Politics as a science and academic discipline. Political science as a science Political parties and party systems

Political science is a body of knowledge about politics, formed by a developed system of specialized scientific disciplines that study political phenomena and processes. Political thought and knowledge about politics go back more than two and a half thousand years.

People have long been engaged in understanding political processes and phenomena, trying to determine the ways and methods of the best government system and building a just society. And today humanity is faced with the task of understanding the complex, constantly changing world of politics, developing concepts and programs for optimal political activity, and developing humanistic projects for political development.

Historically, the study of politics has evolved from universalism Eastern and ancient philosophical and socio-political thought to the formation in Great Britain, Germany, France and the USA at the end of the 19th century. independent political science scientific directions and disciplines: political philosophy, political science, theory of state, political history, etc. Among the first scientific institutions specializing in research in the field of political science was the Free School of Political Science in France, created in 1871 (now the Institute political studies at the University of Paris), in 1880 - the School of Political Science at Columbia University (USA), in 1895 - the London School of Economics and Political Science. In 1903, the American Political Science Association was created, uniting US political scientists and laying the foundation for the creation of similar associations in other countries of the world.

The formation of political science in imperial Russia was characterized by certain features and understandable difficulties. The official political course and the nature of the country's government should have been perceived by the population as the only possible ones, moreover, sanctified by tradition and the church, and also protected by law. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, right up to the creation of the multi-party State Duma in 1906, theoretical politics in universities could only be considered within the framework of legal disciplines at the law faculties of leading Russian universities, for example, in courses such as the history of political and legal doctrines, philosophy law, general theory of law. In other words, they could only be discussed by a narrow circle of future specialists in the form of some kind of “application” to law and usually from an official point of view. The title of professor of “moral and political sciences” has existed in Russia since the beginning of the 19th century. It was, in particular, a favorite of lyceum students and A.S. Pushkin Professor A.P. Kunitsyn, who, at the opening of the Lyceum on October 19, 1811, declared to future students: “Love of glory and the Fatherland should be your leader!” In Tsarist Russia, this title meant teaching and educating students in line with official requirements, and here much depended on the personal qualities and beliefs of each professor (it is interesting that M.Yu. Lermontov studied for a year at the short-lived political department of Moscow University). By the end of the 19th century. refers to the opening at the Imperial Academy in St. Petersburg of the direction of “history and political sciences”, where research was coordinated along the lines of “autocracy - Orthodoxy - nationality”. At the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. Russia has given the world a whole galaxy of brilliant theorists of law and politics, most of whom had a university legal, philosophical or historical education: N.I. Kareev, M.M. Kovalevsky, V.I. Lenin, S.A. Muromtsev, P.I. Novgorodtsev, G.V. Plekhanov, A.I. Stronin, B.N. Chicherin et al.

An important stage in the development of world political science was the period after the Second World War. In 1948, the study of political science was recommended by UNESCO, which created the necessary preconditions for its gradual recognition and approval in universities and academic institutions in the vast majority of countries in the world. Since 1949, the International Association of Political Science (IAPS) has been operating under UNESCO, maintaining contacts with dozens of national associations, including the Russian one, which has been operating since the mid-50s. XX century

In Soviet Russia, in the USSR from the late 20s to the end of the 80s. XX century the study of politics took place mainly in line with the official paradigm - “Marxist-Leninist teaching”. During this period, in universities and the system of party-political education, such socio-political disciplines as the history of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, historical materialism, and, since 1965, scientific socialism, etc., were necessarily studied. As a result of the abolition of the one-party system in Russia, the necessary conditions were created for the development of pluralistic political science.

Since the late 1980s. Political science in the Russian Federation is developing as an officially recognized scientific discipline based on the use of achievements. concepts of world political science, principles of pluralism and taking into account Russian political, civilizational and cultural traditions. There are political science departments in all major Russian universities.

Professional political science education can be obtained by studying in the direction of “political science”: Bachelor of Political Science (the study period lasts 4 years), and then master political sciences (2 more years) or, studying in the specialty “political science”, a political scientist (5 years). Masters and specialists receive the right to continue their education in graduate school in political science.

Since 1989, leading universities in Russia and research institutes of the Russian Academy of Sciences have had postgraduate schools and specialized councils in which candidate and doctoral dissertations in political science are defended. Over the past period of time, more than one and a half thousand candidate's and about 500 doctoral dissertations in political science were defended, which led to the formation of a massive, highly qualified group of Russian political scientists. Academic degrees (candidate and doctor) and titles (associate professor, professor) in political science have become the norm in leading Russian universities. There is professional specialization “within” the political sciences. Candidate and doctoral dissertations in political science are defended in the following three areas (specializations) specified in the register of the Higher Attestation Commission of the Russian Federation.

Political science (political science) is traditionally defined as a scientific field that studies the laws and goals of the functioning and development of political institutions and the political activities of people. It is a scientific study of the state - its nature, components, essence and development - and governments, their functions and goals, and other institutions to ensure the tasks of a decent life for citizens of society. It is a systematic study of the political problems of yesterday for the benefit of today and to gain inspiration, a clear perspective for creating a better future for all people.

Political science (political science for short) is a branch of knowledge about politics, the laws of functioning and development of the political life of society, reflecting the process of including social communities and individuals in activities to express political interests and political power. Political science is the systematic study of government and politics. It deals with the area of ​​development and implementation of public policy through decisions considered as authoritarian-powerful and binding for a given society.

Political science is a science about political power and management, about the patterns and features of the development of political relations and processes, the functioning of political institutions and systems, about political consciousness, communication, behavior and activities of people in various civilizational, cultural and time dimensions.

Object of political science is the political life of people, social communities integrated into the state and society.

Subject of political science serves as that part of the object that is known for a given period of socio-political development, expressed in the laws and categories of a given branch of knowledge and constitutes a certain concept of knowledge about the object.

In terms of subject content, the development of political science in the last century went from focusing primarily on formal institutions and legal relations to showing interest in political processes, the behavior of individuals and groups, and informal relations. The dominant paradigm(main direction, trend, preferred research methods) of political science in the 18th and 19th centuries. was an institutional direction - the study of political institutions based on the theory of separation of powers, political participation, and a comparative analysis of government. At the end of the 20th - beginning of the 21st centuries. it is complemented by the paradigm of a comprehensive study of political systems, structures, cultures, subcultures and communications, the manifestation of human qualities in politics in the context of globalization and the transition to information development, optimization of state and municipal management of society based on innovative strategies and models of activity.

In methodological terms, the legal and historical analysis that previously prevailed in political science was supplemented by methods of modern sociology, cultural studies, psychology and cybernetics, systemic, functional, comparative and civilizational approaches.

An important direction in the study of politics is considering it as an integral phenomenon, through a systems approach. For this purpose, the entire political system of society is highlighted and examined, including the interrelationship of political institutions, norms, political consciousness, culture and communication in connection with the problems of political management of society and participation in politics. The transition from the study of individual political institutions (state, parties) to a systemic analysis of the entire complex of political phenomena, the study of the patterns of political development and management of society in the context of globalization is a priority direction of modern political science.

Political science is multi-paradigm science, which widely uses both general logical and special theoretical and applied methods of policy research based on extensive comparative material on the development of various civilizations, peoples, states, etc. She constantly improves research methods, paying special attention to globalization processes, political governance, political decision-making, participation in politics, the role of the human factor in politics in various socio-cultural and civilizational conditions.

Political science can be conditionally differentiated into a number of main sections and (or) areas:

S theory (methods and scientific schools) and history of politics;

S political systems, political institutions (state, parties), socio-political movements, pressure groups, political and legal norms, political relations, political processes, political governance and participation, conflictology, comparative political science;

S political consciousness (ideology and psychology), political culture, socialization and political communication;

S applied political science (political analysis, management, marketing);

S world politics and international relations, world political process, foreign policy, geopolitics.

There is also a differentiation of political science into a number of political science disciplines: philosophy of politics, theory of politics, applied political science, political sociology, political anthropology, political psychology, political history, political (state and municipal) administration, etc.

When studying political science, it is very important to turn to the domestic tradition, the modern political development of Russia, and world experience. Depending on the capabilities of the curriculum and the profile of the university, students are offered various special courses: in political management, conflictology, political regional studies, applied political science, political sociology and psychology, ethnopolitical science, political culture, history and theory of political thought, political parties and movements of Russia, foreign policy Russia, geopolitics, etc.

Among the most important problems and issues developed and studied by modern political science are the following:

S patterns of expression and implementation of the interests of social groups and individuals in politics, the impact of political institutions and organizations on society;

S dynamics of political processes and systems in various civilizational and sociocultural environments;

S ways to achieve and maintain political stability in society, search for ways of peaceful and fair resolution of political, including ethno-confessional, conflicts;

S legitimation of power, development of concepts and methods of modern state and municipal management;

S formation of a legal and social state;

S dialectics of relations between the state and civil society;

S the process of making political decisions at various levels of government; S political socialization and citizen participation in political life;

S electoral process, political management and marketing;

S strategy and tactics of political parties and movements;

S the influence of political culture on political processes and people’s activities, trends in the development of political consciousness;

S political forecasting, modeling of political processes, political science examination of socio-economic and other development programs, macropolitical analysis of the transformation of society;

S the role of politics and political science in the formation of a competitive democratic model of development of Russian society in the context of globalization;

S applied political science, political analysis;

S global and regional problems of world politics and geopolitics;

S Russian foreign policy, etc.

• Bachelor's and master's degrees in political science (political science) correspond to their foreign counterparts; a specialist's diploma is “reduced” in France and English-speaking countries to a foreign bachelor's degree, but in Russia it gives the opportunity to enter graduate school and has a completed character, like a diploma of full higher education.

Introduction

1. Object and subject of political science, its relationship with other sciences

3. Research methods used in political science

Literature

Introduction

Politics can be found at the basis of all processes occurring in society, although not everything in human relations can be reduced to politics. In modern conditions there is no person who could say that he is outside the radius of action of politics. Even if a person considers himself apolitical, he is forced to recognize and at the same time respect the decisions of political authorities. Knowledge of politics meets the interests of every person who strives to understand his place and role in society, to better satisfy his needs in community with other people, and to influence the choice of goals and means of their implementation in the state.

People understand politics in two main ways: through ordinary views, gained from everyday practical experience, and through scientific knowledge, which is the result of research. Everyday, unsystematized ideas about politics have existed for many millennia. In one form or another they are inherent in every person. Reflecting primarily the practical side of political phenomena, everyday knowledge can be true or false. In general, they do not reflect reality deeply and comprehensively and therefore cannot serve as a reliable guide for a person in the world of politics. Political science and its study are designed to provide all this.

1. Object and subject of political science, its relationship with other sciences

The concept of "political science" comes from two Greek words - politike (state affairs) and logos (teaching). Political science as an independent branch of knowledge emerged at the turn of the Middle Ages and the Modern Age, when thinkers began to explain political processes using scientific rather than religious and mythological arguments. The foundations of scientific political theory were laid by N. Machiavelli, T. Hobbes, J. Locke, S.-L. Montesquieu and others. Political science as an independent scientific discipline began to take shape in the second half of the 19th century. In 1857, F. Leiber began teaching a course in political science at Columbia College; in 1880, the first school of political science was created in the same college, which marked the beginning of the active formation of a system of political science educational and scientific institutions in the United States. And in 1903, the American Political Science Association was created, and in the same year a political journal began to be published. In France, the teaching of “political and moral sciences” began during the Great French Revolution. In Great Britain, the London School of Economics and Political Science has been operating since 1885, where government officials and managers at various levels are trained. In 1896, the Italian political scientist and sociologist G. Mosca published the book “Elements of Political Science,” which gives reason to talk about the expansion of political science in Europe since the end of the 19th century. The process of establishing political science as an independent science and academic discipline was completed in 1948. In this year, the International Association of Political Science was created under the auspices of UNESCO. At the International Congress she held (Paris, 1948) on political science, the content of this science was determined and it was recommended to include a course in political science for study in the higher education system as a compulsory discipline. It was decided that the main components of political science are: 1) political theory; 2) political institutions; 3) parties, groups and public opinion; 4) international relations. In our country, political science was considered for a long time as a bourgeois theory, a pseudoscience, and therefore was in its infancy. Certain political science problems were considered within the framework of historical materialism, scientific communism, the history of the CPSU, and other social sciences. Moreover, their study was dogmatic and one-sided. Political science as a new academic course began to be taught in all higher educational institutions of Ukraine only after the collapse of the USSR. As an independent science, political science has its own object and specific subject of knowledge.

Object Political science is the sphere of political relations in society.

The sphere of political relations is much wider than what could be called purely political. It includes the processes of functioning and development of power, inclusion of the masses in politics, economic, social and spiritual interests of society. The political sphere represents the interaction in the political process of large and small social groups, associations of citizens, and individuals. The political sphere includes socio-political institutions and organizations through which interaction takes place between individual political subjects.

Subject political science is the patterns of formation and development of political power, forms and methods of its functioning and use in a state-organizational society. The uniqueness of political science lies in the fact that it considers all social phenomena and processes in relation to political power. Without power there can be no politics, since it is power that acts as the means of its implementation. The category “political power” is universal and covers all political phenomena. For example, the problems of reform of the political system, which are very hotly discussed in our state. From the point of view of legal science, they represent a dispute about the content of legal norms; from the point of view of political science, they are a theoretical reflection of the struggle of various social forces for the possession of economic and political power in society. Thus, political science is a system of knowledge about politics, political power, political relations and processes, and the organization of the political life of society. Political science arose and is developing in interaction with many sciences that study individual aspects of politics as a social phenomenon. (see diagram 1) History and geography, law and sociology, philosophy and economics, psychology and cybernetics and a number of other sciences have their own approaches to the study of various aspects of politics. Each of them has as its subject the study of one or another aspect of the sphere of political relations, ranging from methodological to specific applied issues. History studies real socio-political processes and different points of view on these processes. Thus, it allows one to clarify and explain the causes of current political processes. Philosophy creates a general picture of the world, clarifies the place of man and his activities in this world, gives general concepts about the principles and conditions of knowledge, the development of theoretical concepts in general, political ones in particular. Economic theory considers economic processes as the basis of the political sphere, which makes it possible to understand the nature of political relations. The law outlines the general framework for the activities of all government agencies, as well as other organizations, citizens and their associations, i.e. framework for the formation of phenomena central to politics. Sociology provides political science with information about the functioning of society as a system, about the interaction of different social groups in the aspect of political relations. Particularly valuable for political science are the methodological developments of sociology regarding the conduct of empirical research (questionnaires, content analysis, expert surveys, etc.). Political science is closely related to psychology. Analyzing human activity in the political sphere, a political scientist uses concepts developed by psychological science: “needs”, “interests”, “ideals”, etc. In its research, political science also relies on data from political geography and political anthropology, and uses materials from political global studies. In the last decade, a number of special political science disciplines have appeared: political modeling, political imageology, political marketing, etc. Sciences such as cybernetics, logic, statistics, systems theory give political science a form, quantitative measurements, structures for presenting scientific messages from the point of view of abstract interpretations of political phenomena and processes.

Scheme 1 Interrelation of political science with other sciences

Like any scientific discipline that has a subject of research, political science has its own system categories , i.e. . key concepts with the help of which the subject of science is revealed.

The specificity of the political science category apparatus is that, being formed later than the apparatus of other social sciences, it borrowed many categories from the historical, philosophical, legal, and sociological vocabulary. Political science has drawn many terms from the field of natural sciences: cybernetics, biology, theoretical mathematics, etc. The system of political science categories is in development, it is constantly enriched both at the international and domestic levels. Nevertheless, some elementary concepts have already become established and have entered into widespread practice. They will be revealed and explained in subsequent lectures. The most important categories of political science include: politics, political power, the political system of society, political regime, civil society, political parties, political culture, political elite, political leadership, etc. Political science concepts and assessments, the impact of political science on the life of modern society are becoming more and more widespread and significant. This indicates the presence of diverse connections between political science and society, and the fulfillment of a number of important functions by it. Let's highlight the most obvious ones (see diagram 2) Theoretical-cognitive the function is associated with the identification, study, understanding of various trends, difficulties, contradictions of political processes, with the assessment of past political events;

Methodological the function of political science assumes that understanding the general laws of the political life of society will help other social sciences in solving their specific problems;

Functions of political science:

Theoretical-cognitive

Methodological

Analytical

Regulatory

Prognostic

Analytical the function of political science, like other social sciences, is aimed at understanding the essence of political processes, phenomena, and their comprehensive assessment;

Regulatory The function is that political science contributes to the development of the correct guidelines in turbulent political flows, ensures the influence of people and organizations on the political process, their participation in political events.

The essence prognostic function is that knowledge of global trends in political development and their correlation with existing interest groups in society allows one to determine in advance the effectiveness of proposed political decisions. The presence of a preliminary examination helps to insure society from negative consequences and ineffective actions.

Applied political science. Conventionally, political science can be divided into theoretical and applied. Both components are inextricably linked, complement and enrich each other.

Applied political science is a branch of political science that studies specific political situations in order to obtain certain information for interested individuals and organizations, develop for them political forecasts, practical advice and recommendations that serve to improve the efficiency of their activities.

The specificity of applied political science is clearly manifested in its goals and final product. Theoretical political science aims to obtain new general abstract knowledge, quite universal or knowledge that characterizes entire types of phenomena. Applied political science seeks to develop mainly short-term forecasts of the unfolding of events and to give specific recommendations to certain participants in the political process. Applied political science research is usually carried out by professional analysts, experts, image makers (specialists in creating a positive image of a politician among citizens, especially voters), advisers to political figures and other persons related to real politics. Applied research is usually carried out at the request of government agencies, parties, other organizations, candidates for elected positions, etc. Such studies are widely used in the preparation of government decisions, as well as during election campaigns. Applied political science develops technologies for managing election campaigns, the processes of creating political parties and associations, and using the capabilities of the media in achieving certain political goals.

3. Research methods used in political science

Human activity in any form (scientific, practical, etc.) is determined by a number of factors. Its final result depends not only on who acts (subject) or what it is aimed at (object), but also on how this process is carried out, what methods, techniques, and means are used.

Research methods are techniques and ways of achieving certain results in practical and cognitive activities.

Depending on the specific purpose of the study, political science chooses various techniques and methods of analysis, of which there are quite a few. Conventionally, the methods used in the study of political phenomena and processes can be divided into general theoretical and specific empirical (see Diagram 3). In real research, all methods are intertwined and complement each other. The group of general theoretical methods includes institutional, historical, systemic, comparative, psychological, behaviorist, etc.

Institutional The method is focused on studying the interaction of political institutions: the state, its bodies, political parties and other public organizations. The analysis is based on established and socially ingrained political forms and formal decision-making rules. Historical method - based on the study of political phenomena in their development. The advantage of the historical method lies, first of all, in the fact that it makes it possible to study political processes in the context of the historical situation in which they arise and develop. This method also makes it possible to analyze phenomena that occur repeatedly in history (for example, wars and revolutions). Using the historical method, researchers have the opportunity to generalize modern historical experience in the development of political systems. Analysis of various stages in the movement of political processes allows us to identify patterns in their development. The importance of using the historical method in political analysis is largely determined by the needs of political practice. Its timely and correct application allows one to avoid manifestations of voluntarism and subjectivism in politics.

Comparative method. In order to understand the true essence of the political world, it is necessary to study the various forms of its manifestation in different countries and regions, socio-economic, socio-historical situations, among different nations and peoples, etc. In this context, not only the political system in its entirety, its forms, types and varieties, but also its specific components can act as objects of comparative analysis. And these are government structures, legislative bodies, parties and party systems, electoral systems, mechanisms of political socialization, etc. Modern comparative political research covers dozens or even hundreds of compared objects, carried out using both qualitative approaches and the latest mathematical and cybernetic means of collecting and processing information. There are several types of comparative research: cross-national comparison is focused on comparing states with each other; comparatively oriented description of individual cases; binary analysis based on comparison of two (most often similar) countries; cross-cultural and cross-institutional comparisons aimed, respectively, at comparing national cultures and institutions.

System the method focuses on the integrity of policy and the nature of its relationship with the external environment. The system method is most widely used in the study of complex developing objects - multi-level, usually self-organizing. These, in particular, include political systems, organizations, and institutions. With a systems approach, an object is considered as a set of elements, the interconnection of which determines the integral properties of this set. For example, among political institutions an important place belongs to the state. When analyzing it, the main emphasis is on identifying the variety of connections and relationships that take place both within the state (system) and in its relationships with the external environment (other political institutions within the country, states). Using the systematic method, it is also possible to clearly determine the place of politics in the development of society, its most important functions, and opportunities for implementing reforms. However, the systematic method is ineffective when analyzing individual behavior in politics (for example, the role of a leader), when considering conflicts and studying crisis situations.

Psychological The method is focused on studying the subjective mechanisms of people's political behavior, their individual qualities, character traits, as well as identifying the typical mechanisms of psychological motivations and the role of subconscious factors in political life. The mechanisms of subconscious motivation have been studied by many scientists, but a special role in this direction belongs to S. Freud. In his opinion, human actions are based on unconscious desires for sexual pleasure (libido). But they conflict with widespread social restrictions. The dissatisfaction and internal conflicts that arise on this basis lead to the sublimation (i.e., switching) of the energy of instincts into various areas of life, including the socio-political sphere. In general, psychologism plays a significant role in studies of the political sphere in a number of areas:

The impact of psychological factors on the development and adoption of political decisions and on their perception by citizens;

Optimization of the image of government or the political system;

Creation of psychological portraits of leaders;

Analysis of the dependence of citizens' political behavior on their inclusion in the social environment;

Study of the psychological characteristics of various social groups (ethnicities, classes, interest groups, crowds, demographics, etc.), etc.

Made a kind of revolution in political science behaviorist method. Behaviorism (from English - behavior) is literally the science of behavior. The essence of behaviorism is the study of politics through the concrete study of the varied behavior of individuals and groups. The starting point of behaviorism is the assertion that human behavior is a reaction to the influence of the external environment. This reaction can be observed and described. Politics, behaviorists argue, has a personal dimension. Collective, group actions of people, one way or another, go back to the behavior of specific individuals, who are the main object of political research. Behaviorism rejects political institutions as an object of study and recognizes as such the behavior of individuals in political situations. Behaviorism played a significant role in the formation and development of comparative and applied political science. It was within the framework of behaviorism that the concrete empirical methods used by political science received comprehensive development. The group of concrete empirical methods includes: population surveys, analysis of statistical material, study of documents, game methods, mathematical modeling, study of folklore (ditties, jokes, etc.), etc.

Polls population, which are carried out both in the form of questionnaires and interviews, provide rich factual material for identifying various kinds of patterns. And their careful analysis makes it possible to make political forecasts. Analysis of statistical materials allows you to obtain fairly reliable results in identifying trends in the development of political processes. Studying documents includes analysis of official materials: party programs, transcripts of government and parliamentary meetings, various kinds of reports, as well as diaries and memoirs. Film, photo documents and posters may be of significant interest. Application gaming methods makes it possible to simulate the development of a particular political phenomenon (negotiations, conflict, etc.). This allows researchers to reveal the internal mechanisms of the phenomenon being studied and provide recommendations for decision-making. Mathematical modeling method consists of studying political processes and phenomena through the development and study of models. For example, measurement, descriptive, explanatory and predictive models are distinguished by purpose.

Today, in connection with the improvement of computers and software, modeling of political macro- and microprocesses has become one of the primary directions in the development of the methodology of political science.

General theoretical Specific empirical

Institutional Surveys

Historical Analysis of Statistical Materials

Comparative Study of Documents

System Gaming

Psychological Mathematical Modeling

Behaviorist Study of folklore

Scheme 3 Main research methods used by political science

The role of political science especially increases in the conditions of a reformed society, when it is necessary to make serious changes in the structure of the political system, in the content of the political process and the nature of power. Political science helps solve problems that arise along the way, regulate public consciousness and control the political behavior of various groups of people.

Literature

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Political science as a branch of science studies the political life of society. The emergence of political science is due, on the one hand, to the public need for scientific knowledge of politics, its rational organization, and effective public administration; on the other hand, the development of political knowledge itself. The need for theoretical understanding, systematization, and analysis of the experience and knowledge about politics accumulated by mankind has led to the natural formation of an independent science.

The name itself - “political science” is formed from two Greek words: politike - state, public affairs; logos – word, teaching. The authorship of the first concept belongs to Aristotle, the second - to Heraclitus. So in a general sense political science - This is the study of politics.

Political science – is the science of political power and management, the patterns of development of political relations and processes, the functioning of political systems and institutions, political behavior and human activities.

Like any science, political science has its own object and subject of knowledge . Let us recall that in the theory of knowledge as object acts as that part of objective reality to which the subject-practical and cognitive activity of the researcher (subject) is directed.

Object of political science how science is political sphere of society , that is, a special sphere of people’s life activities associated with power relations, the state-political organization of society, political institutions, principles, norms, the action of which is designed to ensure the functioning of society, the relationship between people, society and the state.

As a science of politics, political science “covers” the entire spectrum of political life, including both its spiritual and material, practical sides, as well as the process of interaction of politics with others spheres of public life:

ü production or economic (sphere of production, exchange, distribution and consumption of material assets);

ü social (sphere of interaction of large and small social groups, communities, layers, classes, nations);

ü spiritual (morality, religion, art, science, which form the basis of spiritual culture).

The political sphere of social relations is studied directly or indirectly by many sciences (philosophy, sociology, history, theory of state and law, etc.), but political science considers it from its own specific angle, or, in other words, has its own subject of study.

The subject of the study is a specific science is that part, the side of objective reality (politics in our case), which is determined by the specifics of this science. The subject of the study is to identify the most significant, from the point of view of this science, natural connections and relations of objective reality.

As subject of political science research phenomenon appears political power (its essence, institutions, patterns of origin, functioning, development and change); In addition, political science studies itself politics – as a special type of activity associated with the use of political power in the process of realizing individual, group and public interests.

Structure and functions of political science knowledge, methods of political science.Complexity and many The complexity of the object and subject of research in political science is reflected in its content and structure. Under structure of political science is understood as a set of political science knowledge and research issues, grouped into separate areas. In this case, individual structural elements are usually considered as branches of political science. In accordance with the nomenclature adopted by the International Political Science Association, the main structural elements, or sections, of political science include:

1. Theory and methodology of politics – reveals the philosophical and methodological foundations of politics and power, their content, features, functions and patterns.

2. Theory of political systems – explores the essence, structure and functions of political systems, characterizes the main political institutions - the state, parties, social movements and organizations.

3. Theory of management of socio-political processes – studies the goals, objectives and forms of political leadership and management of society, mechanisms for making and implementing political decisions.

4. History of political doctrines and political ideology – reveals the genesis of political science, the content of the main ideological and political doctrines, the role and functions of political ideology.

5. Theory of international relations – examines the problems of foreign and world politics, various aspects of international relations, global problems of our time.

In addition, based on the problems solved by political science, It is customary to distinguish between theoretical and applied political science .

Political science, like any science, performs a number of functions scientific, educational, methodological and applied nature. The main ones are the following:

· Epistemological (cognitive) function , the essence of which is the most complete and specific knowledge of political reality, the disclosure of its inherent objective connections, main trends and contradictions.

· Worldview function , the practical significance of which lies in the development of political culture and political consciousness of citizens from the everyday level to the scientific and theoretical level, as well as in the formation of their political beliefs, goals, values, orientation in the system of socio-political relations and processes.

· Ideological function whose social role is to develop and substantiate a state ideology that promotes the stability of a particular political system. The essence of the function is the theoretical justification of political goals, values ​​and development strategies of the state and society.

· Instrumental function (function of rationalization of political life), the essence of which is that political science, by studying objective patterns, trends and contradictions of the political system, solves problems associated with the transformation of political reality, analyzing ways and means of purposeful influence on political processes. It justifies the need to create some and eliminate others political institutions, develops optimal models and governance structures, and predicts the development of political processes. This creates a theoretical basis for political construction and reform.

· Prognostic function, the significance of which is to predict the future development of political phenomena, events, processes. Within the framework of this function, political science seeks to answer the questions: “What will the political reality be in the future and when will certain expected, predicted events occur?”; “What will be the possible consequences of the actions currently being taken?” and etc.

Political science uses a wide range of methods , i.e. a set of methods and techniques that science uses to study its subject. Method determines the direction and path of research. A skillful choice of methods ensures the effectiveness of cognitive activity, the reliability (objectivity) of the results obtained and the conclusions drawn. In political science, both general and specific methods of cognition are used:

Formation and development of political science as a science and academic discipline. Over a long historical period, knowledge of politics has been included into the system of everyday political ideas, religious and philosophical-ethical views. Political science acquired its modern content in the second half of the 19th century, when it organizational design as an independent scientific and educational discipline.

Reviewers: Department of Political Science and Sociology of the Republican Institute of Higher Education at BSU; head Department of Political Science, BSEU, Doctor of Historical Sciences, prof., corresponding member. NAS of Belarus V. A. Bobkov; Ph.D. historical sciences, associate professor V. P. Osmolovsky

On the cover: Oedipus solves the riddle of the Sphinx. Vase painting. V century BC e.

Melnik V. A.

M48 Political Science: Textbook. - 3rd ed., rev. - Mn.: Higher. school, 1999. -495 p.

ISBN 985-06-0442-5.

Characteristics of political science as a scientific and educational discipline are given, the stages of formation and development of political thought are highlighted, the main issues of the theory of politics, political systems and political processes are analyzed, socio-political concepts and trends of the modern world are considered.

For university students.

UDC 32.001 (075.8) BBK 66ya73

© V. A. Melnik, 1996 © V. A. Melnik, 1998 © Higher School Publishing House, 1999

ISBN 985-06-0442-5

PREFACE

Political science has taken a strong place in university curricula as a compulsory social science discipline. There are good reasons for this: interest in political life and knowledge of its laws is growing in society. This is caused by the establishment of the rule of law and a democratic political system, the formation of a system of political parties and movements, and the involvement of large masses of people in politics. At the same time, the need for knowledge about politics, its laws, principles and norms is becoming more and more clearly realized. Active participants in the political process understand that without appropriate knowledge there can be no effective political action. This explains the need to study political science in higher educational institutions.

A number of educational and teaching aids on this discipline have already been published in our republic. Their scientific and methodological significance lies in the fact that the authors laid the foundations of domestic approaches to understanding the subject of political science, its structure and conceptual apparatus.

At the same time, we believe that the problem of creating good educational literature on political science has not yet received a satisfactory solution. The published manuals reflect only the first experience of teaching this academic discipline. They differ significantly in methodological approaches and the level of theoretical analysis of the issues under consideration. Perhaps the common drawback for all of them is the lack of strict conceptual consistency in the presentation of the course subject. In short, writing textbooks and teaching aids in political science that meet modern didactic requirements still remains an urgent scientific and methodological task.

The purpose of this publication is to fill to some extent the existing deficiency in the relevant educational literature. A special feature of the textbook is that its structure and content correspond to the topics of the main sections of the programs in which political science courses are taught in higher educational institutions of the Republic of Belarus.

The conceptual series presented in the textbook is based on various theoretical sources. However, working with numerous publications, the author saw his task not in a simple retelling of existing points of view on this or that issue of the course, but in a systematized, conceptual presentation of the foundations of the science of politics. Starting from the concepts of “politics”, “political relations” and “political power”, the author comes to the main problems of political science and the system of its fundamental concepts and categories. Thus, the work makes an attempt to comprehensively comprehend the subject of political science in the context of domestic and world political realities.

Of course, the author does not pretend that there is no alternative
the proposed structure of the textbook and the indisputability of reality
called approaches and solutions both theoretically and
in methodological terms. Full agreement of the researchers
as is known, is unattainable in any field of knowledge, and thus
more in a science such as political science. The author hopes that
the proposed textbook, with all its possible shortcomings
kah, it will be very useful at the moment,
when there is an urgent need for domestic educational
literature on this discipline. „

When writing the textbook, research results obtained at different times by both domestic and foreign authors were used. The genre of the publication does not allow it to be overloaded with numerous quotes. Therefore, they are presented in the text only in cases where this is strictly required by the context of presentation or didactic considerations. If it is necessary to show someone's scientific priority, the textbook names the researcher or makes a link to the appropriate source.

POLITICAL SCIENCE AS A SCIENCE AND ACADEMIC DISCIPLINE

1. POLITICAL SCIENCE, ITS SUBJECT AND PLACE IN THE SYSTEM OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

1.1. Subject, methods and structure of political science

[The concept of “political science” is formed from two Greek words: poll tike - state, public affairs and logos - word, meaning, doctrine. / The father of the first concept is Aristotle(384-322 BC), second - Heraclitus(c. 530-480 BC)."The combination of these two concepts means that political science is a doctrine, the science of politics..

The origin of the term "politike" is associated with the ancient Greek city-state, which was called policy. Polis is a form of social structure that developed in Ancient Greece, which became the prototype of the modern national state. The polis organization relied on the economic and state sovereignty of the community of free owners and producers - citizens of the polis, which extended over the entire polis territory, i.e., the city itself and the surrounding countryside. This sovereignty implied for each citizen the opportunity, and often the obligation, in one way or another.

form - primarily in the form of voting in the people's assembly - to participate in resolving issues of the life of the polis community. The presence of special activities related to the participation of people in resolving issues of polis life, or, as they say today, with public administration, has led to the need to designate this activity with a brief concept. As such l became the term “politics”, which was established after Aristotle wrote a treatise of the same name on the state, government and government.

Thus, the term “political science” goes back to ancient times.
non-Greek polis and means the doctrine of politics, i.e.
body of knowledge about government.! Along the way
note that derivatives from the word polls (city-state
stvo) is a number of other terms, for example: politeia
(constitution, or political system), polites (citizen
Danin), politikos (statesman).
Formation of Politics as a specific figure
the existence of people very early became a subject
volume of scientific research. At the beginning
knowledge of politics was an integral part of philosophy.
But already in ancient times special treatises were created,
dedicated to the analysis of political activity. Plato
(427-347 BC) named the corresponding works
"Laws" and "State". Aristotle his work,
dedicated to the study of state and society, called pro
one hundred "Politics". And the corresponding science, the basics of which
swarm, according to him, obeys the statesman, he
also called politics.

An important milestone on the path to the development of political science as a scientific discipline was the work of the Italian Renaissance thinker Niccolo Machiavelli(1469-1527). Unlike the thinkers of antiquity, who still did not separate political science from ethics and philosophy, Machiavelli considered the doctrine of politics as an independent field of knowledge. And although he was not yet aware of scientific methods of analysis, nevertheless he had already

likened political phenomena to natural facts, subject to objective laws. He placed the problem of state power at the center of his political teaching and subordinated political research to the solution of practical problems of state life. Research into political reality was given a scientific character in the 19th century. During this period, scientists began to study people's behavior in connection with their participation in government, using scientific methods. The emergence of scientific institutions specializing in research in the field of political relations dates back to this time. The first of these institutions was the Free School of Political Science, created in France in 1871 (now the Institute of Political Studies of the University of Paris). In 1880, the School of Political Science at Columbia College in the United States was founded, and in 1895, the London School of Economics and Political Science.

From the second half of the 20th century. the science that develops theoretical ideas about public administration began to be called political science. This is how the content of political science is defined in the Dictionary of Social and Political Sciences (published in the West): “If politics is an activity, then political theory is a reflection, an interpretation of this activity... As for political science, its task is “ reveal the meaning of politics,” classify it, orient power, propose a utopia of an “optimal state,” reveal “factors of power” and develop certain “general concepts” of politics.”

Nowadays, political science, or simply political science, is one of the broad areas of scientific knowledge that has not only theoretical, but also applied significance. Making political decisions is a complex, multifaceted process that requires the availability of a wide variety of information about social reality. What is now called politics as a field of practical activity is in fact the result of the analytical efforts of an extensive network of research institutes, departments and groups, a consequence of collective creative work.

yes many people. In terms of the number of studies conducted and the number of publications, political science today ranks first among other social sciences. Modern political science has a complex of techniques and methods for specific research, including the use of computer technology. Since 1949, the International Political Science Association (IAPS), created at the initiative of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), has been operating with the goal of promoting the development of political research.

Constitution Political science began to emerge as an independent academic discipline from the late 19th to early 20th centuries, when its first departments appeared in Western Europe and the United States. It has been widely taught in the higher education system since the second half of this century. In 1948, UNESCO recommended a course in political science for study in higher education institutions of its member countries. All Western states and a number of Eastern European states heeded this recommendation. After the overthrow of totalitarian regimes in Eastern Europe, political science became a compulsory course throughout the region.

Thus, the word “politics” originally meant

“participation in the management of the policy” and very early began to refer to the amount of knowledge necessary to competently resolve such issues. Today politics, political science is also an academic discipline that is studied in almost all countries.

Object and subject Like any science, political science has
political science has its own object and specific premise
met knowledge. Reminder in advance
him that in the theory of knowledge as an object is understood
what the objective-practical and cognitive

telial activity of the subject. In other words, the object of a particular science is that part of objective reality that is subject to research by the cognizing subject. The subject of science is those aspects, features, properties and relationships of the object being studied that are subject to analysis.

Of course, in this introductory topic, the object and subject of political science can be defined only in the most general form, knowing that the concept of politics covers a wide range of phenomena. As the German sociologist and political scientist wrote: Max Weber(1864-1920), “this concept has an extremely broad meaning and covers all types of independent leadership activities. They talk about the foreign exchange policy of the banks, the discount policy of the Reichsbank, the policy of the trade union during a strike; one can talk about the school politics of a city or rural community, about the politics of the board that runs a corporation, and finally, even about the politics of a smart wife who seeks to manage her husband.”

Along with the fact that political science provides a systematic, comprehensive analysis of the phenomenon of political power, it is also called upon to explore those aspects of political phenomena, the activities of institutions and institutions that remain outside the field of view of the relevant scientific disciplines. We are talking, for example, about the study of various aspects of political consciousness, political culture, political behavior and action, methods and methodology for understanding the phenomena of political life, etc.

Moreover, the boundaries of political science are fluid and difficult to define. The number of special topics that political science studies is constantly increasing. This is caused by the evolution of political life and, even more so, by the application of politics to a very wide range of areas of human activity,” as well as by the great intellectual activity of researchers of political issues and the complexity of the object being studied.

One of the fundamental questions for any science is the question of its inherent concepts and categories. Therefore, a general description of political science as a science presupposes at least a brief mention of the system of its concepts and categories.

Let us recall that concepts and categories in a generalized form

reflect the most significant, natural connections and relationships of reality. They are the main structural element of any scientific theory. Consequently, the categories and concepts of political science as a science act as a result of knowledge of the political sphere of public life and reflect the most significant connections and relationships inherent in the phenomena and processes of politics. In other words, the content of the object and subject of political science is fully reflected in the system of concepts and categories of this science.

Concepts and categories of political science can be classified on various grounds. It seems to us methodologically justified to divide their entire set, first of all, into concepts and categories of the general theory of politics and political systems and concepts and categories reflecting the processes of change and development of political reality.

The concepts and categories of the general theory of politics and political systems include: politics, political power, subjects of politics, political relations, political system of society, political norm, political institution, state, political party, public association, social movement, political consciousness, political ideology, political culture. The main concepts that reveal the dynamic aspects of political reality are: political activity, political action, political decision, political process, revolution, reform, political conflict, political agreement, political socialization, political role, political leadership, political behavior, political participation. Of course, both this and the other series could be continued further. In addition, in political science the concepts and categories of related scientific disciplines are widely used.

More or less established scientific meanings of these and other concepts and categories of political science will be given when considering subsequent topics of the course. Here we emphasize the uniqueness of political science as a science. It lies in the fact that the key issue and the main

its category is political power. Political science examines all social phenomena and processes in relation to political power. It is the category “political power” that most fully reflects the essence* and content of the phenomenon of politics. The latter takes place where there is a struggle for power, for mastering it, for its use and retention. Without power there can be no politics, since it is power that acts as the means of its implementation.

The constitution of political science into an independent scientific discipline did not take place? only due to the presence of a specific subject of study, but also because in the political sphere there are also certain patterns - objectively existing, repeating, significant connections between the phenomena of social life or stages of the historical process. - Every science, every knowledge in any field has its goal is to identify objectively existing connections between the parties to an object. This fully applies to political science. As a scientific and educational discipline, it seeks to clarify existing patterns in the field of political relations, without knowledge of which successful political activity is impossible.

Thus, the patterns studied by political science are the most significant and stable trends in the development and use of political power. Like the basic concepts, these patterns will be considered as the subsequent topics of the course are presented. Here it will be enough to note that characteristic patterns can be divided into three main groups depending on the sphere of their manifestation.

The first group consists of political-economic patterns that reflect the relationship between the economic basis of society and political power as an element of the superstructure. The most important patterns of this group were discovered Karp Marx(1818-1883). For example, from his point of view, politics and, accordingly, the system of political and state power are determined by the development of economic* processes. "Political

“power,” wrote K. Marx, “is only a product of economic power.” At the same time, political power has relative independence, which opens up considerable opportunities for political influence on economic processes. The latter, however, should not give rise to a cult of political power or illusions about its real capabilities, since attempts to “bypass” economic laws with the help of administrative coercion do not lead to achieving the goal.

The second group of patterns includes political and social ones. They characterize the development of political power as a special social system with its own internal logic and structure. The main pattern here is the strengthening of the stability of political power. By the way, it will be noted that in domestic political science this pattern has not been properly developed, which has led to a shortage of necessary recommendations and measures to stabilize political life.

The third group consists of political and psychological patterns. They reflect the complex of existing connections and relationships between the individual and the government. Of the greatest interest from this group are the patterns associated with the achievement and retention of power by a political leader.

Methods When studying specific phenomena and
political science processes political science uses times
personal methods. Widest
the following were used in this science: dialects
logical, empirical-sociological, comparative (or
comparative), systemic, behavioral, etc.

The dialectical method allows us to consider the processes and phenomena of the political sphere in their formation and development, in relationship both with each other and with the processes and phenomena of other spheres of society. Covering politics in all its interrelations and mediations, this method allows us to develop the most general concepts and categories of political theory and plays a unifying role in the entire body of research in the field of politics. The principle of historicism, being the key

in the dialectical method, ensures the identification of patterns of formation, development and change of political

The empiricist sociological method in political science is a set of techniques and methods of specific sociological research aimed at collecting and analyzing facts of real political life. This method has become very widespread in Western political science. A relatively independent direction has developed there - applied political science, focused on the practical application of the results of sociological research in political life. Such research and their results act as a product, the customer and buyer of which are central and local authorities, political parties, government agencies, and private firms.

The comparative or comparative method consists of comparing two or more political objects (or parts) that have similar features. It allows, through comparison, to isolate the general and special in the diversity of political phenomena of different political systems, and to identify the main trends in the development of political processes. The main difficulty in applying the comparative method is associated with the need to correctly select the subject of phenomena that will be compared, subjected to scientific observation, description and theoretical interpretation.

The systemic method considers the political sphere of society as a certain integrity, consisting of a set of elements that are in relationships and connections with each other and the external environment. The originality of this approach lies in a holistic perception of the object of study and a comprehensive analysis of the connections between individual elements within the framework of a broad whole. System analysis is considered especially valuable from a cognitive perspective. This research method is widely used by both Western and domestic political science.

The behavioral (from English, behavior - behavior, act) method consists of analyzing the political behavior of individuals and groups. The starting point in this

The method is based on the proposition that group actions of people in one way or another go back to the behavior of specific individuals who are the main object of research. In turn, psychological motives are considered as decisive factors of behavior, which constitute the main subject of political science study. In this case, the main attention is paid to the collection of empirical facts, careful adherence to research procedures, and the use of techniques of natural and exact sciences in processing and analyzing the information obtained. Behavioralism is one of the leading research areas of American political science.

Some textbooks also refer to quantitative methods and the decision-making method as special methods for analyzing political phenomena.

The quantitative method involves statistical analysis of political activity, questionnaires and interviews of participants in political actions, as well as laboratory experiments consisting of modeling certain political situations in order to develop the most likely scenario for future actions.

The decision-making method is the adoption and implementation of policy decisions, through which it is intended not only to achieve certain policy goals, but also at the same time to verify the correctness of the conclusions obtained using other methods of analysis.

Apparently, there is a certain reason for highlighting the last two mentioned methods. But, as it seems to us, both of them are absorbed by those discussed above, and the second is not so much a research method as a necessary side, aspect, condition of any political activity.

Paradigms Along with research methods, in

poit^!|Sh theories of science also differ in state

relevant in a particular period

development of the relevant branch of knowledge, ways to explain

understanding of the phenomena being studied. To designate them American-

Russian philosopher and historian of science Thomas Kuhn(b. 1922)

suggested using the concept "paradigm"(from the Greek paradeigma - example, sample). From his point of view, a scientific paradigm is a system of knowledge recognized by everyone and acquired the character of beliefs, which for a certain time serves the scientific community as a logical model for posing cognitive problems and their solutions. In other words, scientific paradigm is a way of selecting an object of study and explaining a certain set of facts related to it in the form of sufficiently substantiated principles and laws that form a consistent theory. The replacement of one dominant paradigm by another in the relevant field of knowledge is considered by researchers as a scientific revolution.

A characteristic feature of political science is that it coexists different conceptual approaches to the description and interpretation of the phenomena of political reality. These approaches are based on attempts to explain politics either through the action of a supernatural principle, or through the influence of natural, social or political factors themselves. The corresponding conceptual approaches in the literature are conventionally called theological, naturalistic, social and rational-critical paradigms of political science.

The theological paradigm dominated in the early stages of the existence of society, when people were not yet able to notice the objective internal and external factors of political phenomena. Under these conditions, they inevitably gave a supernatural interpretation of politics, saw the source of power in God, and explained political changes by his will. And although such an explanation of politics can hardly be called conceptual and theoretical, it nevertheless proceeded from the idea of ​​the causality of political phenomena. And this is nothing more than a sign of paradigmatic thinking.

The naturalistic paradigm provides an explanation of the nature of politics based on the dominant importance of environmental, geographical, biological and psychological factors. The most significant sub-

Geopolitics, biopolitics and a wide range of psychological concepts are considered moves in the naturalistic way of explaining political phenomena. Despite the fact that these approaches to understanding politics belong to the same class of theoretical concepts - the naturalistic paradigm, they all polemicize and compete with each other. In addition, all of them are confidently opposed by other conceptual assessments of the nature of politics.

The social paradigm represents a group of conceptual approaches, in line with which an explanation of politics is given through the action of social, but external factors in relation to it. With such theoretical approaches, the nature and origin of political phenomena are explained as a result of the creative role of one or another sphere of social life or the manifestation of the sociocultural properties of the subjects of social action. Various social concepts name economic relations, law, cultural, religious, ethical-normative and other factors as reasons generating politics. Many researchers consider politics exclusively as a product of people’s sense-making activities and therefore make various political phenomena dependent on the properties of a person acquired in the process of social evolution.

Rational-critical paradigms
the nature of political interaction between people is connected
not with factors external to politics, but with
its internal causes and properties. Data concept
tual approaches are based on the premise that politics
there is a completely or relatively independent community
a natural phenomenon that arises and develops in its own way
own, internal order
find internal sources^ nature. ;lolltiki rendered
were very fruitful. In waste, time, depending
from the selected aspect^, ks^ODdv^d pblityy,
There are a wide variety! CONCEPTUAL APPROACHES,
explaining the essence of this ^side of human life
inactivity. \ "

Identification of the main paradigms of political science makes it possible to see the connection of political science with more general

In the literal sense of the word, political science is the science of politics, i.e. about a special sphere of human activity associated with power relations, with the state-political organization of society, political institutions, principles, norms, the action of which is designed to ensure the functioning of society, the relationship between people, society and the state.

The desire to understand and comprehend politics, as well as to express one’s attitude towards it, has its roots in that distant time when the first states began to form. Historically, the first form of knowledge of politics was its religious and mythological interpretation, for which ideas about the divine origin of power were typical, and the ruler was seen as the earthly incarnation of God. Only from about the middle of the first millennium BC did political consciousness begin to constantly acquire an independent character, and the first political debates and concepts appeared, forming part of a single philosophical knowledge. This process is associated, first of all, with the work of such ancient thinkers as Confucius, Plato, Aristotle, who laid the foundations for the proper theoretical studies of politics. During the Middle Ages and Modern times, the problems of politics, power, and state were raised to a qualitatively new theoretical level of research by such outstanding representatives of political and philosophical thought as N. Machiavelli, T. Hobbes, J. Locke, C. Montesquieu, J.-J. . Rousseau, G. Hegel, who not only finally freed political science from the religious-ethical form, but also armed it with such conceptual principles as the theory of natural law, social contract, popular sovereignty, separation of powers, civil society and the rule of law.

Political science acquired its modern content in the second half of the 19th century. It was at this time that political science emerged as an independent branch of knowledge. Around the same period, political science emerged as an independent academic discipline, and educational and research centers appeared. Thus, at the end of the 19th century, the London School of Economics and Political Science was founded at the University of London. In 1857, the first department of political science in American history was created at Columbia University. Later, Yale, Harvard, Princeton and other US universities followed the example of Columbia University. In 1903, the American Political Science Association was founded. Political science began to develop at a particularly rapid pace in the United States and Western countries after the Second World War. This was greatly facilitated by the International Colloquium on Political Science held in Paris in 1948 at the initiative of UNESCO. It adopted a document that defined the content of political science and its main problems. It was decided that the main problems of research and study of political science are:

• 1) political theory (including the history of political ideas);
• 2) political institutions (study of central and local governments, government agencies, analysis of the functions inherent in these institutions, as well as the social forces that these institutions create);
• 3) parties, groups, public opinion;
• 4) international relations.

The international colloquium in Paris essentially summed up the results of a long discussion of political scientists on the question: should political science be considered as a general, integrative science of politics in all its manifestations, including political sociology, political philosophy, political geography and other political disciplines as components, or should the speech go about multiple political sciences. The Colloquium decided to use the term “political science” in the singular. Thus, political science was established as an independent scientific and educational discipline. In 1949, under the auspices of UNESCO, the International Association of Political Science was created. Political science as an academic discipline was introduced into the programs of leading universities in the USA and Western Europe.

In Russia, political science is clearly unlucky. So, back in 1900, Professor V. Zomber wrote: “Of all the social sciences, perhaps the science of politics is in the saddest and most abandoned state” (Zomber V. Ideals of Social Policy. M.-SPb., 1900. P. 1). Since then, the situation in political science in Russia has changed, most likely for the worse. From 1917 until the second half of the 1980s, there was an ideological taboo on political science. For a long time, political science shared the fate of genetics and cybernetics and was not officially recognized as an independent scientific discipline, although in 1962 the Soviet Association of Political (State) Sciences was created in the USSR, now transformed into the Russian Association of Political Scientists.

Only in 1989 did the Higher Attestation Commission introduce political science into the list of scientific disciplines. By decree of the Government of the Russian Federation, political science is also defined as an academic discipline in universities. Of course, this situation does not mean at all that in Russia political problems have not been explored or studied at all. This was carried out within the framework of programs in philosophy, theory of state and law, political economy and other disciplines. But they were poorly integrated with each other.

To determine the subject of political science and its main problems, it is of great methodological importance to understand the nature and essence of politics as a specific sphere of social life, its structure and the nature of the interaction of the main elements.

The term "politics" (from the Greek polis - city-state and the adjective from it - politikos: everything connected with the city - state, citizen, etc.) became widespread under the influence of Aristotle's treatise on the state, government and government, which he called "Policy".

Politics is an irreducible aspect of social existence. It arose from the demands mutually made by people to each other and the resulting efforts to resolve contradictions when demands turn out to be conflicting, to authoritatively distribute scarce goods and to guide society in achieving common goals. In its many guises: in the form of decision-making activities, distribution of benefits, setting goals, social leadership, seeking power, competing interests and exerting influence - politics can be found within any social group.

The range of ideas about politics is immense. Its definition is the subject of many years of debate in political science. Here are just a few policy definitions:

• - “Politics means the desire to participate in power or influence the distribution of power, whether between the state, or within the state between the groups of people that it contains” (M. Weber).
• - “Politics is a management process” (O. Rennie).
• - “Politics is the power distribution of values ​​within society” (D. Easton).
• - “The study of politics is the study of making socially significant decisions” (R. Schneider).

Each of these definitions contains a rational grain, because it reflects one or another aspect of the real world of politics, which is characterized by the versatility and, accordingly, the complexity of its knowledge (Scheme 1).

Policy can be implemented at several levels:

• 1. The lowest level includes solving local problems (housing conditions, school, university, public transport, etc.). Political activity at this level is carried out mainly by individuals, however, some issues can be resolved by local associations.
• 2. The local level requires government intervention. The most active policy is carried out by ruins and associations interested in the economic development of their region.
• 3. The national level occupies a central place in the theory of politics, which is determined by the position of the state as the main institution for allocating resources.
• 4. The international level, at which the main subjects of political activity are aligned states.

The functions of policy are also diverse, characterizing the main directions of the impact of policy on society (Diagram 2).

Diagram 2 Policy functions

Taking into account the above, it is important to emphasize that political science cannot be reduced to the science of power, of the state. As a science of politics, political science “covers” the entire spectrum of political life, including both its spiritual and material, practical sides, the interaction of politics with other spheres of public life. The subject of study and research is political science These are the main components of politics such as political institutions, political processes, political relations, political ideology and culture, and political activity.

The central problems of modern political science are such problems as political power, its essence and structure; political systems and regimes of our time; forms of government; party and electoral systems; political rights and freedoms of man and citizen; civil society and the rule of law; political behavior and political culture of the individual; religious and national aspects of politics; international political relations, geopolitics, etc. Of course, not only political science, but also other social and human sciences - philosophy, sociology, psychology, economic theory, legal, historical sciences (diagram 3).

Diagram 3 Politics as an object of study

Thus, a scientific analysis of politics is hardly possible without the use of general philosophical categories of dialectics, philosophical analysis of the objective and subjective in the political process, and understanding of the value aspects of power. But philosophy does not replace political science, but can only provide some general methodological principles or criteria for the scientific analysis of politics.

Political science and sociology have a lot in common. In particular, the question of how the political process is reflected in the minds of people, what motivates the political behavior of a particular social group, what is the social basis of political power - this is the subject of sociology, political sociology. But there is also a clear overlap with political science. Strictly speaking, if we consider the relationship between civil society and the state, then all that space, all the relationships that fit into the sphere of civil society and its interaction with the state are the object of study of sociology, and the sphere of the state is the subject of political science. Naturally, such a distinction is very conditional, since in real political life everything is interconnected.

There are even more “points of contact” in the study of politics between political science and legal disciplines (international law, state law), the subject of analysis of which is the legal system of society, the mechanism of power, constitutional norms and principles. But law is a more descriptive and applied discipline, while political science is a primarily theoretical discipline. This to a certain extent concerns the relationship between political science and history. As noted by Spanish political scientist T.A. Garcia: "... the historian deals with the past tense. He can observe the beginning, development and end of social formations. The political scientist, on the contrary, does not look at history as a performance, he perceives it as an action. His political analysis, in contrast to analysis historian, carries within himself a conscious interest from the point of view of the political project which he wants to transform into reality.The objective source of his difficulties lies in the fact that he must assess the real state of political situations before they take on a historical form, that is, become into irreversible" (Gadzhiev K.S. Political science. M., 1994. P. 6.).

In other words, political relations “permeate” various spheres of society, and in this regard they can be studied by various sciences. Moreover, not a single important political phenomenon, not a single serious political process can be meaningfully comprehended without the joint efforts of philosophers, economists, historians, lawyers, psychologists, and sociologists.

The complexity and versatility of politics as a social phenomenon allows us to study politics at the macro and micro levels. In the first case, we study political phenomena and processes that occur within the framework of the main institutions of power and management that relate to the entire social system. In the second, facts related to the behavior of individuals and small groups in the political environment are described and analyzed. On the other hand, the complexity and versatility of politics allows us to distinguish both the public level and intermediate (private) levels of research. However, it is important to keep in mind that none of these intermediate levels provides a comprehensive picture of politics as a whole.

Only organic unity, dialectical synthesis of all levels of political knowledge allows us to have that fusion that is called political science. Political science understood in this way fits into the system of modern political knowledge as a complex science - it plays the role of an integrating factor in this system, acting simultaneously as an integral part of other areas of political knowledge, and as a relatively independent science. In other words, unlike other areas of political knowledge, political science as a comprehensive science has the goal of penetrating into the essence of politics as an integral social phenomenon, identifying its necessary structural elements, internal and external connections and relationships at the macro- and micro-level, identifying the main trends and patterns operating in different socio-political systems, outline the immediate and ultimate prospects for its further development, as well as develop objective criteria for the social dimension of politics (See: Fedoseev L.A. Introduction to Political Science. St. Petersburg, 1994. P.9-10).

Of course, it is necessary to keep in mind that political science can be divided into theoretical and applied. Both of these sides, or levels, seem to complement and enrich each other. In particular, the theory of political technologies (technology of developing and making a political decision; technology of holding a referendum, election campaign, etc.) is very relevant at present. Recently, a new branch of political knowledge has emerged - political management.

An integral part of political management is the development of strategic goals and tactical guidelines, the mechanism of influence of managerial government structures, legislative and executive powers for the development of society. In other words, political management is the science and art of political management. Political science, like any science, has its own system of scientific concepts and categories that express the most essential characteristics of the political sphere: “politics”, “political power”, “political system”, “political life”, “political behavior”, “political participation” , “political culture”, etc. Central among all the categories listed above is the category of “political power”. It is this category that most fully expresses the essence and content of the phenomenon of “politics”.