Periodization of the history of Kievan Rus. Old Russian state Kievan Rus

Formation of the Old Russian state- a key event in Russian history, which continues to cause ongoing controversy in our time. Most often, there are two main hypotheses for the formation of the Old Russian state. According to the Norman theory, based on the Tale of Bygone Years of the 12th century and numerous Western European and Byzantine sources, statehood in Rus' was brought from outside by the Varangians - the brothers Rurik, Sineus and Truvor in 862. The anti-Norman theory is based on the concept of the impossibility of introducing statehood from the outside, on the idea of ​​the emergence of the state as a stage in the internal development of society. The founder of this theory in Russian historiography is considered to be Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov.

Prerequisites for the formation of the Old Russian state

1. Development of agriculture, trade, crafts, crafts.
2. Complication of intra-tribal relations.
3. Increasing the role of the prince and the squad in society (military and judicial functions).
4. The struggle between tribes led to the formation of intertribal alliances.
5. The desire to seize trade routes in the West and South.
6. Interaction with various civilizations (in particular, with the Byzantine Empire), various borrowings from them.
7. The presence of common pagan cults.
8. The presence of a single enemy - in a particular case, the Khazar Kaganate, which had to be resisted.

Folding steps

1. VIII - mid. 9th century - the formation of inter-tribal alliances and the rise of their centers, the formation of tribal principalities, the emergence of the polyudye system (polyudye was initially of a voluntary nature, being compensation for military and administrative services).
2. 2nd half of IX - mid. X centuries - acceleration of the formation of the state, which occurred during the reigns of Rurik, Oleg, and Igor.
3. The final stage (945 - 980) - the establishment of lessons and graveyards, polyudye was replaced by a cart, the elimination of tribal principalities (complete) under St. Vladimir Svyatoslavich.

Specific features

Characteristic features of the Old Russian state

1. Dynastic (tribal) power of the prince.
2. The presence of a primitive state apparatus: squads and governors.
3. Tribute collection system (tribute system - polyudye).
4. The territorial principle of settlement is the displacement of the tribal type of settlement.
5. Monotheism (Vladimir Svyatoslavich’s adoption of Christianity in Rus' in 988).

Features of state formation among the Eastern Slavs

1. Distance from the centers of ancient civilization (and, as a result, a slowdown in the process of state formation).
2. Severity of climatic conditions.
3. Initially, the ancient Russian state was multi-ethnic in its composition.

The historical significance of the formation of the state among the Eastern Slavs

1. It created favorable conditions for the further development of crafts and trade.
2. The state influenced the formation of the social structure of society.
3. A powerful impetus has been given for the development of Russian culture.
4. The formation of a single ancient Russian nationality began - three branches: Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian.
5. The Old Russian state was able to repel the attack of waves of steppe nomads.
6. Rus' became a “bridge” of economic and trade exchange between the West and the East, that is, we can say that Rus' began to occupy an intercivilizational position.

Story

Duality

It’s worth mentioning right away that there is very little information about the time period discussed below, since the first chronicles were written much later than these events. There are other sources of information about ancient tribes and settlements (archeology, etc.), but such information is also difficult to take on faith. Moreover, the chronicles themselves could have been corrected (“History is written by the winner”).

In particular, there are two versions of the emergence of the Old Russian state: the Norman theory and the anti-Norman theory. We will mainly consider the Norman theory.

Calling of the Varangians

V. M. Vasnetsov. Varangians. 1909. Oil on canvas. House-Museum of V. M. Vasnetsov, Moscow

Before the emergence of the Old Russian state itself, conflicts, military alliances, and civil strife constantly took place on the lands of the East Slavic tribes. Overall, the situation was very unfavorable and restless.

In particular, the tribes living on the coast of the Baltic (Varangian at that time) Sea had to pay tribute to the Varangians. But in 862 they expelled the Varangians and stopped paying them tribute. In fact, the coastal tribes became independent, which almost destroyed them: when clans lay claim to power, severe civil strife begins (“My clan is more ancient and nobler than yours!”). This is what led to constant tribal wars.

Perhaps it was then that it was decided to call in a prince from outside, perhaps not because those peoples could not solve their problems, but because a “stranger”, without friends, the prince was simply obliged to rule so that everyone was happy. In fact, this is a very smart political move, so to speak.

In this regard, the headman of Novgorod decided to call the prince from outside so that he would rule everything with justice and unite all the hostile tribes into one whole. This event was called “The Calling of the Varangians”; it happened in 862.

862 - Calling of the Varangians

As a result, the Varangian king Rurik came to rule in Novgorod (the first capital of the Old Russian state).

Prince Rurik (reign 862-879)

H. V. Kukkuk. "Rorik." 1912

968 - 969 - war with the Bulgarian kingdom. Byzantium sent its embassy to Svyatoslav. They asked to crush the Bulgarian kingdom, and also paid in gold for their service. At this time, Princess Olga dies. Therefore, Svyatoslav transfers the reign of Kiev to his son, Yaropolk (Yaropolk ruled for 8 years), and he himself goes on a campaign against the Bulgarian kingdom. As a result, the Bulgarian kingdom asks for help from Byzantium, which wanted to destroy this kingdom with the wrong hands. But Byzantium is slow to provide assistance to its old enemies. Then the Bulgarian kingdom, in alliance with Svyatoslav, went to war against Byzantium.

970 - 971 - campaign of Svyatoslav's army in alliance with the Bulgarian kingdom against Byzantium. During the general battle, the troops of Svyatoslav and Bulgaria were defeated. Although, according to another version, the allied troops reached Constantinople itself and retreated only after taking a large tribute. After Byzantium began pursuing the departing armies of the allied forces, as a result of which Svyatoslav himself was wounded and was forced to sign an alliance treaty. Almost all Bulgarian lands began to belong to Byzantium.

Death and legacy

Svyatoslav died in the spring of 972 while crossing the mouth of the Dnieper. The Pechenegs attacked him and his army. Svyatoslav had three sons - Yaropolk, Oleg, Vladimir. In particular, during the campaign against the Bulgarian kingdom, he distributed power in Rus' between them. Yaropolk ruled in Kyiv.

The beginning of civil strife

B. Chorikov."The Murder of Yaropolk." Engraving from the album “Picturesque Karamzin”

It is not known for certain whether there were any civil strife before this moment, but after the death of Svyatoslav, a conflict broke out between his sons for the main, Kiev throne.

Reason: lack of any laws for the transfer of the throne. In fact, after the death of the prince, absolutely anyone could seize power. In particular, Svyatoslav had three sons. Without laws of succession to the throne, they all essentially had exactly the same rights to the throne.

Also, this point (the death of Svyatoslav) can be considered the beginning of the feudal fragmentation of Rus'. Yaropolk, who ruled in Kyiv, attacked Oleg’s lands. He captured them and killed Oleg himself. Having learned about this, Vladimir fled for a while, and Yaropolk, for a short period of time, began to rule all of Russia. But then Vladimir returned with the Varangian army. Among Yaropolk's subjects there was a traitor who forced the prince to hide in the city of Rodna. Yaropolk could not hold this city for long and was forced to enter into negotiations with Vladimir. At this very moment, two Varangians (Blud and Vladimir) killed Yaropolk.

Vladimir began to rule all of Russia.

Prince Vladimir (reign: 978 - 1015)

Vladimir's conversation with the Greek philosopher about Christianity. Radziwill Chronicle, l. 49 rev.

Vladimir, who killed his brother Yaropolk, became a Christian, and also baptized all of Rus'. Vladimir also undertook a number of campaigns, but his main activity was strengthening the state.

Key dates and activities

988 - famous baptism of Rus'. Reason: Vladimir noticed that the squad, the people and much more were tied to the prince only by bonds of fear. Vladimir really didn’t like this. He also noticed that local priests were highly respected among the people. He wanted to bind the lands of Rus' together with something more than just fear. And it must be said that it worked. As a result of baptism, the population, in general, became more educated, and a common language emerged. The Church began to eradicate completely cruel pagan customs.

It must be said that Vladimir spent quite a long time choosing a religion to accept. When his choice became focused on choosing Christianity, he had a second choice - to accept a system of Christianity following the example of Byzantium, or to accept Catholic Christianity. Subsequently, he chose the Byzantine system because of its flexibility. For example, Catholic Christianity assumed that all rituals were conducted in Latin. Byzantine Christianity was more flexible, rituals and prayers were translated into local languages.

By the way, around the same time there was a split in Christianity. This happened due to the gradual divergence of Christianity in the Holy Roman Empire and Christianity in Byzantium. As a result, the Pope even excommunicated the Patriarch of Constantinople from the church, and only in 2001 an apology was made regarding that event.

In general, the transition to Christianity in Rus' went smoothly. Relations between Byzantium and Russia improved, etc. Although ancient rituals and customs were preserved in Rus', the new church either turned a blind eye to them or began to consider them Christian (a manifestation of the flexibility of the new religion). Vladimir made many different trips in the future. It is not necessary to mention them (see the wiki page about the prince if interested). Moreover, Vladimir even adopted laws and coordinated them with his squad.

Death and legacy

In the last years of his life, Vladimir was probably going to change the principle of succession to the throne and bequeath power to his beloved son Boris. In any case, it was Boris who he entrusted with his squad. The two eldest surviving sons - Svyatopolk and Yaroslav - almost simultaneously rebelled against their father in 1014. Therefore, when Vladimir died of illness in the country residence of Berestov on July 15, 1015, those around him hid his death. The fact is that Svyatopolk was in Kyiv: he should not have found out about this before the townspeople, otherwise he would have tried to usurp power. The prince's body, wrapped in a carpet, was secretly taken out at night on a sleigh and brought to the Kyiv Tithe Church, where he was buried; The marble sarcophagi of Vladimir and his wife stood in the middle of the temple. The Tithe Church was destroyed by the Mongols in 1240.

Vladimir had a huge number of children. You can also get acquainted with everyone on the wiki page about the prince.

The beginning of civil strife

Svyatoslav had three sons. And you already know very well what they did in Rus' in the struggle for power. So, Vladimir had 10 sons and 13 daughters. Again, it should be repeated that naturally there were no laws for the transfer of the throne in the event of the death of the prince.

In this situation, Vladimir, perhaps, before his death wanted to transfer the reign to his beloved son Boris. But his other son, Svyatopolk, killed almost all of his brothers, including Boris. Svyatopolk became the Grand Duke of Kyiv, but not for long (he ruled for only a couple of years).

But Svyatopolk still had a brother - Yaroslav. Yaroslav marched with his army against Svyatopolk. Both troops did not dare to attack each other. Yaroslav was the first to attack, and at that moment when Svyatopolk was feasting with his squad. The troops of the Kyiv prince were defeated and thrown into the lake, and Yaroslav captured Kyiv.

The defeated prince retreated to Poland, where he called for help from his father-in-law, Prince Boleslav I the Brave. In 1018, with the support of Polish and Pecheneg troops, Svyatopolk and Boleslav set out on a campaign against Kyiv. The squads met on the Bug, where the Polish army under the command of Boleslav defeated the Novgorodians, Yaroslav again fled to Novgorod. Svyatopolk again occupied Kyiv. Not wanting to support Boleslav's troops, stationed in Russian cities for food, he broke the alliance and expelled the Poles. Many Kyiv boyars left along with Boleslav. Less than a year later, Svyatopolk, who had lost his military strength, was forced to flee Kyiv again from Yaroslav, who had returned with the Varangians. The Kiev prince called on other allies, the Pechenegs, for help, hoping with their help to regain power. In the decisive battle on the Alta River (not far from the place where Boris died), Svyatopolk suffered a decisive defeat. According to the First Novgorod Chronicle, after the battle on Alta, Svyatopolk fled to the Pechenegs, and his further fate is not indicated. After this, Yaroslav became the Grand Duke of Kyiv.

Dates to remember

Reign dates

1. 862 - 879 - Prince Rurik.
2. 879 - 912 - Prince Oleg the Prophetic.
3. 912 - 945 - Prince Igor.
4. 945 - 962 - Princess Olga.
5. 945 - 972 - Prince Svyatoslav.
6. 972 - 978 - Prince Yaropolk.
7. 978 - 1015 - Prince Vladimir.

Significant Events

1. 862 - Calling of the Varangians
2. 882 - Unification of Novgorod and Kyiv
3. 988 - Baptism of Rus'

Questions and assignments for the topic "Formation of the Old Russian State"

• Name the founder of the ancient Russian state.
• Name the main features of the resulting Old Russian state.
• Briefly describe the main events of the reigns of the first Kyiv princes.
• Read more about the baptism of Rus' by Prince Vladimir I.

• Dumin, S. V. Where did the Russian land come from / S. V. Dumin, A. A. Turilov // History of the Fatherland. People, ideas, solutions. Essays on the history of Russia IX-early. XX centuries / comp. S. V. Mironenko. - M.: Politizdat, 1991. - 365 p. - P. 7-33.
• Gorsky, A. A. Rus': From the Slavic Settlement to the Muscovite Kingdom / A. A. Gorsky. - M.: Languages ​​of Slavic culture, 2004. - 368 p. - ISBN 5-94457-191-8. Vernadsky, G. V. Ancient Rus'. Ch. 8. Education of Kievan Rus (839-878) [Electronic resource] // Gumilevica: hypotheses, theories, worldview of L. N. Gumilyov. - Electron. text. data. - Access mode: http://gumilevica.kulichki.net/VGV/vgv181.htm#vgv181para01, free.
• Zuckerman, K. Two stages of the formation of the Old Russian state [Electronic resource] // Archeology, Kiev: Institute of Archeology of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine. - 2003. - No. 1. - Electron. version of the article. - Access mode: http://www.iananu.kiev.ua/archaeology/2003-1/zukerman.htm, free.
• Shapov, Ya. N. The Baptism of Rus' [Electronic resource] / Ya. N. Shapov // Great Soviet Encyclopedia: in 30 volumes. T. 13: Konda - Kun. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1973. - 608 p. - P. 418. - Electron. version of the article. - Access mode: http://dic.academic.ru/dic.nsf/bse/99943/Baptism. , free.

Video materials

• Russian knowledge base. History of the Old Russian State. 1: Prologue [Video recording] / Russian knowledge base // YouTube. - Electron. video given. - Access mode: https://www.youtube.com/embed/ajkmiWGpHAo, free.
• Russian knowledge base. History of the Old Russian State. 2: Education of Rus' [Video recording] / Russian knowledge base // YouTube. - Electron. video given. - Access mode: https://www.youtube.com/embed/Sc9583D2eRY, free.

Today our knowledge of Ancient Rus' is similar to mythology. Free people, brave princes and heroes, milk rivers with jelly banks. The real story is less poetic, but no less interesting.

“Kievan Rus” was invented by historians

The name “Kievan Rus” appeared in the 19th century in the works of Mikhail Maksimovich and other historians in memory of the primacy of Kyiv. Already in the very first centuries of Rus', the state consisted of several isolated principalities, living their own lives and completely independently. With the lands nominally subjugated to Kyiv, Rus' was not united. Such a system was common in the early feudal states of Europe, where each feudal lord had the right of ownership of the lands and all the people on them.

The appearance of the Kyiv princes was not always truly “Slavic” as is commonly imagined. It's all about subtle Kyiv diplomacy, accompanied by dynastic marriages, both with European dynasties and with nomads - Alans, Yases, Polovtsians. The Polovtsian wives of the Russian princes Svyatopolk Izyaslavich and Vsevolod Vladimirovich are known. In some reconstructions, Russian princes have Mongoloid features.

Organs in ancient Russian churches

In Kievan Rus one could see organs and not see bells in churches. Although bells existed in large cathedrals, in small churches they were often replaced by flat bells. After the Mongol conquests, the organs were lost and forgotten, and the first bell makers came again from Western Europe. Musical culture researcher Tatyana Vladyshevskaya writes about organs in the ancient Russian era. One of the frescoes of the St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv, “Buffoons,” depicts a scene with playing the organ.

Western origin

The language of the Old Russian population is considered East Slavic. However, archaeologists and linguists do not entirely agree with this. The ancestors of the Novgorod Slovenes and parts of the Krivichi (Polotsk) arrived not from the southern expanses from the Carpathians to the right bank of the Dnieper, but from the West. Researchers see a West Slavic “trace” in ceramic finds and birch bark records. The prominent historian-researcher Vladimir Sedov is also inclined towards this version. Household items and ritual features are similar among the Ilmen and Baltic Slavs.

How the Novgorodians understood the Kyivans

Novgorod and Pskov dialects differed from other dialects of Ancient Rus'. They contained features inherent in the languages ​​of Polabs and Poles, and even completely archaic, proto-Slavic ones. Well-known parallels: kirky - “church”, hѣde - “gray-haired”. The remaining dialects were very similar to each other, although they were not such a single language as modern Russian. Despite the differences, ordinary Novgorodians and Kyivians could understand each other well: the words reflected the common life of all Slavs.

"White spots" in the most visible place

We know almost nothing about the first Rurikovichs. The events described in The Tale of Bygone Years were already legendary at the time of writing, and the evidence from archaeologists and later chronicles is scarce and ambiguous. Written treaties mention certain Helga, Inger, Sfendoslav, but the dates of events differ in different sources. The role of the Kyiv “Varangian” Askold in the formation of Russian statehood is also not very clear. And this is not to mention the eternal controversy surrounding the personality of Rurik.

"Capital" was a border fortress

Kyiv was far from being in the center of Russian lands, but was the southern border fortress of Rus', while being located in the very north of modern Ukraine. Cities south of Kyiv and its environs, as a rule, served as centers of nomadic tribes: Torks, Alans, Polovtsians, or were primarily of defensive importance (for example, Pereyaslavl).

Rus' - a slave trading state

An important source of wealth in Ancient Rus' was the slave trade. They traded not only in captured foreigners, but also in Slavs. The latter were in great demand in eastern markets. Arab sources of the 10th-11th centuries vividly describe the path of slaves from Rus' to the countries of the Caliphate and the Mediterranean. The slave trade was beneficial to the princes; large cities on the Volga and Dnieper were centers of the slave trade. A huge number of people in Rus' were not free; for debts they could be sold into slavery to foreign merchants. One of the main slave traders were Radonite Jews.

In Kyiv, the Khazars “inherited”

During the reign of the Khazars (IX-X centuries), in addition to the Turkic tribute collectors, there was a large diaspora of Jews in Kyiv. Monuments of that era are still reflected in the “Kiev Letter,” containing correspondence in Hebrew between Kyiv Jews and other Jewish communities. The manuscript is kept in the Cambridge Library. One of the three main Kyiv gates was called Zhidovsky. In one of the early Byzantine documents, Kyiv is called Sambatas, which, according to one version, can be translated from Khazar as “upper fortress.”

Kyiv – Third Rome

Ancient Kiev, before the Mongol yoke, occupied an area of ​​about 300 hectares during its heyday, the number of churches numbered in the hundreds, and for the first time in the history of Rus', it used a block layout that made the streets orderly. The city was admired by Europeans, Arabs, and Byzantines and was called a rival to Constantinople. However, from all the abundance of that time, almost not a single building remains, not counting the St. Sophia Cathedral, a couple of rebuilt churches and the recreated Golden Gate. The first white-stone church (Desiatinnaya), where Kievans fled from the Mongol raids, was destroyed already in the 13th century

Russian fortresses are older than Rus'

One of the first stone fortresses of Rus' was the stone-earth fortress in Ladoga (Lyubshanskaya, 7th century), founded by the Slovenes. The Scandinavian fortress that stood on the other bank of the Volkhov was still wooden. Built in the era of the Prophetic Oleg, the new stone fortress was in no way inferior to similar fortresses in Europe. It was she who was called Aldegyuborg in the Scandinavian sagas. One of the first strongholds on the southern border was the fortress in Pereyaslavl-Yuzhny. Among Russian cities, only a few could boast of stone defensive architecture. These are Izborsk (XI century), Pskov (XII century) and later Koporye (XIII century). Kyiv in ancient Russian times was almost entirely made of wood. The oldest stone fortress was the castle of Andrei Bogolyubsky near Vladimir, although it is famous more for its decorative part.

The Cyrillic alphabet was almost never used

The Glagolitic alphabet, the first written alphabet of the Slavs, did not take root in Rus', although it was known and could be translated. Glagolitic letters were used only in some documents. It was she who in the first centuries of Rus' was associated with the preacher Kirill and was called the “Cyrillic alphabet”. Glagolitic script was often used as a cryptographic script. The first inscription in the actual Cyrillic alphabet was the strange inscription “goroukhsha” or “gorushna” on a clay vessel from the Gnezdovo mound. The inscription appeared shortly before the baptism of the Kievites. The origin and exact interpretation of this word is still controversial.

Old Russian universe

Lake Ladoga was called “Lake the Great Nevo” after the Neva River. The ending “-o” was common (for example: Onego, Nero, Volgo). The Baltic Sea was called the Varangian Sea, the Black Sea was called the Russian Sea, the Caspian Sea was called the Khvalis Sea, the Azov Sea was called the Surozh Sea, and the White Sea was called the Icy Sea. The Balkan Slavs, on the contrary, called the Aegean Sea the White Sea (Byalo Sea). The Great Don was not called the Don, but its right tributary, the Seversky Donets. In the old days the Ural Mountains were called Big Stone.

Heir to Great Moravia

With the decline of Great Moravia, the largest Slavic power of its time, the rise of Kyiv and the gradual Christianization of Rus' began. Thus, the chronicled White Croats came out from under the influence of the collapsing Moravia and fell under the attraction of Rus'. Their neighbors, the Volynians and Buzhanians, had long been involved in Byzantine trade along the Bug, which is why they were known as translators during Oleg’s campaigns. The role of the Moravian scribes, who with the collapse of the state began to be oppressed by the Latins, is unknown, but the largest number of translations of Great Moravian Christian books (about 39) were in Kievan Rus.

Without alcohol and sugar

There was no alcoholism as a phenomenon in Rus'. Wine spirit came to the country after the Tatar-Mongol yoke; even brewing in its classical form did not develop. The strength of drinks was usually not higher than 1-2%. They drank nutritious honey, as well as intoxicated or infused honey (low alcohol), digests, and kvass.

Ordinary people in Ancient Rus' did not eat butter, did not know spices like mustard and bay leaves, or sugar. They cooked turnips, the table was replete with porridges, dishes from berries and mushrooms. Instead of tea, they drank infusions of fireweed, which would later become known as “Koporo tea” or Ivan tea. Kissels were unsweetened and made from cereals. They also ate a lot of game: pigeons, hares, deer, boars. Traditional dairy dishes were sour cream and cottage cheese.

Two "Bulgarias" in the service of Rus'

These two most powerful neighbors of Rus' had a huge influence on it. After the decline of Moravia, both countries, which arose from the fragments of Great Bulgaria, experienced prosperity. The first country said goodbye to the “Bulgar” past, dissolved in the Slavic majority, converted to Orthodoxy and adopted Byzantine culture. The second, following the Arab world, became Islamic, but retained the Bulgarian language as the state language.

The center of Slavic literature moved to Bulgaria, at that time its territory expanded so much that it included part of the future Rus'. A variant of Old Bulgarian became the language of the Church. It was used in numerous lives and teachings. Bulgaria, in turn, sought to restore order in trade along the Volga, stopping the attacks of foreign bandits and robbers. The normalization of Volga trade provided the princely possessions with an abundance of eastern goods. Bulgaria influenced Rus' with culture and literature, and Bulgaria contributed to its wealth and prosperity.

Forgotten “megacities” of Rus'

Kyiv and Novgorod were not the only large cities of Rus'; it was not for nothing that in Scandinavia it was nicknamed “Gardarika” (country of cities). Before the rise of Kyiv, one of the largest settlements in all of Eastern and Northern Europe was Gnezdovo, the ancestor city of Smolensk. The name is conditional, since Smolensk itself is located to the side. But perhaps we know his name from the sagas - Surnes. The most populated were also Ladoga, symbolically considered the “first capital,” and the Timerevo settlement near Yaroslavl, which was built opposite the famous neighboring city.

Rus' was baptized by the 12th century

The chronicled baptism of Rus' in 988 (and according to some historians in 990) affected only a small part of the people, mainly limited to the people of Kiev and the population of the largest cities. Polotsk was baptized only at the beginning of the 11th century, and at the end of the century - Rostov and Murom, where there were still many Finno-Ugric peoples. Confirmation that the majority of the common population remained pagans was the regular uprisings of the Magi, supported by the Smerds (Suzdal in 1024, Rostov and Novgorod in 1071). Dual faith arises later, when Christianity becomes the truly dominant religion.

The Turks also had cities in Rus'

In Kievan Rus there were also completely “non-Slavic” cities. Such was Torchesk, where Prince Vladimir allowed the Torque nomads to settle, as well as Sakov, Berendichev (named after the Berendeys), Belaya Vezha, where the Khazars and Alans lived, Tmutarakan, inhabited by Greeks, Armenians, Khazars and Circassians. By the 11th-12th centuries, the Pechenegs were no longer a typically nomadic and pagan people; some of them were baptized and settled in the cities of the “black hood” union, subordinate to Rus'. In the old cities on the site or in the vicinity of Rostov, Murom, Beloozero, Yaroslavl, mainly Finno-Ugrians lived. In Murom - Muroma, in Rostov and near Yaroslavl - Merya, in Beloozero - all, in Yuryev - Chud. The names of many important cities are unknown to us - in the 9th–10th centuries there were almost no Slavs in them.

“Rus”, “Roksolania”, “Gardarika” and more

The Balts called the country “Krevia” after the neighboring Krivichi, the Latin “Rutenia”, less often “Roxolania”, took root in Europe, the Scandinavian sagas called Rus' “Gardarika” (country of cities), the Chud and Finns “Venemaa” or “Venaya” (from the Wends), the Arabs called the main population of the country “As-Sakaliba” (Slavs, Sklavins)

Slavs beyond borders

Traces of the Slavs could be found outside the borders of the Rurikovich state. Many cities along the middle Volga and Crimea were multinational and inhabited, among other things, by Slavs. Before the Polovtsian invasion, many Slavic towns existed on the Don. The Slavic names of many Byzantine Black Sea cities are known - Korchev, Korsun, Surozh, Gusliev. This indicates the constant presence of Russian traders. The Peipus cities of Estland (modern Estonia) - Kolyvan, Yuryev, Bear's Head, Klin - passed into the hands of the Slavs, the Germans, and local tribes with varying degrees of success. Along the Western Dvina, Krivichi settled interspersed with the Balts. In the zone of influence of Russian traders was Nevgin (Daugavpils), in Latgale - Rezhitsa and Ochela. Chronicles constantly mention the campaigns of Russian princes on the Danube and the capture of local cities. For example, the Galician prince Yaroslav Osmomysl “locked the door of the Danube with a key.”

And pirates and nomads

Fugitive people from various volosts of Rus' formed independent associations long before the Cossacks. There were known Berladians who inhabited the southern steppes, the main city of which was Berlady in the Carpathian region. They often attacked Russian cities, but at the same time they took part in joint campaigns with Russian princes. The chronicles also introduce us to the Brodniks, a mixed population of unknown origin who had much in common with the Berladniks.

Sea pirates from Rus' were ushkuiniki. Initially, these were Novgorodians who were engaged in raids and trade on the Volga, Kama, Bulgaria and the Baltic. They even took trips to the Urals - to Ugra. Later they separated from Novgorod and even found their own capital in the city of Khlynov on Vyatka. Perhaps it was the Ushkuiniki, together with the Karelians, who ravaged the ancient capital of Sweden, Sigtuna, in 1187.

During the VI-IX centuries. among the Eastern Slavs there was a process of class formation and the creation of the preconditions for feudalism. The territory where ancient Russian statehood began to take shape was located at the intersection of routes along which the migration of peoples and tribes took place, and nomadic routes ran. The South Russian steppes were the scene of endless struggle among moving tribes and peoples. Often Slavic tribes attacked the border regions of the Byzantine Empire.

In the 7th century In the steppes between the Lower Volga, Don and North Caucasus, a Khazar state was formed. The Slavic tribes in the regions of the Lower Don and Azov came under his rule, retaining, however, a certain autonomy. The territory of the Khazar kingdom extended to the Dnieper and the Black Sea. At the beginning of the 8th century. The Arabs inflicted a crushing defeat on the Khazars, and through the North Caucasus they deeply invaded the north, reaching the Don. A large number of Slavs - allies of the Khazars - were captured.

The Varangians (Normans, Vikings) penetrate into Russian lands from the north. At the beginning of the 8th century. they settled around Yaroslavl, Rostov and Suzdal, establishing control over the territory from Novgorod to Smolensk. Some of the northern colonists penetrated into southern Russia, where they mixed with the Rus, adopting their name. The capital of the Russian-Varangian Kaganate, which ousted the Khazar rulers, was formed in Tmutarakan. In their struggle, the opponents turned to the Emperor of Constantinople for an alliance.

In such a complex environment, the consolidation of Slavic tribes into political unions took place, which became the embryo of the formation of a unified East Slavic statehood.

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In the 9th century. As a result of the centuries-long development of East Slavic society, the early feudal state of Rus' was formed with its center in Kyiv. Gradually, all the East Slavic tribes united in Kievan Rus.

The topic of the history of Kievan Rus considered in the work seems not only interesting, but also very relevant. Recent years have been marked by changes in many areas of Russian life. The lifestyle of many people has changed, the system of life values ​​has changed. Knowledge of the history of Russia, the spiritual traditions of the Russian people, is very important for increasing the national self-awareness of Russians. A sign of the revival of the nation is the ever-increasing interest in the historical past of the Russian people, in their spiritual values.

FORMATION OF THE ANCIENT RUSSIAN STATE IN THE 9th century

The time from the 6th to the 9th centuries is still the last stage of the primitive communal system, the time of the formation of classes and the imperceptible, at first glance, but steady growth of the preconditions of feudalism. The most valuable monument containing information about the beginning of the Russian state is the chronicle “The Tale of Bygone Years, where the Russian land came from, and who began to reign first in Kiev and where the Russian land came from,” compiled by the Kiev monk Nestor around 1113.

Having begun his story, like all medieval historians, with the Flood, Nestor talks about the settlement of Western and Eastern Slavs in Europe in ancient times. He divides the East Slavic tribes into two groups, the level of development of which, according to his description, was not the same. Some of them lived, as he put it, in a “beastly manner,” preserving the features of the tribal system: blood feud, remnants of matriarchy, the absence of marriage prohibitions, “kidnapping” (kidnapping) of wives, etc. Nestor contrasts these tribes with the glades, in whose land Kiev was built. The Polyans are “sensible men”; they have already established a patriarchal monogamous family and, obviously, have overcome blood feud (they are “distinguished by their meek and quiet disposition”).

Next, Nestor talks about how the city of Kyiv was created. Prince Kiy, who reigned there, according to Nestor’s story, came to Constantinople to visit the Emperor of Byzantium, who received him with great honors. Returning from Constantinople, Kiy built a city on the banks of the Danube, intending to settle here for a long time. But the local residents were hostile to him, and Kiy returned to the banks of the Dnieper.

Nestor considered the formation of the principality of Polans in the Middle Dnieper region to be the first historical event on the path to the creation of the Old Russian states. The legend about Kiy and his two brothers spread far to the south, and was even brought to Armenia.

Byzantine writers of the 6th century paint the same picture. During the reign of Justinian, huge masses of Slavs advanced to the northern borders of the Byzantine Empire. Byzantine historians colorfully describe the invasion of the empire by Slavic troops, who took away prisoners and rich booty, and the settlement of the empire by Slavic colonists. The appearance of the Slavs, who dominated communal relations, on the territory of Byzantium contributed to the eradication of slave-owning orders here and the development of Byzantium along the path from the slave-owning system to feudalism.

The successes of the Slavs in the fight against the powerful Byzantium indicate a relatively high level of development of Slavic society for that time: the material prerequisites had already appeared for equipping significant military expeditions, and the system of military democracy made it possible to unite large masses of Slavs. Long-distance campaigns contributed to the strengthening of the power of the princes in the indigenous Slavic lands, where tribal principalities were created.

Archaeological data fully confirms the words of Nestor that the core of the future Kievan Rus began to take shape on the banks of the Dnieper when the Slavic princes made campaigns in Byzantium and the Danube, in the times preceding the attacks of the Khazars (7th century).

The creation of a significant tribal union in the southern forest-steppe regions facilitated the advance of Slavic colonists not only in the southwest (to the Balkans), but also in the southeast direction. True, the steppes were occupied by various nomads: Bulgarians, Avars, Khazars, but the Slavs of the Middle Dnieper region (Russian land) were obviously able to protect their possessions from their invasions and penetrate deep into the fertile black earth steppes. In the VII-IX centuries. The Slavs also lived in the eastern part of the Khazar lands, somewhere in the Azov region, participated together with the Khazars in military campaigns, and were hired to serve the Kagan (Khazar ruler). In the south, the Slavs apparently lived in islands among other tribes, gradually assimilating them, but at the same time absorbing elements of their culture.

During the VI-IX centuries. Productive forces grew, tribal institutions changed, and the process of class formation began. As the most important phenomena in the life of the Eastern Slavs during the VI-IX centuries. The development of arable farming and the development of crafts should be noted; the collapse of the clan community as a labor collective and the separation from it of individual peasant farms, forming a neighboring community; the growth of private land ownership and the formation of classes; the transformation of the tribal army with its defensive functions into a squad that dominates its fellow tribesmen; seizure by princes and nobles of tribal land into personal hereditary property.

By the 9th century. Everywhere in the territory of settlement of the Eastern Slavs, a significant area of ​​arable land cleared from forest was formed, indicating the further development of productive forces under feudalism. An association of small clan communities, characterized by a certain unity of culture, was the ancient Slavic tribe. Each of these tribes assembled a national assembly (veche). The power of the tribal princes gradually increased. The development of intertribal ties, defensive and offensive alliances, the organization of joint campaigns and, finally, the subjugation of their weaker neighbors by strong tribes - all this led to the consolidation of tribes, to their unification into larger groups.

Describing the time when the transition from tribal relations to the state took place, Nestor notes that various East Slavic regions had “their own reigns.” This is confirmed by archaeological data.

The formation of an early feudal state, which gradually subjugated all the East Slavic tribes, became possible only when the differences between the south and the north in terms of agricultural conditions were somewhat smoothed out, when in the north there was a sufficient amount of plowed land and the need for hard collective labor in cutting and forest uprooting has decreased significantly. As a result, the peasant family emerged as a new production team from the patriarchal community.

The decomposition of the primitive communal system among the Eastern Slavs occurred at a time when the slave system had already outlived its usefulness on a world-historical scale. In the process of class formation, Rus' came to feudalism, bypassing the slave-owning formation.

In the 9th-10th centuries. antagonistic classes of feudal society are formed. The number of vigilantes is increasing everywhere, their differentiation is increasing, and the nobility - the boyars and princes - are being separated from their midst.

An important question in the history of the emergence of feudalism is the question of the time of the appearance of cities in Rus'. In the conditions of the tribal system, there were certain centers where tribal councils met, a prince was chosen, trade was carried out, fortune telling was carried out, court cases were decided, sacrifices were made to the gods and the most important dates of the year were celebrated. Sometimes such a center became the focus of the most important types of production. Most of these ancient centers later turned into medieval cities.

In the 9th-10th centuries. feudal lords created a number of new cities that served both the purposes of defense against nomads and the purposes of domination over the enslaved population. Craft production was also concentrated in cities. The old name “grad”, “city”, denoting a fortification, began to be applied to a real feudal city with a detinets-kremlin (fortress) in the center and an extensive craft and trading area.

Despite the gradual and slow process of feudalization, one can still indicate a certain line, starting from which there is reason to talk about feudal relations in Rus'. This line is the 9th century, when the Eastern Slavs had already formed a feudal state.

The lands of the East Slavic tribes united into a single state received the name Rus. The arguments of “Norman” historians who tried to declare the Normans, who were then called Varangians in Rus', the creators of the Old Russian state, are unconvincing. These historians stated that the chronicles meant the Varangians by Rus. But as has already been shown, the prerequisites for the formation of states among the Slavs developed over many centuries and by the 9th century. gave noticeable results not only in the West Slavic lands, where the Normans never penetrated and where the Great Moravian state arose, but also in the East Slavic lands (in Kievan Rus), where the Normans appeared, robbed, destroyed representatives of local princely dynasties and sometimes became princes themselves. It is obvious that the Normans could neither promote nor seriously hinder the process of feudalization. The name Rus' began to be used in sources in relation to part of the Slavs 300 years before the appearance of the Varangians.

The first mention of the Ros people was found in the middle of the 6th century, when information about them had already reached Syria. The glades, called, according to the chronicler, Russia, become the basis of the future ancient Russian nation, and their land - the core of the territory of the future state - Kievan Rus.

Among the news belonging to Nestor, one passage has survived, which describes Rus' before the Varangians appeared there. “These are the Slavic regions,” writes Nestor, “that are part of Rus' - the Polyans, the Drevlyans, the Dregovichi, the Polochans, the Novgorod Slovenes, the Northerners...”2. This list includes only half of the East Slavic regions. Consequently, Rus' at that time did not yet include the Krivichi, Radimichi, Vyatichi, Croats, Ulichs and Tivertsy. At the center of the new state formation was the Polyan tribe. The Old Russian state became a kind of federation of tribes; in its form it was an early feudal monarchy

ANCIENT Rus' OF THE END OF THE IX – BEGINNING OF THE 12TH CENTURY.

In the second half of the 9th century. Novgorod prince Oleg united power over Kiev and Novgorod in his hands. The chronicle dates this event to 882. The formation of the early feudal Old Russian state (Kievan Rus) as a result of the emergence of antagonistic classes was a turning point in the history of the Eastern Slavs.

The process of uniting the East Slavic lands as part of the Old Russian state was complex. In a number of lands, the Kyiv princes encountered serious resistance from local feudal and tribal princes and their “husbands.” This resistance was suppressed by force of arms. During the reign of Oleg (late 9th - early 10th centuries), a constant tribute was already levied from Novgorod and from the lands of the North Russian (Novgorod or Ilmen Slavs), Western Russian (Krivichi) and North-Eastern lands. The Kiev prince Igor (beginning of the 10th century), as a result of a stubborn struggle, subjugated the lands of the Ulitches and Tiverts. Thus, the border of Kievan Rus was advanced beyond the Dniester. A long struggle continued with the population of the Drevlyansky land. Igor increased the amount of tribute collected from the Drevlyans. During one of Igor’s campaigns in the Drevlyan land, when he decided to collect a double tribute, the Drevlyans defeated the princely squad and killed Igor. During the reign of Olga (945-969), Igor's wife, the land of the Drevlyans was finally subordinated to Kyiv.

The territorial growth and strengthening of Rus' continued under Svyatoslav Igorevich (969-972) and Vladimir Svyatoslavich (980-1015). The Old Russian state included the lands of the Vyatichi. The power of Rus' extended to the North Caucasus. The territory of the Old Russian state expanded in a western direction, including the Cherven cities and Carpathian Rus'.

With the formation of the early feudal state, more favorable conditions were created for maintaining the security of the country and its economic growth. But the strengthening of this state was associated with the development of feudal property and the further enslavement of the previously free peasantry.

The supreme power in the Old Russian state belonged to the Grand Duke of Kyiv. At the princely court there lived a squad, divided into “senior” and “junior”. The boyars from the prince's military comrades turn into landowners, his vassals, patrimonial fiefs. In the XI-XII centuries. the boyars are formalized as a special class and their legal status is consolidated. Vassalage is formed as a system of relations with the prince-suzerain; its characteristic features are the specialization of the vassal service, the contractual nature of the relationship and the economic independence of the vassal4.

Princely warriors took part in government. Thus, Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavich, together with the boyars, discussed the issue of introducing Christianity, measures to combat “robberies” and decided on other matters. Certain parts of Rus' were ruled by their own princes. But the Grand Duke of Kiev sought to replace the local rulers with his proteges.

The state helped strengthen the rule of feudal lords in Rus'. The apparatus of power ensured the flow of tribute, collected in money and in kind. The working population also performed a number of other duties - military, underwater, participated in the construction of fortresses, roads, bridges, etc. Individual princely warriors received control over entire regions with the right to collect tribute.

In the middle of the 10th century. under Princess Olga, the size of duties (tributes and quitrents) was determined and temporary and permanent camps and graveyards were established in which tribute was collected.

The norms of customary law have developed among the Slavs since ancient times. With the emergence and development of class society and the state, along with customary law and gradually replacing it, written laws appeared and developed to protect the interests of the feudal lords. Already in Oleg’s treaty with Byzantium (911) the “Russian law” was mentioned. The collection of written laws is “Russian Truth”, the so-called “Short Edition” (late 11th - early 12th centuries). In its composition, the “Most Ancient Truth” was preserved, apparently written down at the beginning of the 11th century, but reflecting some norms of customary law. It also talks about the remnants of primitive communal relations, for example, about blood feud. The law considers cases of replacing revenge with a fine in favor of the relatives of the victim (later in favor of the state).

The armed forces of the Old Russian state consisted of the squad of the Grand Duke, the squads that were brought by the princes and boyars subordinate to him, and the people's militia (warriors). The number of troops with which the princes went on campaigns sometimes reached 60-80 thousand. Foot militia continued to play an important role in the armed forces. Detachments of mercenaries were also used in Rus' - nomads of the steppes (Pechenegs), as well as Cumans, Hungarians, Lithuanians, Czechs, Poles, and Norman Varangians, but their role in the armed forces was insignificant. The Old Russian fleet consisted of ships hollowed out of trees and lined with boards along the sides. Russian ships sailed in the Black, Azov, Caspian and Baltic seas.

The foreign policy of the Old Russian state expressed the interests of the growing class of feudal lords, who expanded their possessions, political influence and trade relations. Striving to conquer individual East Slavic lands, the Kyiv princes came into conflict with the Khazars. Advancement to the Danube, the desire to seize the trade route along the Black Sea and the Crimean coast led to the struggle of the Russian princes with Byzantium, which tried to limit the influence of Rus' in the Black Sea region. In 907, Prince Oleg organized a campaign by sea against Constantinople. The Byzantines were forced to ask the Russians to conclude peace and pay an indemnity. According to the peace treaty of 911. Rus' received the right to duty-free trade in Constantinople.

The Kyiv princes also undertook campaigns to more distant lands - beyond the Caucasus ridge, to the western and southern coasts of the Caspian Sea (campaigns of 880, 909, 910, 913-914). The expansion of the territory of the Kyiv state began to be especially active during the reign of Princess Olga's son, Svyatoslav (Svyatoslav's campaigns - 964-972). He dealt the first blow to the Khazar empire. Their main cities on the Don and Volga were captured. Svyatoslav even planned to settle in this region, becoming the successor to the empire he destroyed6.

Then the Russian squads marched to the Danube, where they captured the city of Pereyaslavets (previously owned by the Bulgarians), which Svyatoslav decided to make his capital. Such political ambitions show that the Kyiv princes had not yet connected the idea of ​​the political center of their empire with Kiev.

The danger that came from the East - the invasion of the Pechenegs - forced the Kyiv princes to pay more attention to the internal structure of their own state.

ADOPTION OF CHRISTIANITY IN Rus'

At the end of the 10th century. Christianity was officially introduced in Rus'. The development of feudal relations prepared the way for the replacement of pagan cults with a new religion.

The Eastern Slavs deified the forces of nature. Among the gods they revered, the first place was occupied by Perun, the god of thunder and lightning. Dazhd-bog was the god of the sun and fertility, Stribog was the god of thunderstorms and bad weather. Volos was considered the god of wealth and trade, and the blacksmith god Svarog was considered the creator of all human culture.

Christianity began to penetrate early into Rus' among the nobility. Back in the 9th century. Patriarch Photius of Constantinople noted that Rus' changed “pagan superstition” to “Christian faith”7. Christians were among Igor's warriors. Princess Olga converted to Christianity.

Vladimir Svyatoslavich, having been baptized in 988 and appreciating the political role of Christianity, decided to make it the state religion in Rus'. Russia's adoption of Christianity occurred in a difficult foreign policy situation. In the 80s of the 10th century. The Byzantine government turned to the prince of Kyiv with a request for military assistance to suppress uprisings in the lands under its control. In response, Vladimir demanded an alliance with Russia from Byzantium, offering to seal it with his marriage to Anna, the sister of Emperor Vasily II. The Byzantine government was forced to agree to this. After the marriage of Vladimir and Anna, Christianity was officially recognized as the religion of the Old Russian state.

Church institutions in Rus' received large land grants and tithes from state revenues. Throughout the 11th century. bishoprics were founded in Yuryev and Belgorod (in the Kyiv land), Novgorod, Rostov, Chernigov, Pereyaslavl-Yuzhny, Vladimir-Volynsky, Polotsk and Turov. Several large monasteries arose in Kyiv.

The people met the new faith and its ministers with hostility. Christianity was imposed by force, and the Christianization of the country dragged on for several centuries. Pre-Christian (“pagan”) cults continued to live among the people for a long time.

The introduction of Christianity was a progress compared to paganism. Together with Christianity, the Russians received some elements of a higher Byzantine culture and, like other European peoples, joined the heritage of antiquity. The introduction of a new religion increased the international significance of ancient Rus'.

DEVELOPMENT OF FEUDAL RELATIONS IN Rus'

Time from the end of the X to the beginning of the XII century. is an important stage in the development of feudal relations in Rus'. This time is characterized by the gradual victory of the feudal mode of production over a large territory of the country.

Sustainable field farming dominated Russian agriculture. Cattle breeding developed more slowly than agriculture. Despite the relative increase in agricultural production, harvests were low. Frequent phenomena were shortages and hunger, which undermined the Kresgyap economy and contributed to the enslavement of the peasants. Hunting, fishing, and beekeeping remained of great importance in the economy. The furs of squirrels, martens, otters, beavers, sables, foxes, as well as honey and wax went to the foreign market. The best hunting and fishing areas, forests and lands were seized by the feudal lords.

In the XI and early XII centuries. part of the land was exploited by the state by collecting tribute from the population, part of the land area was in the hands of individual feudal lords as estates that could be inherited (they later became known as estates), and estates received from princes for temporary conditional holding.

The ruling class of feudal lords was formed from local princes and boyars, who became dependent on Kiev, and from the husbands (combatants) of the Kiev princes, who received control, holding or patrimony of the lands “tortured” by them and the princes. The Kyiv Grand Dukes themselves had large land holdings. The distribution of land by princes to warriors, strengthening feudal production relations, was at the same time one of the means used by the state to subjugate the local population to its power.

Land ownership was protected by law. The growth of boyar and church land ownership was closely related to the development of immunity. The land, which was previously peasant property, became the property of the feudal lord “with tribute, virami and sales,” that is, with the right to collect taxes and court fines from the population for murder and other crimes, and, consequently, with the right of trial.

With the transfer of lands into the ownership of individual feudal lords, peasants in different ways became dependent on them. Some peasants, deprived of the means of production, were enslaved by landowners, taking advantage of their need for tools, equipment, seeds, etc. Other peasants, sitting on land subject to tribute, who owned their own tools of production, were forced by the state to transfer the land under the patrimonial power of the feudal lords. As the estates expanded and the smerds became enslaved, the term servants, which previously meant slaves, began to apply to the entire mass of the peasantry dependent on the landowner.

Peasants who fell into bondage to the feudal lord, legally formalized by a special agreement - nearby, were called purchases. They received from the landowner a plot of land and a loan, which they worked on on the feudal lord's farm with the master's equipment. For escaping from the master, the zakuns turned into serfs - slaves deprived of all rights. Labor rent - corvée, field and castle (construction of fortifications, bridges, roads, etc.), was combined with nagural quitrent.

The forms of social protest of the popular masses against the feudal system were varied: from flight from their owner to armed “robbery”, from violating the boundaries of feudal estates, setting fire to the trees belonging to the princes to open uprising. The peasants fought against the feudal lords with weapons in their hands. Under Vladimir Svyatoslavich, “robberies” (as armed uprisings of peasants were often called at that time) became a common phenomenon. In 996, Vladimir, on the advice of the clergy, decided to apply the death penalty against “robbers”, but then, having strengthened the apparatus of power and, needing new sources of income to support the squad, he replaced the execution with a fine - vira. The princes paid even more attention to the fight against popular movements in the 11th century.

At the beginning of the 12th century. further development of the craft took place. In the village, under the conditions of state dominance of the natural economy, the production of clothing, shoes, utensils, agricultural implements, etc. was home production, not yet separated from agriculture. With the development of the feudal system, some of the community artisans became dependent on the feudal lords, others left the village and went under the walls of princely castles and fortresses, where craft settlements were created. The possibility of a break between the artisan and the village was due to the development of agriculture, which could provide the urban population with food and the beginning of the separation of crafts from agriculture.

Cities became centers for the development of crafts. In them by the 12th century. there were over 60 craft specialties. Russian artisans of the 11th-12th centuries. produced more than 150 types of iron and steel products, their products played an important role in the development of trade relations between the city and the countryside. Old Russian jewelers knew the art of minting non-ferrous metals. Tools, weapons, household items, and jewelry were made in craft workshops.

With its products, Rus' gained fame in Europe at that time. However, the social division of labor in the country as a whole was weak. The village lived on subsistence farming. The penetration of small retail traders into the village from the city did not disrupt the natural nature of the rural economy. Cities were centers of internal trade. But urban commodity production did not change the natural economic basis of the country’s economy.

Rus''s foreign trade was more developed. Russian merchants traded in the possessions of the Arab Caliphate. The Dnieper route connected Rus' with Byzantium. Russian merchants traveled from Kiev to Moravia, the Czech Republic, Poland, Southern Germany, from Novgorod and Polotsk - along the Baltic Sea to Scandinavia, Polish Pomerania and further to the west. With the development of crafts, the export of handicraft products increased.

Silver bars and foreign coins were used as money. Princes Vladimir Svyatoslavich and his son Yaroslav Vladimirovich issued (albeit in small quantities) minted silver coins. However, foreign trade did not change the natural nature of the Russian economy.

With the growth of the social division of labor, cities developed. They arose from castle fortresses, which were gradually overgrown with settlements, and from trade and craft settlements, around which fortifications were erected. The city was connected with the nearest rural district, from whose products it lived and whose population it served with handicrafts. In the chronicles of the 9th-10th centuries. 25 cities are mentioned in the news of the 11th century - 89. The heyday of ancient Russian cities fell in the 11th-12th centuries.

Craft and merchant associations arose in the cities, although a guild system did not develop here. In addition to free artisans, patrimonial artisans also lived in cities, who were slaves of princes and boyars. The city nobility consisted of the boyars. The large cities of Rus' (Kyiv, Chernigov, Polotsk, Novgorod, Smolensk, etc.) were administrative, judicial and military centers. At the same time, having grown stronger, the cities contributed to the process of political fragmentation. This was a natural phenomenon under conditions of the dominance of subsistence farming and the weak economic ties between individual lands.

PROBLEMS OF STATE UNITY OF Rus'

The state unity of Rus' was not strong. The development of feudal relations and the strengthening of the power of the feudal lords, as well as the growth of cities as centers of local principalities, led to changes in the political superstructure. In the 11th century the head of the state was still headed by the Grand Duke, but the princes and boyars dependent on him acquired large land holdings in different parts of Rus' (in Novgorod, Polotsk, Chernigov, Volyn, etc.). The princes of individual feudal centers strengthened their own apparatus of power and, relying on local feudal lords, began to consider their reigns as paternal, that is, hereditary possessions. Economically, they were almost no longer dependent on Kyiv; on the contrary, the Kiev prince was interested in their support. Political dependence on Kyiv weighed heavily on local feudal lords and princes who ruled in certain parts of the country.

After the death of Vladimir, his son Svyatopolk became prince in Kyiv, who killed his brothers Boris and Gleb and began a stubborn struggle with Yaroslav. In this struggle, Svyatopolk used the military assistance of Polish feudal lords. Then a massive popular movement against the Polish invaders began in the Kyiv land. Yaroslav, supported by the Novgorod townspeople, defeated Svyatopolk and occupied Kyiv.

During the reign of Yaroslav Vladimirovich, nicknamed the Wise (1019-1054), around 1024, a large uprising of the Smerds broke out in the northeast, in the Suzdal land. The reason for it was severe hunger. Many participants in the suppressed uprising were imprisoned or executed. However, the movement continued until 1026.

During the reign of Yaroslav, the strengthening and further expansion of the borders of the Old Russian state continued. However, signs of feudal fragmentation of the state appeared more and more clearly.

After the death of Yaroslav, state power passed to his three sons. Seniority belonged to Izyaslav, who owned Kiev, Novgorod and other cities. His co-rulers were Svyatoslav (who ruled in Chernigov and Tmutarakan) and Vsevolod (who reigned in Rostov, Suzdal and Pereyaslavl). In 1068, nomadic Cumans attacked Rus'. Russian troops were defeated on the Alta River. Izyaslav and Vsevolod fled to Kyiv. This accelerated the anti-feudal uprising in Kyiv, which had been brewing for a long time. The rebels destroyed the princely court, released Vseslav of Polotsk, who had previously been imprisoned by his brothers during an inter-princely strife, and was released from prison and elevated to reign. However, he soon left Kiev, and a few months later Izyaslav, with the help of Polish troops, resorting to deception, again occupied the city (1069) and committed a bloody massacre.

Urban uprisings were associated with the peasant movement. Since the anti-feudal movements were also directed against the Christian Church, the rebellious peasants and townspeople were sometimes led by the Magi. In the 70s of the 11th century. There was a major popular movement in the Rostov land. Popular movements took place in other places in Rus'. In Novgorod, for example, the masses of the urban population, led by the Magi, opposed the nobility, headed by the prince and bishop. Prince Gleb, with the help of military force, dealt with the rebels.

The development of the feudal mode of production inevitably led to the political fragmentation of the country. Class contradictions intensified noticeably. The devastation from exploitation and princely strife was aggravated by the consequences of crop failures and famine. After the death of Svyatopolk in Kyiv, there was an uprising of the urban population and peasants from the surrounding villages. The frightened nobility and merchants invited Vladimir Vsevolodovich Monomakh (1113-1125), Prince of Pereyaslavl, to reign in Kyiv. The new prince was forced to make some concessions to suppress the uprising.

Vladimir Monomakh pursued a policy of strengthening the grand ducal power. Owning, in addition to Kiev, Pereyaslavl, Suzdal, Rostov, ruling Novgorod and part of South-Western Rus', he simultaneously tried to subjugate other lands (Minsk, Volyn, etc.). However, contrary to Monomakh’s policy, the process of fragmentation of Rus', caused by economic reasons, continued. By the second quarter of the 12th century. Rus' was finally fragmented into many principalities.

CULTURE OF ANCIENT Rus'

The culture of ancient Rus' is the culture of early feudal society. Oral poetry reflected the life experience of the people, captured in proverbs and sayings, in the rituals of agricultural and family holidays, from which the cult pagan principle gradually disappeared, and the rituals turned into folk games. Buffoons - traveling actors, singers and musicians, who came from the people's environment, were bearers of democratic tendencies in art. Folk motifs formed the basis for the remarkable song and musical creativity of the “prophetic Boyan,” whom the author of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” calls “the nightingale of the old time.”

The growth of national self-awareness found particularly vivid expression in the historical epic. In it, the people idealized the time of political unity of Rus', although still very fragile, when the peasants were not yet dependent. The image of the “peasant son” Ilya Muromets, a fighter for the independence of his homeland, embodies the deep patriotism of the people. Folk art influenced the traditions and legends that developed in the feudal secular and church environment, and helped the formation of ancient Russian literature.

The emergence of writing was of enormous importance for the development of ancient Russian literature. In Rus', writing apparently arose quite early. The news has been preserved that the Slavic educator of the 9th century. Konstantin (Kirill) saw books in Chersonesus written in “Russian characters.” Evidence of the presence of writing among the Eastern Slavs even before the adoption of Christianity is an early 10th-century clay vessel discovered in one of the Smolensk mounds. with an inscription. Writing became widespread after the adoption of Christianity.

The period of ancient Rus' dates back to ancient times, with the appearance of the first Slavic tribes. But the most important event is the calling of Prince Rurik to reign in Novgorod in 862. Rurik came not alone, but with his brothers, Truvor ruled in Izborsk, and Sineus ruled in Beloozero.

In 879, Rurik dies, leaving behind his son Igor, who, due to his age, cannot rule the state. Power passes into the hands of Rurik's comrade Oleg. Oleg united Novgorod and Kyiv in 882, thereby founding Rus'. In 907 and 911, Prince Oleg’s campaigns against Constantinople (the capital of Byzantium) took place. These campaigns were successful and raised the authority of the state.

In 912, power passed to Prince Igor (son of Rurik). Igor's reign symbolizes the successful activities of the state in the international arena. In 944, Igor concluded an agreement with Byzantium. However, success in domestic policy was not achieved. Therefore, Igor was killed by the Drevlyans in 945 after trying to collect tribute again (this version is most popular among modern historians).

The next period in the history of Rus' is the period of the reign of Princess Olga, who wants to take revenge for the murder of her husband. She ruled until approximately 960. In 957 she visited Byzantium, where, according to legend, she converted to Christianity. Then her son Svyatoslav took power. He is famous for his campaigns, which began in 964 and ended in 972. After Svyatoslav, power in Rus' passed into the hands of Vladimir, who ruled from 980 to 1015.

Vladimir's reign is most famous for the fact that it was he who baptized Rus' in 988. Most likely, this is the most significant event of the periods of the ancient Russian state. The establishment of an official religion was necessary to a greater extent to unite Rus' under one faith, strengthening the princely authority and the authority of the state in the international arena.

After Vladimir there was a period of civil strife, in which Yaroslav, who received the nickname Wise, won. He reigned from 1019 to 1054. The period of his reign is characterized by more developed culture, art, architecture and science. Under Yaroslav the Wise, the first set of laws appeared, which was called “Russian Truth”. Thus he founded the legislation of Rus'.

Then the main event in the history of our state was the Lyubech Congress of Russian princes, which took place in 1097. Its goal was to maintain stability, integrity and unity of the state, a joint struggle against enemies and ill-wishers.

In 1113, Vladimir Monomakh came to power. His main work was “Instructions for Children,” where he described how to live. In general, the period of the reign of Vladimir Monomakh marked the end of the period of the Old Russian state and marked the emergence of a period of feudal fragmentation of Rus', which began at the beginning of the 12th century and ended at the end of the 15th century.

The period of the Old Russian state laid the foundation for the entire history of Russia, founded the first centralized state on the territory of the East European Plain. It was during this period that Rus' received a single religion, which is one of the leading religions in our country today. In general, the period, despite its cruelty, brought a lot for the development of further social relations in the state, laid the foundations for the legislation and culture of our state.

But the most important event of the ancient Russian state was the formation of a single princely dynasty, which served and ruled the state for several centuries, thereby power in Rus' became permanent, based on the will of the prince, and then the tsar.

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Sport is a very ancient art. In Russia, the history of the development of sports has been laid down since ancient times.

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