Igor’s campaign against the Polovtsians is a tragic page in Russian history. The defeat of the Polovtsians by Vladimir Monomakh

Vlad Grinkevich, economic commentator for RIA Novosti.

Exactly 825 years ago, the troops of Prince Igor Svyatoslavovich and his brother Vsevolod set out on a campaign against the Polovtsian Prince Konchak. The unsuccessful campaign of the brothers was not particularly significant from a military-political point of view, and could have remained an ordinary episode of numerous Russian-Polovtsian wars. But the name of Igor was immortalized by an unknown author, who described the prince’s campaign in “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.”

Polovtsian steppe

At the beginning of the 11th century, Turkic tribes, called Polovtsians in Russian sources (they did not have a single self-name), invaded the Black Sea steppes, displacing the Pechenegs, exhausted by a long confrontation with Russia and Byzantium. Soon the new people spread throughout the Great Steppe - from the Danube to the Irtysh, and this territory began to be called the Polovtsian steppe.

In the middle of the 11th century, the Polovtsians appeared at the Russian borders. From this moment the history of the Russian-Polovtsian wars begins, stretching over a century and a half. The balance of power between Rus' and the steppe in the 11th century was clearly not in favor of the latter. The population of the Russian state exceeded 5 million people. What forces did the enemy have? Historians talk about several hundred thousand nomads. And these hundreds of thousands were scattered throughout the Great Steppe. Contrary to popular belief, the concentration of nomads in a limited area is very problematic.

The economy of nomadic peoples was only partially reproducing, and largely depended on finished products of nature - pastures and water sources. In modern horse breeding, it is believed that one horse requires an average of 1 hectare of pasture. It is not difficult to calculate that the long-term concentration in a limited territory of even several thousand nomads (each had several horses at his disposal, not counting other livestock) was a very difficult matter. Things were not going well with military technology either.

Metallurgy and metalworking have never been the strengths of nomads, because to process metals you need to master the technology of burning charcoal, building fire-resistant furnaces, and have sufficiently developed soil science. All this has little to do with the nomadic way of life. It is no coincidence that even in the 18th century, the peoples of nomadic states, for example, the Dzungars, exchanged not only iron but also copper products with the Chinese and Russians.

However, several thousand, and sometimes several hundred, albeit poorly armed, but battle-hardened steppe inhabitants were enough to carry out lightning raids and dashing robberies, from which the weakly protected village settlements of the southern Russian principalities suffered.

It quickly became clear that the nomads were unable to resist a numerically superior and, most importantly, better equipped enemy. On November 1, 1068, the Chernigov prince Svyatoslav Yaroslavich, with only three thousand soldiers on the Snova River, defeated a twelve thousand Polovtsian army and captured Khan Shurkan. Subsequently, Russian troops repeatedly inflicted crushing defeats on the steppes, capturing or destroying their leaders.

Politics is dirtier than war

There is a saying - its authorship is attributed to various famous military leaders: “a fortress is strong not by its walls, but by the firmness of its defenders.” World history shows quite clearly that nomads managed to capture sedentary states only when they were in a state of decline, or when the aggressors found support in the enemy camp.

From the middle of the 11th century, Rus' entered a period of fragmentation and civil strife. The Russian princes at war with each other were not averse to resorting to the help of the Polovtsian hordes to settle scores with political rivals. The central government became a pioneer in this not very noble cause: in the winter of 1076, Vladimir Monomakh hired nomads for a campaign against Vseslav of Polotsk. Monomakh's example turned out to be contagious, and the Russian princes willingly used Polovtsian detachments to ruin the estates of their competitors. The Polovtsians themselves benefited most from this; they became so strong that they began to pose a real threat to the entire Russian state. Only after this did the contradictions between the princes fade into the background.

In 1097, the Lyubechsky Congress of Princes decided: “let everyone keep his own patrimony.” The Russian state was legally divided into appanages, but this did not prevent the appanage princes from joining forces to strike a blow at the common enemy. At the beginning of the 1100s, Vladimir Monomakh began a large-scale campaign against the nomads, which lasted more than 10 years and ended with the almost complete destruction of the Polovtsian state. The Polovtsians were forced out of the Great Steppe into the foothills of the Caucasus.

Who knows, maybe this is where the history of the people called the Polovtsians would have ended. But after the death of Monomakh, the warring princes again needed the services of the nomads. Revered as the founder of Moscow, Prince Yuri Dolgoruky leads the Polovtsian hordes to the walls of Kyiv five times. Others followed his example. History repeated itself: brought and armed by the Russian princes, the nomadic tribes became so strong that they began to pose a threat to the state.

Fate's grin

Once again, leaving behind their differences, the princes united to jointly push back their enemy allies into the steppe. In 1183, the allied army led by the Kyiv prince Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich defeated the Polovtsian army, capturing Khan Kobyak. In the spring of 1185, Khan Konchak was defeated. Svyatoslav went to the Chernigov lands to gather an army for the summer campaign, but the ambitious Novgorod-Seversk prince Igor and his brother, the Chernigov prince Vsevolod, wanted military glory, and therefore at the end of April they began a new separate campaign against Konchak. This time, military luck was on the side of the nomads. For the whole day, the brothers' squads held back the pressure of a numerically superior enemy. “Ardent Tour” Vsevolod single-handedly fought with a whole detachment of enemies. But the bravery of the Russians was in vain: the princely troops were defeated, the wounded Igor and his son Vladimir were captured. However, having escaped from captivity, Igor took revenge on his offenders by carrying out a series of victorious campaigns against the Polovtsian khans.

The tragedy of the Russian-Polovtsian wars lies elsewhere. After 1185, the Polovtsians found themselves weakened and no longer dared to take independent action against Rus'. However, the steppe people regularly invaded Russian lands as mercenary troops of Russian princes. And soon the Polovtsians will have a new master: they first became prey, and soon the main striking force of the Tatar-Mongol army. And again, Rus' will have to pay dearly for the ambitions of its rulers, who rely on foreigners in the name of selfish goals.

Towards the middle XI V. The Kipchak tribes, coming from Central Asia, conquered all the steppe spaces from the Yaik (Ural River) to the Danube, including the north of Crimea and the North Caucasus.

Individual clans, or “tribes,” of the Kipchaks united into powerful tribal unions, the centers of which became primitive wintering cities. The khans who led such associations could raise tens of thousands of warriors on a campaign, welded together by tribal discipline and posing a terrible threat to neighboring agricultural peoples. The Russian name of the Kipchaks - “Polovtsy” - is believed to have come from the ancient Russian word “polova” - straw, because the hair of these nomads was light, straw-colored.

THE FIRST APPEARANCE OF THE CUMANS IN Rus'

In 1061, the Polovtsians first attacked Russian lands and defeated the army of the Pereyaslavl prince Vsevolod Yaroslavich. From that time on, for more than a century and a half, they continuously threatened the borders of Rus'. This struggle, unprecedented in its scale, duration and ferocity, occupied an entire period of Russian history. It unfolded along the entire border of forest and steppe - from Ryazan to the foothills of the Carpathians.

After spending the winter near the sea coasts (in the Azov region), the Polovtsians began to wander north in the spring and appeared in the forest-steppe regions in May. They attacked more often in the fall to profit from the fruits of the harvest, but the Polovtsian leaders, trying to take the farmers by surprise, constantly changed tactics, and a raid could be expected at any time of the year, in any principality of the steppe borderland. It was very difficult to repel the attacks of their flying squads: they appeared and disappeared suddenly, before they were on the spot

Polovtsian horseman XII V.

princely squads or militias of nearby cities. Usually the Polovtsians did not besiege fortresses and preferred to plunder villages, but even the troops of an entire principality often found themselves powerless before the large hordes of these nomads.

Until the 90s. XI V. The chronicles report almost nothing about the Polovtsians. However, judging by the memories of Vladimir Monomakh about his youth, given in his “Teachings”, then throughout the 70s and 80s.XI V. a “small war” continued on the border: endless raids, pursuits and skirmishes, sometimes with very large forces of nomads.

CUMAN ADVANCE

In the early 90s. XI V. The catchers, wandering along both banks of the Dnieper, united for a new attack on Rus'. In 1092, “the army was great from the Polovtsians and from everywhere.” The nomads captured three cities - Pesochen, Perevoloka and Priluk, and destroyed many villages on both banks of the Dnieper. The chronicler is eloquently silent about whether any resistance was given to the steppe inhabitants.

The next year, the new Kiev prince Svyatopolk Izyaslavich recklessly ordered the arrest of the Polovtsian ambassadors, which gave rise to a new invasion. The Russian army, which set out to meet the Polovtsians, was defeated at Trepol. During the retreat, crossing in a hurry across the Stugna River, which had overflowed from the rains, many Russian soldiers drowned, including the Pereyaslavl prince Rostislav Vsevolodovich. Svyatopolk fled to Kyiv, and huge forces of the Polovtsians besieged the city of the Torci, who had settled since the 50s.XI V. along the Rosi River, - Torchesk. The Kiev prince, having gathered a new army, tried to help the Torques, but was again defeated, suffering even greater losses. Torchesk defended itself heroically, but in the end the city's water supplies ran out, it was taken by the steppe inhabitants and burned. Its entire population was driven into slavery. The Polovtsy again ravaged the outskirts of Kyiv, capturing thousands of prisoners, but they apparently failed to rob the left bank of the Dnieper; he was defended by Vladimir Monomakh, who reigned in Chernigov.

In 1094, Svyatopolk, not having the strength to fight the enemy and hoping to get at least a temporary respite, tried to make peace with the Polovtsians by marrying the daughter of Khan Tugorkan - the one whose name the creators of epics over the centuries changed into “Snake Tugarin” or “Tugarin Zmeevich” " In the same year, Oleg Svyatoslavich from the family of Chernigov princes, with the help of the Polovtsians, expelled Monomakh from Chernigov to Pereyaslavl, giving the surroundings of his native city to the allies for plunder.

In the winter of 1095, near Pereyaslavl, the warriors of Vladimir Monomakh destroyed the detachments of two Polovtsian khans, and in February, the troops of the Pereyaslav and Kyiv princes, who have since become permanent allies, made their first trip to the steppe. Chernigov Prince Oleg avoided joint action and preferred to make peace with the enemies of Rus'.

In the summer the war resumed. The Polovtsy besieged the town of Yuryev on the Ros River for a long time and forced the inhabitants to flee from it. The city was burned. Monomakh successfully defended himself on the eastern bank, winning several victories, but his forces were clearly not enough. The Polovtsians struck in the most unexpected places, and the Chernigov prince established a completely special relationship with them, hoping to strengthen his own independence and protect his subjects by ruining his neighbors.

In 1096, Svyatopolk and Vladimir, completely enraged by Oleg’s treacherous behavior and his “majestic” (i.e., proud) answers, drove him out of Chernigov and besieged him in Starodub, but at that time large forces of the steppe inhabitants began an offensive on both banks Dnieper and immediately broke through to the capitals of the principalities. Khan Bonyak, who led the Azov Polovtsians, attacked Kyiv, and Kurya and Tugorkan besieged Pereyaslavl. The troops of the allied princes, having nevertheless forced Oleg to beg for mercy, set off in an accelerated march towards Kiev, but, not finding Bonyak there, who left, avoiding a collision, crossed the Dnieper at Zarub and on July 19, unexpectedly for the Polovtsians, appeared near Pereyaslavl. Without giving the enemy the opportunity to form up for battle, the Russian soldiers, fording the Trubezh River, struck the Polovtsians. They, without waiting for the fight, ran, dying under the swords of their pursuers. The defeat was complete. Among those killed was Svyatopolk’s father-in-law, Tugorkan.

But on these same days, the Polovtsians almost captured Kyiv: Bonyak, making sure that the troops of the Russian princes had gone to the left bank of the Dnieper, approached Kiev a second time and at dawn tried to suddenly break into the city. For a long time later, the Polovtsians remembered how the annoyed Khan used a saber to cut the gate doors that had slammed shut in front of his very nose. This time the Polovtsians burned the prince's country residence and destroyed the Pechersky Monastery - the most important cultural center

countries. Svyatopolk and Vladimir, who urgently returned to the right bank, pursued Bonyak beyond Ros, all the way to the Southern Bug.

The nomads felt the power of the Russians. From this time on, Torci and other tribes, as well as individual Polovtsian clans, began to come to Monomakh to serve from the steppe. In such a situation, it was necessary to quickly unite the efforts of all Russian lands in the fight against the steppe nomads, as was the case under Vladimir Svyatoslavich and Yaroslav the Wise, but different times were coming - an era of inter-princely wars and political fragmentation. The Lyubech congress of princes in 1097 did not lead to agreement; The Polovtsians also took part in the strife that began after him.

• Alta- Alta, Alta or Olta, r. Poltava gub., Pereyaslavl. u. During her reign, St. was killed in 1015. Boris and 1019 his murderer Svyatopolk; 1068 Polovtsians defeated Izyaslav Yaroolav; 1125 mind here. Vladimir Monomakh. 16...
• Berendey- Berendei (Berendichi) - nomadic people of Turkic origin, called. in our chronicles, sometimes in peaks, sometimes in black hoods. The last name, black hoods, was undoubtedly generic in relation to ber...
• Oleg Svyatoslavich, Prince of Chernigov- Oleg Svyatoslavich, Prince of Chernigov - Prince of Chernigov, son of Svyatoslav Yaroslavich. The chronicle first mentions him in 1075, during the struggle between Izyaslav and Svyatoslav Yaroslavich. Oh, s...
• Oryol, a tributary of the Dnieper- Orel, a tributary of the Dnieper - a river in the Poltava and Ekaterinoslav provinces, a left tributary of the Dnieper. It originates on the border of Poltava and Kharkov provinces, 6 versts from the Bereki railway station; flowing...
• Nezhatina Niva- Nezhatina Niva - known for the battle of Russian princes with the Polovtsians in 1078, in which Grand Duke Izyaslav Yaroslavich fell; was probably on the left side of the Dnieper, near Gorodets, where it was brought...
• Marigolds- The Nogotkovs are a princely family, a branch of the Obolensky princes, descended from Prince Andrei Nikitich Obolensky, nicknamed "Nogot", a participant in the campaign of 1480. His son Vasily Andreevich Nogtev, nicknamed "N...
• Ivlya- Ivlya is the ancient Russian name of one of the right tributaries of the Dnieper, repeatedly mentioned in chronicles about clashes between Russians and Polovtsians. In 1193, a battle between the Polovtsians took place on the banks of the I...
• Igor Svyatoslavich- Igor Svyatoslavich (1151-1202) - from the family of princes of Chernigov, son of Svyatoslav Olegovich, prince of Novgorod-Seversky. Known for his unfortunate campaign in the Polovtsian land (1185). In 1169 I. Svyatoslavich took part...
• Izyaslav Vladimirovich- Izyaslav Vladimirovich - 1) Prince. Kursk and Murom, son of Vladimir Monomakh. In 1095 he came to Murom (the fatherland of his godfather - Oleg Svyatoslavich, Prince of Chernigov) and, capturing Oleg's mayor...

The “Great War” on the steppe border continued. In 1096, Khan Bonyak ravaged the outskirts of Kyiv and burned the princely court in Berestov, and the khans Kurya and Tugorkan approached Pereyaslavl. Bonyak was driven away, and then the united army of Svyatopolk of Kyiv and Vladimir Monomakh attacked Tugorkan.

The “Great War” on the steppe border continued. In 1096, Khan Bonyak ravaged the outskirts of Kyiv and burned the princely court in Berestov, and the khans Kurya and Tugorkan approached Pereyaslavl. Bonyak was driven away, and then the united army of Svyatopolk of Kyiv and Vladimir Monomakh attacked Tugorkan. The Polovtsians, who stood near Pereyaslavl on the banks of the Trubezh, did not expect an attack and were defeated. Tugorkan himself and his son died in the battle.

But dangerous enemies, the khans Bonyak and Sharukan, retained their strength. The war was not over yet. It won't be long before Bonyak's horde appears again near Kiev...

It was in this alarming situation that the princely congress met in Lyubech. The voice of Vladimir Monomakh sounded loudly and authoritatively on it - the second most important prince of Rus' (Pereyaslavl followed the capital Kiev in the hierarchy of Russian cities), who became famous as a skillful and successful commander who had never suffered defeat. It was he who played the role of the actual organizer of the defense of the steppe border (the first blows of the Polovtsians invariably fell on the border Pereyaslavl principality). Vladimir Monomakh convinced the princes: “Why are we destroying the Russian land, causing it to ourselves (discord, strife), and the Polovtsians are carrying our land separately and rejoice when an army arises between us. Let us be united in heart and respect the Russian land!”

The princes did not immediately or easily agree to the proclaimed principle “everyone holds his fatherland,” because this principle rejected old claims to other people’s possessions, ambitious hopes for the seizure of new lands and princely tables, because everyone who now dares to raise a sword against his relatives , will meet with a general rebuff from the princes: “If now someone encroaches on someone, everyone will be against him and the honorable cross!” The Polovtsian army was too dangerous, it threatened everyone, and the princes took oaths of allegiance: “To create peace and goodness in the Russian land and to fight with the filthy.”

Oaths were taken, but the strife did not immediately subside. For another two years, fires of fratricidal wars broke out here and there, until, finally, in 1100, a princely congress in the city of Vitichev put an end to them. A real opportunity arose for an all-Russian struggle against the Polovtsians.

The very first news of the unification of the Russian princes made a sobering impression on the Polovtsian khans. In 1101, according to the chronicler, “the Polovtsians sent their ambassadors and asked for peace,” and the Russian princes “made peace with the Polovtsians.” The Polovtsy swore that they would keep peace forever, not violate Russian borders, and stop extorting gifts. But already in the fall of 1102, Khan Bonyak, breaking his oaths, attacked the Pereyaslav lands and left with the booty before the Russian squads arrived. No, one could not rely on the oaths of the Polovtsian khans; the security of the southern border could only be ensured by military means.

On the initiative of Prince Vladimir Monomakh, Russian princes again gathered at Dolobskoye Lake. It was about a big campaign in the Polovtsian steppes. Vladimir Monomakh proposed starting the campaign in the spring of 1103, when the Polovtsians did not expect an attack, when their horses were exhausted after a hungry winter. He also had opponents who said: “It’s not good, prince, to go on a campaign in the spring, we’ll destroy the smerds, and the horses, and their arable land.” The annals preserve the angry rebuke of Prince Vladimir Monomakh: “I am amazed, squad, that you feel sorry for the horses you use to plow. Why don’t you think that the stink will start plowing and, upon arrival, the Polovtsian will shoot him with a bow? Will his horse take him, and when he arrives in his village, will he take his wife and all his property? So you feel sorry for the horse, but don’t you feel sorry for the stink itself?”

Vladimir Monomakh managed to convince the princes. It was decided that in March the armies would gather in Pereyaslavl for a joint campaign in the Polovtsian steppe. For the first time, an all-Russian army gathered at the frontier (only Prince Oleg Svyatoslavich of Novgorod-Seversky, a longtime enemy of the Yaroslavichs, refused to send a squad), for the first time Vladimir Monomakh could wage a war according to his plan, since he was the actual leader of the army (his older brother Svyatopolk of Kiev was not distinguished by military abilities and only formally led the army). The prince had to realize his long-standing plans for a war with the elusive Polovtsian cavalry, a war the likes of which had never been waged by any of the Russian princes. Perhaps the prince-knight Svyatoslav, but for him the raid on the Pecheneg steppes was nothing more than an episode among grandiose campaigns...

Vladimir Monomakh long ago realized that in a war with the eternal enemies of Rus' - the nomads, one cannot adhere to defensive tactics, one cannot sit behind ramparts and abatis, behind the walls of fortresses, dooming the army to passivity and thereby giving the Polovtsians the opportunity to determine the direction of attacks, to create where it is profitable for them , a huge superiority of forces. And the squad cavalry, the best army in the world, was also forced to follow the paths laid out for it by the Polovtsians: cavalry squads went out only in pursuit of the Polovtsian horde, trying to recapture the prey and captives after the raid. It was necessary not to pursue the retreating enemy, satiated with blood and spoils, but to warn him, to smash him far from Russian lands, to deprive him of the opportunity to attack, to organize campaigns with significant forces far into the depths of the steppes, powerful attacks on the centers of nomads, on the Polovtsian towns, which they would be forced to defend , because in the towns there are their families and looted loot. And you won’t have to look for the flying squads of the Polovtsians in the vastness of the steppe; they themselves will gather together to block the road to their vezhas. It is then that the outcome of the entire war can be decided in large battles, in “direct combat,” which the steppe people do not like, but to which the enemy’s military art will force them. To impose his will on the Polovtsian khans, to force them to fight there and in a way that was beneficial to the Russian soldiers - this is what Vladimir Monomakh saw as the key to success. But while these were only thoughts about war, they had to be turned into deeds, and this was what the prince was going to do in the upcoming campaign.

And Vladimir Monomakh prepared another surprise for his enemies. Previously, mainly horse squads took part in field battles with the Polovtsians; the Polovtsians were accustomed to fighting with them, they knew how to break up the ranks, killing horses with arrows, attacking heavily armed horsemen with a wedge. Polovtsian attacks prince; decided to oppose a deep formation of foot soldiers, covered with large shields, armed with long spears. The close formation of foot soldiers, bristling with spears, will stop the furious attacks of the Polovtsian riders, and the cavalry will complete the rout. This is exactly what Prince Svyatoslav once did, preparing for the destructive attacks of steel Byzantine cataphracts, and achieved what he wanted. The military experience of our ancestors is the property of our descendants!

The army set out on a campaign when the Dnieper was cleared of ice. Pedestrians sailed south in boats along the full-flowing spring river, and horse squads walked along the banks level with them. Guard patrols ran far ahead to warn of danger in time. Nevertheless, Vladimir Monomakh ordered all the soldiers to put on armor and not let go of swords and spears: the Polovtsians are treacherous, surprise attacks from ambush are their favorite military trick.

Somewhere near the island of Khortitsa, near the rapids, the foot soldiers left the ships on the shore and united with the horse squads. The campaign began across the steppes to the Molochnaya River, which flowed into the Sea of ​​Azov. There were centers of Polovtsian nomads; the Polovtsians went there with the onset of autumn to spend the winter in warm regions, and in late spring, when the steppe was covered with grass, to return to the Russian borders.

The first skirmish was won by the Russian guard regiment, which moved carefully, along ravines and ravines, behind hills and mounds. The advance detachment of Khan Altunopa was surrounded by Russian foot soldiers and almost all of them were killed, and the few Polovtsians who survived the battle, who broke through the ring of foot soldiers, were overtaken by fresh Russian cavalry and hacked to death. Altunopa himself also died. There was no one to even warn about the dangerous advance of the Russian army.

The success inspired the Russian princes, and they willingly agreed with Vladimir Monomakh’s proposal to speed up the movement, try to impose a general battle on the main Polovtsian forces, and if the Polovtsians do not accept the battle, destroy their vezhi all the way to the Don, until the khans come out to save their wealth and relatives .

The Polovtsians decided to take the fight. At dawn on April 4, the two armies approached each other. The chronicler described the beginning of the battle as follows: “And the Polovtsian regiments moved like a forest, there was no end in sight for them; and Rus' went to meet them.” The Russian regiments managed to adopt a battle formation carefully thought out by Vladimir Monomakh. In the center stood a strong army on foot: in a single closed formation stood the people of Kiev and Chernigov, Smolensk and Rostov, Pereyaslavl and Polotsk. On the wings are princely equestrian squads.

The Polovtsian attack was divided, as it were, into several successive blows, each of which could break the spirit of the army and crush it. I could have, but I couldn't...

Waves of Polovtsian horse archers rolled into the Russian formation, and countless arrows rained down like a slanting rain. But the pawns, covering themselves with large shields bound in iron, survived. The archers were replaced by heavily armed warriors in armor, with striking curved sabers. With their mass they wanted to break the Russian system. But the foot soldiers took them on their spears, smashed the horses and riders, and knocked over the brave men who were the first to rush into the Russian formation. And when the Polovtsians broke through the first line of spearmen in several places, the rear ranks took them with axes and daggers.

The Polovtsian horsemen fell into the steppe grass, but the Russian formation did not back down, continued to stand, and the Polovtsian reserve detachments huddled in front of the crowd of fighters, not knowing what to do - the slaughter could absorb them, dissolve them in itself, each new detachment would only increase the crowd. The khans were perplexed: where to direct the next blows?

And then, at a signal from Monomakh, horse squads entered the battle, striking from the flanks. The Polovtsians trembled and ran, they were pursued by Russian warriors on fresh horses, not tired of battle. Not many managed to escape. Twenty Polovtsian khans were killed in the battle and during the persecution: Urussoba, Kchiya, Arslanopa, Kitanopa, Kuman, Asupa, Kurtkh, Chenegrepa, Surban and others, less known. It was a victory!

After a short rest, the Russian army moved on to the defenseless Polovtsian camps. Huge booty was captured: tents and property, herds, herds of horses. But the main thing was the release of many Russian captives, whom the Polovtsians had not yet managed to send to the slave markets of the Crimea, to Sudak and Chersonesos.

Pereyaslavl, the patrimony of Prince Vladimir Monomakh, solemnly greeted the winners. The joy of the princes was great, but Vladimir Monomakh warned against premature calm. The most dangerous enemies of Rus', the khans Sharukan and Bonyak, still retained their thousands of horsemen; it is not even known where they roam. There are still difficult campaigns ahead for the borders of Rus' to become truly safe. The Polovtsians received a cruel lesson - nothing more.

The lesson was truly harsh. The Donetsk Polovtsians, defeated by Vladimir Monomakh, became silent. There were no invasions on their part either the next year or the year after. But Khan Bonyak continued his raids, albeit without the same scope, and cautiously. In the late autumn of 1105, he suddenly appeared at the Zarubinsky Ford, not far from Pereyaslavl, plundered the Dnieper villages and villages and quickly retreated. The princes did not even have time to gather the chase. In the next 1106, the Polovtsians attacked Rus' three times already, but the raids were unsuccessful and did not bring any booty to the steppe inhabitants. First they approached the town of Zarechsk, but were driven away by the Kyiv squads. According to the chronicler, Russian soldiers drove the Polovtsians “to the Danube” and “took away everything.” Then Bonyak “fought” near Pereyaslavl and hastily retreated. Finally, according to the chronicler, “Bonyak and Sharukan the Old and many other princes came and stood near Lubn.” The Russian army moved towards them, but the Polovtsians, not accepting the fight, “ran, grabbing their horses.”

These raids did not pose a serious danger to Rus'; they were easily repelled by the princely squads, but the Polovtsian activity could not be underestimated. The Polovtsy began to recover from the recent defeat, and it was necessary to prepare a new big campaign in the steppe. Or, if Bonyak and Sharukan get ahead, we will meet them with dignity at the borders of Russian soil.

In August 1107, a large Polovtsian army besieged Luben, Sharukan brought with him the surviving Don Polovtsians, Khan Bonyak brought the Dnieper Polovtsians, and they were joined by the khans of other Polovtsian hordes. But since the summer, in the Pereyaslav fortress there were squads of many Russian princes who gathered at the call of Vladimir Monomakh. They rushed to the aid of the besieged city, crossed the Sulu River on the move and suddenly struck the Polovtsians. Those, without even displaying their battle banners, rushed in all directions: some did not have time to take their horses and fled to the steppe on foot, abandoning their full and looted booty. Monomakh ordered the cavalry to relentlessly pursue them so that there would be no one to attack Rus' again. Bonyak and Sharukan barely escaped. The pursuit continued to the Khorol River, through which Sharukan managed to cross, sacrificing the soldiers covering his escape. The spoils of the winners were many horses, which would serve the Russian soldiers well in future campaigns in the steppe.

The political significance of this victory was great. In January 1108, the khans of Aepa’s large horde, wandering not far from the borders of Kievan Rus, proposed concluding a treaty of peace and love. The treaty was accepted by the Russian princes. As a result, the unity of the khans disintegrated, and conditions were created for the final defeat of Sharukan and his allies. But preparing a new all-Russian campaign in the steppes required considerable time, and Sharukan could not be given a break. And in the winter of 1109, Vladimir Monomakh sent his governor Dmitry Ivorovich to the Donets with the Pereyaslav cavalry squad and foot soldiers on sleighs. He was ordered to find out exactly where the Polovtsian camps were located in winter, whether they were ready for summer campaigns against Rus', and whether Sharukan had many warriors and horses left. The Russian army had to devastate the Polovtsian vezhi, so that Sharukan would know: even in winter there would be no rest for him while he was at enmity with Russia.

Voivode Dmitry fulfilled the prince's instructions. Footmen in sleighs and warriors on horseback quickly passed through the steppes and in early January were already on the Donets. There they were met by the Polovtsian army. The governor put up a proven close formation of foot soldiers against the Polovtsian cavalry, against which the attack of the archers was broken, and the defeat was again completed by the flank attacks of the mounted warriors. The Polovtsians fled, abandoning their tents and property. Thousands of tents and many prisoners and livestock became the prey of Russian soldiers. No less valuable was the information brought by the governor from the Polovtsian steppes. It turned out that Sharukan was standing on the Don and gathering forces for a new campaign against Rus', exchanging messengers with Khan Bonyak, who was also preparing for war on the Dnieper.

In the spring of 1110, the united squads of princes Svyatopolk, Vladimir Monomakh and David advanced to the steppe border and stood near the city of Voinya. The Polovtsy went there from the steppe, but, unexpectedly meeting a Russian army ready for battle, they turned back and got lost in the steppes. The Polovtsian invasion did not take place.

The new campaign in the steppe was prepared for a long time and in detail. The Russian princes met again on Lake Dolobsky to discuss the plan for the campaign. The opinions of the governors were divided: some suggested waiting until next spring to move to the Donets in boats and on horses, others - repeating the winter sleigh ride of the governor Dmitry, so that the Polovtsians could not migrate south and fatten their horses, weakened during the winter lack of food, on spring pastures. The latter were supported by Vladimir Monomakh and his word turned out to be decisive. The start of the hike was scheduled for the very end of winter, when the frosts would subside, but there would still be an easy sleigh path.

At the end of February, armies from Kyiv, Smolensk, Chernigov, Novgorod-Seversky and other cities met in Pereyaslavl. The great Kiev prince Svyatopolk with his son Yaroslav, the sons of Vladimir Monomakh - Vyacheslav, Yaropolk, Yuri and Andrey, David Svyatoslavich of Chernigov with his sons Svyatoslav, Vsevolod, Rostislav, the sons of Prince Oleg - Vsevolod, Igor, Svyatoslav arrived. It has been a long time since so many Russian princes gathered for a joint war. Again, numerous armies of foot soldiers, who had proven themselves so well in previous campaigns against the Polovtsians, joined the princely equestrian squads.

On February 26, 1111, the army set out on a campaign. The princes stopped on the Alta River, waiting for the late squads. On March 3, the army reached the Suda River, having covered about one hundred and forty miles in five days. Considering that foot soldiers and large sleigh convoys with weapons and supplies were moving along with the mounted squads, such pace of the march should be considered very significant - thirty miles per day's march!

It was hard to walk. The thaw began, the snow was quickly melting, the horses had difficulty pulling the loaded sleigh. And yet the speed of the march almost did not decrease. Only a well-trained and resilient army was capable of such transitions.

On the Khorol River, Vladimir Monomakh ordered the sleigh train to be left and weapons and supplies to be loaded into packs. Then we walked lightly. The Wild Field began - the Polovtsian steppe, where there were no Russian settlements. The army covered the thirty-eight-mile journey from Khorol to the Psel River in one day's march. Ahead lay the Vorskla River, on which the Russian governors knew convenient fords - this was very important, since the deep spring rivers posed a serious obstacle. Horse guards rode far ahead of the main forces to prevent a surprise attack by the Polovtsians. On March 7, the Russian army reached the shores of Vorskla. On March 14, the army reached the Donets, repeating the winter campaign of the governor Dmitry. Beyond lay the “unknown land” - the Russian squads had never gone that far. The Polovtsian horse patrols flashed ahead - the horde of Khan Sharukan was somewhere close. The Russian soldiers put on their armor and assumed a battle formation: “brow”, regiments of the right and left hands, and a guard regiment. So they moved on, in battle formation, ready to meet the Polovtsian attack at any moment. The Donets remained behind, and Sharukan appeared - a steppe city consisting of hundreds of tents, tents, and low adobe houses. For the first time, the Polovtsian capital saw enemy banners under its walls. Sharukan was clearly not prepared for defense. The rampart around the city was low, easily surmountable - apparently, the Polovtsians considered themselves completely safe, hoping that they were reliably protected by the expanses of the Wild Field... Residents sent ambassadors with gifts and requests not to destroy the city, but to accept the ransom that the Russian princes would appoint.

Vladimir Monomakh ordered the Polovtsians to surrender all weapons, release prisoners, and return property looted in previous raids. Russian squads entered Sharukan. This happened on March 19, 1111.

The Russian army stood in Sharukan for only one night, and in the morning it moved on to the Don, to the next Polovtsian town - Sugrov. Its residents decided to defend themselves by taking to the earthen rampart with weapons. Russian regiments surrounded Sugrov on all sides and bombarded him with arrows and burning tarred tow. Fires started in the city. The distraught Polovtsians rushed through the burning streets, trying to cope with the fire. Then the attack began. Russian soldiers used heavy timber rams to break through the city gates and entered the city. Sugrov fell. The robber's nest, from which in previous years dashing bands of Polovtsian horsemen flew out for the next raid, ceased to exist.

There was only half a day's march left to the Don River... Meanwhile, the patrol patrols discovered a large concentration of Polovtsians on the Solnitsa River (Tor River), a tributary of the Don. A decisive battle was approaching, the result of which could only be victory or death: the Russian army had gone so far into the Wild Field that it was impossible to escape from the fast Polovtsian cavalry in the event of a retreat.

The day arrived on March 24, 1111. Dense crowds of Polovtsians appeared on the horizon, throwing forward the tentacles of light-horse patrols. The Russian army adopted a battle formation: in the “brow” - Grand Duke Svyatopolk with his Kyivians; on the right wing - Vladimir Monomakh and his sons with Pereyaslavl, Rostov, Suzdal, Belozerst, Smolyans; on the left wing are the Chernigov princes. The proven Russian battle formation with an indestructible phalanx of infantry in the center and fast cavalry squads on the flanks...

This is how Vladimir Monomakh fought in 1076 with knightly cavalry in the Czech Republic - pawn-spearmen in the center and cavalry on the flanks - and won. This is how he built his army in the last big campaign against the Polovtsians and also gained the upper hand. This is how, many years later, another glorious knight of the “Yaroslav family” - Alexander Nevsky - will arrange his regiments, when he leads his warriors onto the ice of Lake Peipus to push back the German dog knights...

Only at the end of the day the Polovtsians gathered for an attack and rushed into the Russian formation in huge crowds. The experienced Sharukan abandoned the usual Polovtsian tactics - striking the forehead with a horse wedge - and advanced along the entire front so that the horse squads of the princes could not help the footmen with flank attacks. The brutal slaughter began immediately both in the “forehead” and on the wings. Russian warriors had difficulty holding back the Polovtsian onslaught.

Probably, the khan was mistaken in building the battle this way. His warriors, many of whom did not have armor, were not accustomed to “direct combat”, to close hand-to-hand combat and suffered huge losses. The Russians held out and began to slowly move forward. It was getting dark quickly. The Polovtsians, realizing that they could not crush the Russian army with a frantic onslaught, turned their horses and galloped off into the steppe. This was a success for the Russian princes, but it was not yet a victory: many Polovtsian horsemen were saved and could continue the war. This is how Vladimir Monomakh assessed the situation, sending a guard regiment after the Polovtsians. Sharukan will gather his steppe army somewhere, we need to find out where...

The Russian regiments stood on the battlefield for only one day. Sentry patrols reported that the Polovtsians were again gathering in crowds near the mouth of Solnitsa. The Russian regiments set out on a campaign and marched all night. The fires of a huge Polovtsian camp were already flickering ahead.

The morning of March 27, 1111 arrived. Both troops again faced each other. This time Sharukan did not seek luck in the terrible “direct battle”, in which the Russians turned out to be invincible, but tried to surround the regiments of the princes from all sides in order to shoot the warriors from afar with bows, taking advantage of the speed of the Polovtsian horses and enormous numerical superiority. But Vladimir Monomakh did not allow his army to be encircled and he himself decisively moved forward. This was a surprise for the Polovtsian military leaders: usually the Russians waited to be attacked, and only after repelling the blow did they launch counterattacks. The Polovtsians were forced to take “direct battle” again. The leader of the Russian army imposed his will on the enemy. Once again the Polovtsian cavalry attacked the center of the Russian formation, and again the pawn-spearmen held out, giving the cavalry squads the opportunity to strike on the flanks. The Pereyaslav squad under the banner of Vladimir Monomakh fought in decisive sectors of the battle, instilling fear in the enemies. The horse squads of other princes broke into the Polovtsian ranks and tore the Polovtsian system to pieces. The khans and thousands rushed about in vain, trying to establish control of the battle. The Polovtsians huddled together in discordant crowds, moved randomly across the field, beaten by Russian warriors who were invulnerable in their armor. And the spirit of the Polovtsian army broke, it rolled back, towards the Don Ford. Frightened by this spectacle, thousands of fresh Polovtsians stopped on the other side of the Don. Horse squads relentlessly pursued the retreating Polovtsians, mercilessly cutting them down with long swords. Ten thousand warriors of Khan Sharukan found their deaths on the Don shore, and many were captured. The defeat was complete. There is no time for raids on Rus' now for the khan...

News of the victory of the Russian princes on the Don thundered across the Polovtsian steppes. Khan Bonyak was afraid, took his Dnieper Polovtsians away from the Russian borders, and in Rus' it was not even known where he was and what he was doing. The remnants of the Don Polovtsians migrated to the Caspian Sea, and some even further - beyond the “Iron Gates” (Derbent). Great silence fell on the steppe border of Rus', and this was the main result of the campaign. Rus' received a long-awaited respite.

A series of military conflicts that lasted for about a century and a half between Kievan Rus and the Polovtsian tribes. It was another clash of interests between the ancient Russian state and the nomads of the Black Sea steppes. Another side of this war was the strengthening of contradictions between the fragmented Russian principalities, whose rulers often made the Polovtsians their allies.

As a rule, three stages of military operations are distinguished: the initial (second half of the 11th century), the second period associated with the activities of the famous political and military figure Vladimir Monomakh (the first quarter of the 12th century), and the final period (until the middle of the 13th century) (it was part of the famous campaign of the Novgorod-Seversk prince Igor Svyatoslavich, described in “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”).

The situation in Rus' and in the steppes of the northern Black Sea region at the beginning of the clashes

By the middle of the 11th century. A number of important changes have occurred in the region under consideration. The Pechenegs and Torques, who ruled the “Wild Steppe” for a century, weakened by the struggle with their neighbors - Russia and Byzantium, were unable to stop the invasion of the Black Sea lands by newcomers from the Altai foothills - the Polovtsians, also called Cumans. The new owners of the steppes defeated their enemies and occupied their nomadic camps. However, they had to take upon themselves all the consequences of their proximity to neighboring countries. Long years of clashes between the Eastern Slavs and the steppe nomads developed a certain model of relations into which the Polovtsy were forced to fit into.

Meanwhile, the process of disintegration began in Rus' - the princes began to wage an active and ruthless struggle for inheritance and at the same time resort to the help of strong Polovtsian hordes to fight competitors. Therefore, the emergence of a new force in the Black Sea region became a difficult test for the inhabitants of Rus'.

Balance of forces and military organization of the parties

Not much is known about the Polovtsian warriors, but their military organization was considered by contemporaries to be quite high for their time. The main force of the nomads, like any steppe inhabitants, was light cavalry units armed with bows. Polovtsian warriors, in addition to bows, also had sabers, lassos and spears. Rich warriors wore chain mail. Apparently, the Polovtsian khans also had their own squads with heavy weapons. It is also known (since the second half of the 12th century) that the Polovtsians used heavy crossbows and “liquid fire,” borrowed, perhaps, from China from the time they lived in the Altai region, or in later times from the Byzantines (see Greek fire). The Polovtsians used the tactics of surprise attacks. They acted mainly against weakly defended villages, but rarely attacked fortified fortresses. In field battles, the Polovtsian khans competently divided their forces, using flying detachments in the vanguard to start the battle, which were then reinforced by an attack from the main forces. Thus, in the person of the Cumans, the Russian princes faced an experienced and skillful enemy. It was not for nothing that the longtime enemy of Rus', the Pechenegs, were completely defeated by Polovtsian troops and scattered, practically ceasing to exist.

Nevertheless, Rus' had a huge superiority over its steppe neighbors - according to historians, the population of the ancient Russian state in the 11th century already amounted to over 5 million inhabitants, while there were several hundred thousand nomads. The successes of the Polovtsians were due, first of all, to disunity and contradictions in the camp of their opponents.

The structure of the Old Russian army in the era of fragmentation changed significantly compared to the earlier period. Now it consisted of three main parts - the princely squad, personal detachments of aristocratic boyars and city militias. Russian military art was at a fairly high level.

First period of wars (second half of the 11th century)

Immediately after the death of Yaroslav the Wise (1054), the Polovtsians invaded the Pereyaslavl principality, but made peace with Vsevolod Yaroslavich. In 1059, Vsevolod, and in 1060, all three senior Yaroslavichs, in alliance with Vseslav of Polotsk, inflicted a crushing defeat on the Torks in the steppes. The first clash between Russians and Cumans dates back to 1061. The Principality of Pereyaslavl became a victim of the nomads. From then on, the nomads began to make frequent raids within the borders of Rus'.

One of the largest Polovtsian invasions of Rus' occurred in 1068. The forces of Izyaslav, Svyatoslav and Vsevolod Yaroslavich, who together owned all of Russia at that time, acted against the Polovtsians. However, this army suffered a crushing defeat on the Alta River. Izyaslav Yaroslavich refused to give the Kievans horses and weapons from his arsenal a second time in order to fight the Polovtsians, and on the left side of the Dnieper, the Chernigov prince Svyatoslav Yaroslavich on November 1, with 3,000 soldiers, was able to stop the advance of 12,000 Polovtsians in the battle on the Snova River, and the Novgorod first chronicle reports the capture Sharukana is captured. An uprising occurred in Kyiv, forcing Izyaslav to flee to Poland.

For the first time, the Polovtsians were used in Russian civil strife not against the central government, but by the central government:

After the death of Svyatoslav Yaroslavich during the reign of Kiev in 1076, Izyaslav Yaroslavich returned to Kyiv, and Chernigov was retained by Vsevolod Yaroslavich. The Svyatoslavichs Roman and Oleg, in alliance with the Polovtsians, began to fight for the former possessions of their father, which led to the death of Izyaslav Yaroslavich and Oleg’s ally Boris Vyacheslavich in the Battle of Nezhatinnaya Niva in 1078. In 1079, Roman Svyatoslavich was also killed by the Polovtsians.

In 1078, Vsevolod Yaroslavich became prince in Kyiv and left his son Vladimir as governor in Chernigov. A new powerful attack on the Russian lands, led by the khans Bonyak and Tugorkan, was timed to coincide with the illness of Vsevolod of Kyiv in 1092. The following year, Vsevolod died, and Tugorkan besieged the city of Torchesk. The united Kiev-Chernigov-Pereyaslavl army, headed by Svyatopolk Izyaslavich, Vladimir and Rostislav Vsevolodovich, respectively, came to the aid of the defenders, as 25 years before, but was defeated in the battle on the Stugna River, and Rostislav died during the retreat in stormy from the rains in the waters of the river. Torchesk fell, and Svyatopolk was forced to make peace with Tugorkan by marrying his daughter.

In 1094, Oleg Svyatoslavich and the Polovtsians besieged Vladimir Vsevolodovich in Chernigov. After a long siege, Vladimir openly left the city ( don't boast about something bad), passing between enemy forces without a fight, but the strife continued in the northeastern lands - Rostov and Murom, during which Monomakh’s son Izyaslav died (1096). Taking advantage of the absence of the forces of Svyatopolk and Monomakh in southern Rus', two Polovtsian armies attacked the Russian principalities on both banks of the Dnieper. Khan Bonyak appeared near Kiev itself, and Tugorkan and Khan Kurya besieged Pereyaslavl. The latter suffered the first major defeat from the Russians. On July 19, 1096, on the Trubezh River, the army of princes Svyatopolk Izyaslavich and Vladimir Monomakh defeated the enemy. Having learned about the defeat of Tugorkan, Bonyak, who had already managed to plunder the outskirts of Kyiv and burned the Pechersky Monastery, hastily went to the steppe. A year earlier, Monomakh killed two khans - Itlar and Kitan - during negotiations in Pereyaslavl.

Second period of wars (first quarter of the 12th century)

The blow dealt to the Polovtsians at Trubezh was very painful for the nomads. The largest Polovtsian commander Tugorkan died in the battle. But the strength of the steppe people was still great. In 1097, at the Lyubech Congress of Princes, a decision was made let everyone keep his fatherland(The Svyatoslavichs received their father’s inheritance), and Monomakh managed to convince the Russian princes of the need for retaliatory campaigns against the Polovtsians and to move the fight against them deep into the steppes.

In 1103, in the early spring, the allied army of the Russian princes moved to the steppes. The calculation was made to weaken the Polovtsian cavalry. After a long winter, the horses had not yet had time to gain strength, but the Russian army included, in addition to the princely squads, large forces of “footmen” - infantrymen. The foot army moved along the Dnieper on boats, the cavalry marched in parallel. Then the army turned deeper into the steppes. The decisive battle of the campaign took place on April 4 near the town of Suten. Monomakh and Svyatopolk defeated the Polovtsians, Khan Urusoba and 19 other princes were killed in this battle.

Four years later, the nomads went on the offensive again. In May, Khan Bonyak and his horsemen invaded the Pereyaslav Principality and besieged the city of Luben. Monomakh was again forced to defend his patrimony. Together with Svyatopolk, he came to the aid of the besieged and attacked the Polovtsians. This time Bonyak and his warriors did not resist for long: they fled, abandoning their baggage and booty. Once again, peace was concluded, sealed by two dynastic marriages: Vladimir’s son Yuri and Oleg Svyatoslavich’s son Svyatoslav married the daughters of Khan Aepa.

The truce did not last long. The Polovtsians were preparing a new attack on Rus', but this time Monomakh forestalled them. Thanks to the foray into the steppe of the army under the command of the governor Dmitry, having found out that several Polovtsian khans were gathering soldiers for a large campaign against Russian lands, the Pereyaslavl prince invited the allies to attack the enemy themselves. This time we performed in winter. On February 26, 1111, Vladimir Monomakh and Svyatopolk Izyaslavich, at the head of a large army, moved deep into the Polovtsian nomads. The army of the princes penetrated as far into the steppes as never before - all the way to the Don. The Polovtsian cities of Sharukan and Sugrov were captured. But Khan Sharukan brought the main forces out of the attack. On March 26, hoping that the Russian soldiers were tired after a long campaign, the Polovtsians attacked the allied army on the banks of the Salnitsa River. In a bloody and fierce battle, victory again went to the Russians. The enemy fled, the prince's army returned home without hindrance.

After Vladimir Monomakh became the Grand Duke of Kiev, Russian troops made another major campaign in the steppe (led by Yaropolk Vladimirovich and Vsevolod Davydovich) and captured 3 cities from the Polovtsians (1116). In the last years of his life, Monomakh sent Yaropolk with an army across the Don against the Polovtsians, but he did not find them there. The Polovtsians migrated away from the borders of Rus', to the Caucasian foothills.

Third period of wars (until the middle of the 13th century)

With the death of Monomakh's heir Mstislav, the Russian princes returned to the practice of using the Polovtsians in civil strife. One after another, the Polovtsian khans returned to the Don nomads. Thus, Yuri Dolgoruky brought the Polovtsians under the walls of Kyiv five times during the wars with Prince Izyaslav Mstislavich. Other princes did this too.

The resumption of campaigns of Russian princes in the steppes (to ensure the security of trade) is associated with the great reign of Kyiv Mstislav Izyaslavich (1167-1169).

In the 70s of the 12th century, in the steppe expanses from the Don to the southern borderlands of Rus', a large association of Polovtsian tribes arose, headed by Khan Konchak. The outskirts of Kyiv, Chernigov, and Pereyaslavl again became victims of increasing raids by aliens from the steppes. In 1177, the Cumans defeated Russian troops at Rostovets.

In 1183, the forces of a coalition of southern Russian princes, led by Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich of Kyiv, moved into the nomadic Polovtsians. A strong Russian army was defeated near the river. They attacked a large detachment of Polovtsian horsemen, capturing 7 thousand people, including Khan Kobyak, who then died in a Kyiv prison. On March 1, 1185, Konchak itself was defeated on the Khorol River. After this, Svyatoslav left for the northeastern lands of the Chernigov principality, preparing go to the Don against the Polovtsians for the whole summer, and the Novgorod-Seversk prince Igor Svyatoslavich undertook a separate campaign in the steppes (this time unsuccessful, unlike the campaign of the previous year).

The army of the Seversky prince set out on a campaign on April 23, 1185. On the way, Igor was joined with his squads by his son Vladimir Putivlsky, nephew Svyatoslav Rylsky, Igor’s brother, Chernigov prince Vsevolod and Chernigov kovui: a total of 5 regiments. Also in this campaign, the sixth regiment was mentioned for the first time, consisting of archers from all regiments. The first meeting with the Polovtsy took place on the banks of the river. Syurli was successful for the Russians. Rich booty was captured, and part of the Russian forces (except for the regiments of Igor and Vsevolod) took part in the pursuit of the defeated enemy. The next day, the princely regiments clashed with the main forces of Khan Konchak. On the banks of the river A bloody battle broke out in Kayala. The horse squads could have escaped, but chose not to abandon black people, dismounted and began to make their way to the Donets. Having been wounded, Igor mounted his horse again. For the whole day, Igor’s warriors held back the onslaught of superior enemy forces, but at dawn the next day they faltered. The princely army was defeated, Igor himself and his son Vladimir were captured.

The Polovtsians invaded Rus', besieged Pereyaslavl, and took Rimov. Svyatoslav of Kyiv and his co-ruler Rurik Rostislavich managed to build a defense, and with the news of their crossing the Dnieper, Konchak lifted the siege of Pereyaslavl and went to the steppe. The Novgorod-Seversk prince, who later escaped from Polovtsian captivity, managed to take revenge on his enemies: he made several victorious campaigns against the nomads. After 1185, the Cumans invaded Rus' only as allies of one of the coalitions of Russian princes fighting each other. At the same time, the largest campaigns in the steppes were undertaken by Vsevolod the Big Nest in 1198 (the Cumans migrated south to avoid conflict), Roman Mstislavich in 1202 (for which the chronicler earned comparison with his great ancestor Monomakh) and 1203.

In the first half of the 13th century, both the Russians and the Cumans became victims of the Mongol conquests. When the Mongols first appeared in Europe in 1222-1223, the Russian princes joined forces with the Polovtsian khans, although the Mongol ambassadors suggested that the Russian princes act together against the Polovtsians. The Battle of the Kalka River ended unsuccessfully for the Allies, but the Mongols were forced to postpone the conquest of Eastern Europe for 13 years. Western campaign of the Mongols of 1236-1242, also called in eastern sources Kipchak, that is, Polovtsian, did not meet the joint resistance of the Russian princes and Polovtsian khans.

Results of the wars

The results of the Russian-Polovtsian wars were the loss of control by the Russian princes over the Tmutarakan principality and the White Vezha, as well as the cessation of Polovtsian invasions of Rus' outside the framework of alliances with some Russian princes against others. At the same time, the strongest Russian princes began to undertake campaigns deep into the steppes, but even in these cases the Polovtsians preferred to retreat, avoiding a collision.

The Rurikovichs became related to many Polovtsian khans. Yuri Dolgoruky, Svyatoslav Olgovich (Prince of Chernigov), Rurik Rostislavich, Yaroslav Vsevolodovich (Prince of Vladimir) were married to Polovtsian women at different times. Christianity became widespread among the Polovtsian elite: for example, of the four Polovtsian khans mentioned in Russian chronicles in 1223, two bore Orthodox names, and the third was baptized before a joint campaign against the Mongols.

The Polovtsians belonged to the nomadic tribes. According to various sources, they also had other names: Kipchaks and Komans. The Polovtsian people belonged to the Turkic-speaking tribes. At the beginning of the 11th century, they expelled the Pechenegs and Torques from the Black Sea steppes. Then they headed to the Dnieper, and upon reaching the Danube they became the owners of the steppe, which became known as the Polovtsian steppe. The religion of the Polovtsians was Tengriism. This religion is based on the cult of Tengri Khan (the eternal sunshine of the sky).

The daily life of the Polovtsians was practically no different from other tribal peoples. Their main occupation was cattle breeding. By the end of the 11th century, the type of Polovtsian nomadism changed from camp to more modern. Each individual part of the tribe was assigned plots of land for pastures.

Kievan Rus and the Cumans

Starting from 1061 and up to 1210, the Polovtsians made constant raids on Russian lands. The struggle between Rus' and the Polovtsians lasted quite a long time. There were about 46 major raids on Rus', and this does not take into account smaller ones.

The first battle of Rus' with the Cumans was on February 2, 1061 near Pereyaslavl, they burned the surrounding area and robbed the nearest villages. In 1068, the Cumans defeated the troops of the Yaroslavichs, in 1078 Izyaslav Yaroslavich died in a battle with them, in 1093 the Cumans defeated the troops of 3 princes: Svyatopolk, Vladimir Monomakh and Rostislav, and in 1094 they forced Vladimir Monomakh to leave Chernigov. Subsequently, several retaliatory campaigns were made. In 1096, the Polovtsians suffered their first defeat in the fight against Russia. In 1103 they were defeated by Svyatopolk and Vladimir Monomakh, then they served King David the Builder in the Caucasus.

The final defeat of the Polovtsians by Vladimir Monomakh and a Russian army of many thousands occurred as a result of the crusade in 1111. To avoid final destruction, the Polovtsians changed their place of nomadism, moving across the Danube, and most of their troops, along with their families, went to Georgia. All these “all-Russian” campaigns against the Polovtsians were led by Vladimir Monomakh. After his death in 1125, the Cumans took an active part in the internecine wars of the Russian princes, participating in the defeat of Kyiv as allies in 1169 and 1203.

The next campaign against the Polovtsy, also referred to as the massacre of Igor Svyatoslavovich with the Polovtsy, described in “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign,” took place in 1185. This campaign of Igor Svyatoslavovich was an example of one of the unsuccessful ones. After some time, some of the Polovtsians converted to Christianity, and a period of calm began in the Polovtsian raids.

The Polovtsians ceased to exist as an independent, politically developed people after the European campaigns of Batu (1236 - 1242) and made up the majority of the population of the Golden Horde, passing on to them their language, which formed the basis for the formation of other languages ​​(Tatar, Bashkir, Nogai, Kazakh, Karakalpak , Kumyk and others).