stage. It will come only after the first two - slavish dependence and evil inclination. He stands for honesty, health, etc., for people’s desire for art.
The 11th century is a fundamentally new page in the history of mankind. Dramatic changes are taking place in all spheres of human life and society. Capitalist production relations are being established, and a new social structure of society is taking shape. From the agricultural form of its development, European civilization transitioned to the industrial form of further development. Changes in the spiritual and worldview sphere are just as dramatic. Science is declaring itself, which seeks to form a scientific worldview and a scientific picture of the world. The place of philosophy is also changing. She sees her role not so much in metaphysical constructions, but rather in solving epistemological and methodological problems of science, as well as in a new understanding of society, the state and the place of man. The religious worldview is also changing, preferring the theistic interpretation of its problems to pantheism and deism.
The first place in the philosophical teachings of the 17th century undoubtedly belongs to epistemological and methodological problems. According to the French philosopher René Descartes (1596-1650), “thought must begin with itself.”
Philosophers of this era proposed various methods of cognition, depending on these methods, two trends in philosophy emerged: empiricism and rationalism. Representatives of empiricism (F. Bacon) derived knowledge from experimental knowledge. Empiricism should be distinguished from sensationalism (from the Latin sensus - perception, feeling, sensation). The main principle of sensationalism was formulated by J. Locke: “There is nothing in the mind that has not first passed through the senses.” Empiricism, along with sensory knowledge, presupposed the active work of the mind to generalize experimental material. An inductive method of cognition was proposed (from the Latin Inductio - “guidance”) - from the particular to the general.
Rationalists (R. Descartes, B. Spinoza, G. Leibniz) believed that a person’s ability to analyze, generalize, and think rationally plays a decisive role in the process of cognition. The mind is able to organize sensory data and provide the most accurate knowledge. However, the mind is not unlimited: it is capable of making mistakes, since the world around us is dual and even contradictory. In the structure of the world, R. Descartes identified material and ideal components. Rationalists relied on a deductive (from the Latin deductio - “deduction”) method of understanding reality - from the general to the specific.
An important role in the philosophy of modern times was given to problem of substance(ontological problem).
Philosophers of the 17th century developed both materialistic and idealistic theories. The Dutch thinker Benedict Spinoza (1632-1677) created a monistic concept, according to which the basis of the world was considered to be a single substance - God. God was identified with nature. Spinoza's views were pantheistic. The philosopher believed that all forms of reality are manifestations of a single substance. He called the main forms of substance material and spiritual. They are closely related to each other, the best confirmation of which is man. For these ideas, Spinoza's teachings were classified as materialistic.
The idealistic concept of the 17th century is represented in the works of Gottfried Leibniz (1646-1716), who believed that the world is pluralistic, that is, it is based on many substances - monads (from the Greek “single”). Monads are the “spiritual atoms” of the universe. There are various monads, harmoniously related to each other. Leibniz arranged monads in a hierarchical order:
Ø the highest monad is God (as in Spinoza’s theory, Leibniz has a pantheistic understanding of God);
Ø monads of the animal world;
Ø the lowest group (“bare monads”) - monads of inanimate nature.
You should pay attention to changing interpretation of the role of God in ontology.
F. Bacon and G. Leibniz put forward the concept of deism (from the Latin deus - god). God in their theories is the impersonal, rational first cause of the world. Having created the world, God provided it with the opportunity to develop freely.
So, the philosophical teachings of the 17th century actively developed epistemological and methodological problems of science, and in new conditions formed a substantial understanding of the world.
§ 5. Philosophy of the Enlightenment
The 1111th century is the century of Enlightenment, the establishment of the ideals of a scientific worldview and their application to the understanding of human nature, society and the state. The German philosopher I. Kant believed that the motto of the Enlightenment era was “have the courage to use your reason.”
In general, the Enlightenment is a powerful movement that united philosophers, scientists, cultural figures, and politicians who are convinced of the decisive role of knowledge and enlightenment in the social and spiritual development of society. They believed that the cause of all the misfortunes and suffering of people lies in their ignorance.
Enlightenment ideas were especially developed in France. J. D'Alembert called the 1111th century in the history of French culture “the century of philosophy.” The period of its development is conditionally limited by two dates: the year of the death of Louis XIV (1715), which marked the end of the era of absolutism, and the year of the storming of the Bastille (1789), after which life made new demands on philosophy. The culmination of the educational philosophical movement is considered to be the 50s of the 16th century. At this time, the Encyclopedia began to be published, uniting both scientists, philosophers, and writers.
A characteristic feature of the Enlightenment worldview is a specific rationalism: “the laws of nature are the laws of reason.” The rationalists of this time in their reasoning do not go from reason to nature, which was characteristic of the rationalism of the 11th century (R. Descartes), but from nature to reason. For example, P. Holbach considers nature and its laws as teachers of the human mind.
The natural consequence of this was the demand that the laws of nature should also be binding legal laws. A chain of equalities emerged: natural = reasonable = useful = good = legal = knowable = feasible.
Enlightenment philosophy in its applications was a “practical” philosophy, oriented towards political transformation. Criticism of existing orders was aimed at realizing the ideals of the “kingdom of reason.”
In understanding nature, the ideas of a mechanistic worldview were affirmed, and the idea of the absolute immutability of nature was formed. P. Holbach believed that the total “sum of beings and elements” of nature does not change and is preserved.
The guiding principle in the study of man was the idea of unchangeable “human nature,” which includes needs, everyone’s right to happiness, and the equality of all in relation to natural rights. J. J. Rousseau noted that “everything that a man and a woman have in common relates to human nature; everything in which they differ from each other relates to gender.”
At the same time, the idea of the difference between a “savage” and a “civilized person” was affirmed. As J. J. Rousseau believed, they differ from each other in their mental make-up and aspirations.
The attitude towards history was basically non-dialectical. History is a collection of accidents and absurdities caused by ignorance. The Enlightenmentists contrasted each other with the “normal” course of history: enlightenment = love of knowledge = free-thinking = goodness = progress; “abnormal” course of history: ignorance = religious obscurantism = political despotism = evil = misfortune.
The doctrine of fatalism played an essential function in the system of views. In his work “System of Nature,” P. Holbach includes the following elements in the concept of fatalism: the causal (causal) conditionality of all events, the linear connection of the effect with its cause, everything happens inevitably and strictly, people are not able to change the “immutable order.”
An integral part of the teachings of the Enlightenment was Enlightenment atheism. D. Diderot sharply contrasted philosophy and religion. “Philosophers, by their very profession, are friends of reason and science, and priests are the enemies of reason and patrons of ignorance.” Religion was seen as the joint creation of a fool and a swindler who accidentally met each other. It was believed that an enlightened person ceases to be superstitious.
Thus, during the Enlightenment, key problems of worldview were posed. Enlightenmentists, based on the ideals of scientific reason, sought to understand the universe, human nature, and propose ways for the “normal” development of society.
Main questions of the lecture:
1. The main problems and directions of this period.
2. Rationalism and its representatives.
3. Empiricism and its representatives.
4. Philosophy of the Enlightenment: specifics and directions.
I. The main problems and directions of philosophy of the New Age.
The philosophy of modern times covers the period of the XVI-XVIII centuries. This is the time of the formation and formalization of the natural sciences, which emerged from philosophy. Physics, chemistry, astronomy, mathematics, mechanics are turning into independent sciences. The line outlined in the Renaissance is further developed. At the same time, new tasks and priorities arise in philosophy. The focus of the new philosophy is the theory of knowledge and the development of a method of knowledge common to all sciences. It is impossible to cognize God, nature, man, society, according to philosophers of the New Age, without first finding out the laws of the cognizing Reason. Unlike other sciences, philosophy must study thinking, its laws and methods, from which the construction of all sciences begins. This issue is dealt with by F. Bacon, T. Hobbes, R. Descartes, J. Locke, G. Leibniz.
The philosophy of this period is characterized by a number of attitudes:
1. Promotion of science to the rank of the most important activity of humanity. It is science (=reason) that can enrich humanity, save it from troubles and suffering, raise society to a new stage of development, and ensure social progress (F. Bacon).
2. Complete secularization of science. The synthesis of science with religion, faith with reason is impossible. No authorities are recognized except the authority of reason itself (T. Hobbes).
3. The development of sciences and man’s ultimate subjugation of nature is possible when the main method of thinking is formulated, the method of “pure reason”, capable of operating in all sciences (R. Descartes).
In the search for a new “super method”, philosophers were divided into supporters of empiricism (“empirio” - experience) and rationalism (“ration” - mind).
Empiricists (F. Bacon, T. Hobbes, J. Locke, etc.) believed that the only source of knowledge is experience. Experience is associated with sensations, perceptions, and ideas. The content of all knowledge of a person or humanity is reduced to experience. “There is nothing in cognition that was not previously contained in sensations” - this is the motto of the empiricist-sensualists (“sens” - feeling, feeling). There is no innate knowledge, concepts or ideas in the human soul and mind. The soul and mind of a person are initially pure, like a waxed tablet (tabula rasa - a clean board), and already sensations and perceptions “write” their “writing” on this tablet. Since sensations can deceive, we test them through an experiment that corrects sensory data. Knowledge must go from the particular, experienced to generalizations and the development of theories. This is the inductive method of moving the mind, along with experiment, and is the true method in philosophy and all sciences.
Rationalists (R. Descartes, B. Spinoza, G. Leibniz) believed that experience based on human sensations cannot be the basis of a general scientific method. Perceptions and sensations are illusory. We may feel something that is not there (for example, pain in a lost limb), and we may not feel some sounds, colors, etc. Experimental data, like experimental data, are always doubtful. But in the Mind itself there are intuitively clear and distinct ideas. The main thing is that a person undoubtedly thinks. This basic - intuitive (pre-experimental) idea - is: “I think, therefore I exist” (Descartes). Then, using the rules of deduction (from the general to the specific), we can deduce the possibility of the existence of God, nature and other people. The conclusion of the rationalists: the human mind contains, regardless of experience, a number of ideas; these ideas exist not on the basis of sensations, but before sensations. By developing the ideas embedded in the mind, a person can gain true knowledge about the world. Certainly. We draw information about the world from sensations, therefore both experience and experiment are important components of knowledge about the world, but the basis of the true method must be sought in the mind itself. The true method of all sciences and philosophy is similar to mathematical methods. The latter are given outside of direct experience; begin with general, but extremely clear and precise formulations. Mathematics uses the usual method, proceeding from general ideas to particular conclusions, there is no experiment in it.
2. Rationalism and its representatives: R. Descartes, B. Spinoza, G. Leibniz.
R. Descartes is a dualist. The philosopher divides the whole world into two types of substances - spiritual and material. The main property of a spiritual substance is thinking, while that of a material substance is extension. Modes of the first: feelings, desires, sensations, etc. The second modes: form, movement, position in space, etc. Man consists of two substances. He is the only being in whom they are united and both exist simultaneously, which allows him to rise above nature.
However, these are substances with reservations. Substance in philosophy is defined as something that for its existence does not need anything other than itself. From this point of view, it is obvious that only God is the true substance - eternal, indestructible, omnipotent, the source and cause of everything. According to Descartes, it turns out that substance is something that needs only the existence of God for its existence. Created substances are self-sufficient only in relation to each other, in relation to the highest substance - God
- they are derivative, secondary and dependent on it.
Descartes is a rationalist. He is trying to find the starting point of human knowledge - the first absolutely reliable position, which is the beginning of any science. You can doubt absolutely everything that exists. The only thing that is not in doubt is one's own existence. It is impossible to consider as non-existent that which carries out the act of doubt. Doubt is a property of thought. Hence Descartes’ famous thesis: “I think, therefore I exist” (Cogito ergo sum). The very fact of doubt and thought is the most obvious and reliable thing that a person has at his disposal. Therefore, it is human thought, the mind, that constitutes the starting point of knowledge.
Descartes proposes a deductive method of knowledge (from the general to the particular) as an ideal scientific method of knowledge. Its essence boils down to the following four principles:
1. When researching, allow only true, absolutely reliable, reason-proven, knowledge that does not raise any doubts (“clear and distinct”) - axioms;
2. Divide each complex problem into specific tasks;
3. Consistently move from known and proven issues to unknown and unproven ones;
4. Strictly follow the sequence of the research, not skip a single link in the logical chain of research.
Most knowledge is achieved through cognition and the method of deduction, but there is a special kind of knowledge that does not need any proof. This knowledge is initially obvious and reliable, and always resides in the human mind. Descartes calls them
“innate ideas” (God, “number”, “body”, “soul”, “structure”, etc.)
Descartes defines the ultimate goal of knowledge as the dominance of man over nature.
B. Spinoza criticizes R. Descartes. Spinoza considered the main drawback of Cartesian theory of substance to be its dualism: on the one hand, substance is an entity that for its existence does not need anything other than itself; on the other hand, all entities (substances) that do not need anything other than themselves for their existence are nevertheless created by someone else - the highest and only true substance - God - and are completely dependent on him for their existence. Hence there is a contradiction between the independence of substances and the simultaneous dependence of all of them, both in terms of creation and in terms of existence) on another substance - God.
Spinoza believed that this contradiction can only be resolved in the following way: to identify God and nature. There is only one substance - nature, which is its own cause (causa sui). Nature, on the one hand, is “creative nature” (God), and “on the other hand, “created nature” (the world). Nature and God are one. There is no God who is located and creates outside of nature, towering above it. God is within nature. Individual things do not exist on their own, they are just manifestations
- “modes” of a single substance - Nature-God. The external cause of the existence of modes is a single substance; they depend entirely on it, are subject to change, move in time and space, and have a beginning and an end to their existence. Substance is infinite in time and space, eternal (uncreated and indestructible), motionless, has an internal cause of itself, and has many properties (attributes), the main of which are thinking and extension.
Spinoza's theory of knowledge is rationalistic in nature. The lowest level of knowledge, in his opinion, is knowledge based on imagination. These are ideas based on sensory perceptions of the external world. Disadvantage: Sensory experience is messy. The second, higher level is formed by knowledge based on the mind. Truths here are deduced through evidence. Truths are reliable, clear and distinct. The limitation of this type of knowledge lies in its indirect nature. The third, and highest, type of knowledge is knowledge that is also based on the mind, but is not mediated by evidence. These are truths seen in intuition, i.e. direct contemplation of the mind. They are reliable and distinguished by the greatest clarity and distinctness. The first kind of knowledge is sensory knowledge. The second and third are intellectual knowledge.
G. Leibniz criticized both Descartes' dualism of substances and Spinoza's doctrine of a single substance. If there were only one substance, then, according to Leibniz, all things would be passive, not active. All things have their own action, hence each thing is a substance. The number of substances is infinite. The whole world consists of a huge number of substances. He calls them “monads (from Greek - “single” “unit”). The monad is not a material, but a spiritual unit of existence. At the same time, any monad is both a soul (the leading role here) and a body. Thanks to the monad, matter has the ability to move itself. The monad is simple, indivisible, unique, subject to change, impenetrable (“has no windows”), closed, independent of other monads, inexhaustible, endless, active. It has four qualities: desire, attraction, perception, idea. However, monads are not absolutely isolated: each monad reflects the entire world, the entire totality. The Monad is the “living mirror of the Universe.”
Classes of monads (the higher the class of monads, the greater its intelligence and degree of freedom):
“bare monads” - lie at the basis of inorganic nature (stones, earth, minerals);
animal monads - have sensations, but undeveloped self-awareness;
Monads of a person (soul) - have consciousness. Memory, the unique ability of the mind to think;
The highest monad is God.
Leibniz tries to reconcile empiricism and rationalism. He divided all knowledge into two types - “truths of reason” and “truths of fact.” “Truths of reason” are derived from reason itself, can be proven logically, and have a necessary and universal character. "Truths of Fact"
- knowledge obtained empirically (for example, magnetic attraction, boiling point of water). This knowledge only states the fact itself, but does not talk about its causes; it is probabilistic in nature. Despite this, experimental knowledge cannot be belittled or ignored. Knowledge is twofold; it can be both reliable (rational knowledge) and probabilistic (empirical).
3. Empiricism and its representatives: F. Bacon and T. Hobbes.
Francis Bacon - the founder of empiricism, Lord Chancellor of England. The two main works are “New Organon” and “New Atlantis”. Bacon set the task of reforming science, contrasting his understanding of science and its method with the understanding on which Aristotle relied in his Organon. The philosopher considered criticism of scholasticism to be the basis for the transformation of science. Based on Aristotle's logic, scholasticism builds knowledge in the form of a syllogism. A syllogism consists of propositions, judgments
- from concepts. Concepts are the result of a hasty and insufficiently justified generalization. The first condition for the reform of science is the improvement of methods of generalization and concept formation. A new theory of induction is needed.
F. Bacon criticizes rational knowledge, because it is unreliable and unreliable - the mind brings a lot into knowledge from itself. Bacon calls such additions “idols” of the mind. It is necessary to isolate and cleanse the mind of these idols. There are four types of them - “idols of the cave”, “idols of the cave”, “idols of the clan”, “idols of the square” and “idols of the theater”.
“Idols of the race” are obstacles (delusions) caused by the nature common to all people. Man judges nature by analogy with his own properties. “Idols of the cave” are errors associated with the characteristics of a person who knows. A person’s prejudices and misconceptions (“cave”) are reflected in his conclusions in the process of cognition. For example, some tend to believe in the infallible authority of antiquity, while others, on the contrary, give preference only to the new. “market ghosts” - incorrect, inaccurate use of the conceptual apparatus: words, definitions, expressions. “Ghosts of the theater” - influence the process of cognition of existing philosophy. Often, old philosophy prevents an innovative approach from being taken and does not always direct knowledge in the right direction (for example, the influence of scholasticism on knowledge in the Middle Ages).
Knowing the types of obstacles that await a person when exploring nature helps to avoid mistakes. However, this knowledge is only a prerequisite for the creation of the scientific method. Its development is necessary. Studying the history of science, Bacon came to the conclusion that there are clearly two paths or methods of research in it: dogmatic and empirical. A scientist following the dogmatic method begins his work with general speculative propositions and seeks to derive from them all particular cases. A dogmatist is like a spider that weaves its web out of itself. A scientist following the empirical method strives only for the maximum accumulation of facts. He looks like an ant, which randomly drags into the anthill everything that comes in its way. The true method is the mental processing of materials that produces experience. This is the path of the “bee”, combining all the advantages of the “path of the spider” and the “path of the ant”. It is necessary to collect the entire set of facts, generalize them (look at the problem “from the outside”), and, using the capabilities of the mind, look “inside” the problem and understand its essence. That. The best way of knowledge, according to Bacon, is empiricism, based on induction (collection and generalization of facts, accumulation of experience) using rationalistic methods of understanding the inner essence of things and phenomena with the mind.
The main tasks of knowledge are to help a person achieve practical results in his activities, to promote new inventions, economic development, and the dominance of man over nature. Hence the famous aphorism of F. Bacon: “Knowledge is power!”
Thomas Hobbes is a materialist and empiricist, a continuator of the teachings of F. Bacon. Hobbes opposes R. Descartes's doctrine of innate ideas. Experience shows that people immersed in dreamless sleep do not think. This means they don’t have any ideas at this time. Therefore, no idea can be innate: what is innate must always be present. According to Hobbes, the source of knowledge can only be sensory perceptions of the external world. In his understanding, sensory perceptions are signals received by the senses from the surrounding world and their subsequent processing. The philosopher calls them “signs.” These include: signals - sounds made by animals to express their actions or intentions (birds singing, growling of predators, meowing, etc.); tags - various signs invented by humans for communication; natural signs - “signals” of nature (thunder, lightning, etc.); arbitrary signs of communication - words of different languages; signs in the role of “tags” - special “coded” speech, understandable to few (scientific language, religious language, jargon); signs of signs - general concepts.
T. Hobbes is known for his doctrine of the origin of the state (“Leviathan”, which means “monster”).
He distinguishes two states of human society: natural and civil. The philosopher's initial thesis is that human nature is inherently evil. Therefore, in the state of nature, people act based on personal gain, selfishness and passions. Everyone believes that they have the right to everything. Here, right coincides with force, and neglect of other people’s interests leads to a “war of all against all.” This war threatens mutual destruction. Therefore, it is necessary to seek peace, for which everyone must renounce the “right to everything” (voluntarily limit their “absolute” freedom). A contract is concluded in society, and from that moment it passes into the civil state. An institution that directs people towards a common goal and restrains them from actions that disturb the peace is a state of one will. Everyone must subordinate his private will to some one person or group of persons, whose will must be considered the will of all. This is how the state arises. T. Hobbes considered the most perfect form of state power to be an absolute monarchy. He calls the state “Leviathan” or a monster that “devours and sweeps away everything in its path”, it is omnipotent and impossible to resist, but it is necessary to maintain the viability of society, order and justice in it
4. Philosophy of the Enlightenment: specifics and directions.
Tests and questions:
1. What is the novelty and features of the philosophy of the New Age?
2. Explain the meaning of the terms empiricism and rationalism. What unites these trends of philosophical thought of the 17th century?
3. Explain Descartes’ phrase “Cogito ergo sum.”
4. Compare the doctrines of substance by B. Spinoza and G. Leibniz.
5. Describe F. Bacon’s teaching about the “idols” of knowledge.
6. What are the main features of the philosophy of the Enlightenment.