Development of biology in the 19th century. Achievements of biology of the 19th century

In the 18th century the fundamental “System of Nature” (1735 and later), based on the recognition of the immutability of the originally created world, was given by K. Linnaeus, using binary nomenclature.

A supporter of limited transformism, J. Buffon built a bold hypothesis about the past history of the Earth, dividing it into a number of periods, and, unlike creationists, attributed the appearance of plants, animals and humans to the last periods.

Through experiments on hybridization, J. Köllreuther finally proved the presence of sexes in plants and showed the participation in the fertilization and development of both eggs and pollen of plants (1761 and later). J. Senebier (1782) and N. Saussure (1804) established the role of sunlight in the ability of green leaves to release oxygen and use carbon dioxide from the air for this. In con. 18th century L. Spallanzani carried out experiments that refuted the idea of ​​the possibility of spontaneous generation of organisms, which had been dominant in biology until then.

Already from the 2nd floor. 18th century and at the beginning of the 19th century. ideas of the historical development of living nature are emerging more and more persistently in one form or another. C. Bonnet developed (1745, 1764) the idea of ​​a “ladder of creatures,” which was interpreted evolutionarily by J. B. Lamarck (1809). Lamarck’s evolutionary ideas were not successful at that time and were criticized by many scientists, among whom was J. Cuvier, the founder of comparative anatomy and paleontology of animals, who put forward (1812) the doctrine of catastrophes , a doctrine that considers the geological history of the Earth as an alternation of long eras of relative peace and relatively short catastrophic events that dramatically transformed the face of the planet.

The theory of catastrophes was brought to its logical conclusion by Cuvier’s student A. D’Orbigny, who counted 27 catastrophes in the history of the Earth, after which living organisms allegedly arose as a result of new divine “acts of creation.”

Cuvier's anti-evolutionary concepts were established in 1830. as a result of a discussion with E. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, who tried to substantiate the natural philosophical doctrine of the “unity of the structural plan” of animals and allowed the possibility of evolutionary changes under the direct influence of the external environment.

The idea of ​​the development of organisms found convincing confirmation in the embryological studies of K. F. Wolf (1759, 1768), H. Pander (1817) and K. M. Baer (1827), in Baer’s establishment of the principles of comparative embryology of vertebrates (1828-37). The cell theory substantiated by T. Schwann (1839) played a huge role in understanding the unity of the organic world and in the development of cytology and histology.

In the middle of the 19th century. The peculiarities of plant nutrition and its difference from animal nutrition were established, the principle of the cycle of substances in nature was formulated (Yu. Liebig, J. B. Boussingault).

In animal physiology, major advances were achieved by the work of E. Dubois-Reymond, who laid the foundations of electrophysiology, C. Bernard, who elucidated the role of a number of secretory organs in digestion (1845, 1847) and proved the synthesis of glycogen in the liver (1848), G. Helmholtz and K. Ludwig who developed methods for studying the neuromuscular system and sensory organs. I.M. Sechenov laid the foundations for a materialistic understanding of higher nervous activity (“Reflexes of the Brain,” 1863). L. Pasteur finally refuted the possibility of spontaneous generation of organisms (1860-1864). S. N. Vinogradsky discovered (1887-91) bacteria capable of forming organic substances from inorganic ones through chemosynthesis. D. I. Ivanovsky discovered (1892) viruses.

The largest conquest of the 19th century. was the evolutionary doctrine of Charles Darwin, which he set out in his work “The Origin of Species...” (1859), in which he revealed the mechanism of the evolutionary process through natural selection. The establishment of Darwinism in biology contributed to the development of a number of new directions: evolutionary comparative anatomy (K. Gegenbaur), evolutionary embryology (A. O. Kovalevsky, I. I. Mechnikov), evolutionary paleontology (V. O. Kovalevsky).

Great strides achieved in the 70-80s. 19th century in the study of complex processes of cell division (E. Strasburger, 1875; V. Flemming, 1882, etc.), maturation of germ cells and fertilization (O. Hertwig, 1875 and later; G. Vol, 1877; E. van Beneden, 1884 ; T. Boveri, 1887, 1888) and the associated patterns of chromosome distribution in mitosis and meiosis, gave rise to many theories that looked for carriers of heredity in the nucleus of germ cells (F. Galton, 1875; K. Negeli, 1884; E. Strassburger, 1884 ; A. Weisman, 1885-1892; H. De Vries, 1889).

The Austrian naturalist Gregor Mendel discovered the patterns of hereditary traits in 1868. However, they went unnoticed until 1900, when they were confirmed and formed the basis of genetics.

Thus, in the XVII - XIX centuries. In the field of natural science, the science of biology was created and developed - as a set of sciences about living nature.

1.2 Development of evolutionary ideas

Evolution means a gradual, natural transition from one state to another. Biological evolution refers to the change in populations of plants and animals over a series of generations, guided by natural selection. Over the course of many millions of years, starting from the emergence of life on Earth, as a result of a continuous, irreversible, natural process of replacement of one species by another, the animal and plant forms that exist today were formed.

The idea that organisms develop over generations has interested many naturalists. The idea that modern living organisms evolved from simpler, more primitive ones has long lived in the minds of people.

The first systematization of material about plants and animals was made by the famous Swedish scientist Carl Linnaeus in 1735. Based on one or two characteristics (mainly morphological), he classified plants and animals into species, genera, and classes. He adopted the form as the unit of classification.

The contribution of K. Linnaeus to the progressive development of natural science is enormous: he proposed a system of animals and plants; introduced a binary system of double names; described about 1,200 genera and more than 8,000 plant species; reformed the botanical language and established up to 1,000 terms, many of which he introduced for the first time.

The works of K. Linnaeus helped his followers to systematize scattered factual material and improve it.

At the beginning of the 18th century. French scientist Jeannot-Baptiste Lamarck created the first evolutionary theory, which he outlined in his work “Philosophy of Zoology” (1809). According to Lamarck, some organisms evolved from others in the process of long evolution, gradually changing and improving under the influence of the external environment. Changes were fixed and passed on by inheritance, which was the main factor that determined evolution.

J.-B. Lamarck was the first to set forth the ideas of the evolution of living nature, which affirmed the historical development from simple to complex. Evidence of evolutionary theory put forward by J.-B. Lamarck, turned out to be insufficient for their full acceptance, since answers were not given to the questions: how to explain the wide variety of species in nature; what is involved in improving the organization of living beings; how to explain the adaptability of organisms to environmental conditions?

In Russia in the 18th century. notable for the emergence of new scientific ideas. The brilliant Russian scientist M.V. Lomonosov, materialist philosopher A.N. Radishchev, academician K.F. Wolf and other prominent scientists expressed ideas about the evolutionary development and changeability of nature.

M.V. Lomonosov argued that changes in the Earth’s landscape caused climate changes, and therefore the animals and plants inhabiting it changed.

C. F. Wolf argued that during the development of the chick embryo, all organs appear as a result of development, and are not predetermined in advance (the theory of epigenesis), and all changes are associated with nutrition and climate. Not yet having sufficient scientific material, K. F. Wolf made an assumption that brilliantly anticipated the complete scientific evolutionary teaching of the future.

In the 19th century Metaphysical ideas about the immutability of living beings are increasingly being criticized. In Russia, evolutionary ideas were constantly expressed.

For example, Afanasy Kaverznev (late 18th - early 19th centuries) in his work “On the Rebirth of Animals” argued that species really exist in nature, but they are changeable. Factors of variability are changes in the environment: food, climate, temperature, humidity, relief, etc. He raised the question of the origin of species from one another and their relationship. A. Kaverznev confirmed his reasoning with examples from human practice in breeding animal breeds.

C. F. Roulier (1814-1858), 10-15 years before the publication of Charles Darwin’s work “The Origin of Species,” wrote about the historical development of nature, sharply criticizing metaphysical views on the immutability and constancy of species and the descriptive direction in science . He connected the origin of species with their struggle for existence.

Progressive evolutionary ideas were expressed by K.M. Baer (1792-1876), while doing research in the field of embryology.

And another scientist - A.I. Herzen (1812-1870) in his works “Amateurism in Science” and “Letters on the Study of Nature” wrote about the need to study the origin of organisms, their family relationships, to consider the structure of animals in unity with physiological characteristics and that mental activity should also study in development - from lower to higher, including humans. He saw the main task in revealing the reasons for the unity of the organic world with all its diversity and explaining the origin of animals.

N.G. Chernyshevsky (1828-1889) in his works dwelled on the causes of variability and the question of the unity of the origin of man and animals.

The greatest English naturalist Charles Darwin (1809-1882) with his evolutionary theory marked the beginning of a new era in the development of natural science.

The emergence of Charles Darwin's evolutionary doctrine was facilitated by socio-economic prerequisites - the intensive development of capitalism, which gave impetus to the development of science, industry, technology, and agriculture.

After a five-year voyage as a naturalist on the Beagle around the world and almost 20 years of summarizing and comprehending a large volume of factual data, he wrote the book “The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favored Breeds in the Struggle for Life,” published in 1859. , exactly 50 years after Lamarck’s book.

During this journey, Darwin conceived the idea of ​​evolution, a fresh concept of his own that corrected or improved the views and arguments of his predecessors. Darwin's idea explained the laws of life development better than any other theory.

Charles Darwin in this book outlined the evolutionary theory, which revolutionized biological thinking and became a historical method of research in biology.

Darwin's main merit is that he explained the mechanism of the evolutionary process and created the theory of natural selection. Darwin connected numerous individual phenomena of organic life into a logical whole, thanks to which the kingdom of living nature appeared before people as something constantly changing, striving for constant improvement.

The theory of natural selection put forward by Darwin was so reasonable and so well founded that most biologists quickly accepted it. Darwin connected numerous individual phenomena of organic life into a logical whole, thanks to which the kingdom of living nature appeared before people as something constantly changing, striving for constant improvement.

Russian evolutionists prepared the ground for the acceptance of Darwin's theory, so it found its followers in Russia. However, in Darwin's time, many areas of biological science were not well developed and had little to offer him in developing his theory.

The main discoveries of Gregor Mendel in the doctrine of heredity (in genetics) were not known either to Darwin (although they worked at the same time) or to most scientists of his time. Cytology, the study of cells, did not yet know how cells divide. Paleontology, the science of fossils, was a young science, and the beautiful examples of fossil animals and plants that appeared later had not yet been discovered.

The discrete nature of the factual material and the absence of scientific achievements that appeared later during that period allowed Darwin's opponents to express the opinion that there was insufficient evidence for the correctness of the provisions of the theory of evolution.

Due to the lack of these and some other data, the development of the theory of evolution by natural selection in the 19th century. was an even more remarkable achievement than if it had taken place in the middle of the 20th century.

Thus, existed in the XVII-XVIII centuries. Metaphysical ideas in science and philosophy left a deep imprint on the study of physiological problems: all phenomena in nature were considered constant and unchanging. The evolutionary teaching of Charles Darwin dealt a severe blow to the metaphysical view of nature.

Within zoology, narrower disciplines have formed, for example, protozoology, entomology, ornithology, theriology and etc.; in botany - algology, bryology, dendrology etc. They became independent sciences microbiology, mycology, lichenology, virology.

The development of microbiology and the doctrine of immunity as an independent scientific discipline began with the works of the French scientist L. Pasteur in 1865-1869.

At the beginning of the 19th century. plant morphology is formalized into an independent science. German scientists M. Schleiden (1838) and T. Schwann (1839) created a cell theory that proved the unity of origin of all organisms.

By the end of the 19th century. New branches of biology have developed: phylogenetic systematics, evolutionary morphology, biogeography etc. During this period, phylogenetic systems of various plant groups were developed.

Zoological classification began to be based on data comparative anatomy, and systematics began to express the family ties of classes of animals in the exact meaning of the word. In particular, comparative anatomy has received special development, including histology(tissue science) and cytology(cell science).

Scientists began to note that the anatomical similarities and differences of living organisms are the result of a common origin or the adaptability of the body of various animals and plants to environmental conditions. It became clear why some organs are similar to each other in structure, why the main structural features of these organs are common among the observed classes of animals or plants, why living conditions cause changes in organs when they adapt to new conditions, while maintaining a common structure, and why, finally, there are residual organs and what is their significance.

The emergence of physiology as a science is associated with the name of the English physician William Harvey (1578-1657), who discovered blood circulation. In 1628, Harvey published the book “On the Movement of the Heart and Blood.” In it, he summed up the results of many years of observations and put forward a theory about blood circulation in the human body.

The further development of anatomy and physiology was determined by new methods of scientific research and the general development of science.

The creator of the general theory of anatomy is Bichat (1771-1802), who in the book “General Anatomy” united previously disparate ideas about tissues, organs and organ systems according to functional characteristics. The discovery of the reflex in the first half of the 17th century by the French philosopher Descartes was very important for the development of physiology.

Equally significant development has occurred comparative embryology. Basic biological problems such as the heredity of forms came to the fore. The study of the process of fertilization, division of the germ cell, the phenomenon of parthenogenesis, crossing, mutation, which zoologists and botanists have been intensively engaged in, is nothing more than a continuation of the search for laws arising from Darwin's theory.

The creator of the first theories of heredity The one who showed biologists the way to solving a number of issues in this area was the German zoologist August Weissmann. It was his theory of the continuity of the germ plasm, published in 1855, that largely attracted the attention of many scientists to the experimental and theoretical study of the germ cell - the carrier of heredity.

Weismann's hypothesis was a major achievement in biology. Outstanding researchers in Germany, the USA, Russia, England, Sweden and many other countries, developing this hypothesis, made many important discoveries that substantiated the phenomenon of heredity.

Darwin's theory significantly influenced the development of all areas of science, even those that, at first glance, were in no way connected with it. This theory had a significant influence on the methodology used in various humanities and, above all, on research methods sociology and general history.

In these branches of science, not only were the precise methods of research used, which biology has used since Darwin, but, most importantly, methods for determining the causal dependence of facts from the history of mankind began to be used, just as biologists consider the phenomena of the development of living organisms.

The biological approach has had a strong impact on philosophical and cosmogonic views, concerning the beginning of the emergence of the Universe, is reflected in psychology, biogeography, linguistics and in other scientific fields. As a result of studying the past history of the organic world, the science of paleontology and its branches - paleozoology, paleobotany, paleoecology, etc. - were developed.

The creativity contained in Darwin's main work, On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, slowly but decisively influenced religion and anthropology.

True, Darwin believed that religion was an area of ​​human activity that should be approached with caution, but he believed that his theory would stimulate a new approach to religious beliefs, to the idea of ​​​​the existence of the soul and other similar concepts.

The influence of Darwinism manifested itself with particular force in anthropology, a branch of biology that was separated into an independent science in the middle of the 18th century.

The origin of man, the formation of human races, the search for the connection of man with other mammals, in particular with their highly developed forms, solving the problems of natural selection are the main issues that scientists have become keenly interested in since the second half of the last century. Over time, the natural history of man has transformed into a science that studies the biological foundations of social phenomena in the life of mankind. This humanitarian-biological approach to sociology caused the unification of anthropology in the precise sense of the word with ethnography and prehistoric archaeology.

Thus, Biology is characterized by the interpenetration of ideas and methods of various biological disciplines, as well as other sciences - chemistry, mathematics, physics.

2.2 Contribution of Russian scientists to the development of biological sciences

Systematic research on plants began in Russia in the 18th century. Initially, this was associated with the opening of the Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg in 1725. The floristic direction developed - the species composition of plants was studied throughout the vast territory of Russia. Important scientific works appeared: I.G. Gmelin “Flora of Siberia” (1747-1759), P.S. Pallas “Flora of Russia” (1784-1788), K.F. Ledebur “Flora of Altai” and “ Flora of Russia” (1841-1853), he also made the first attempt to divide the map of Russia into floristic regions.

Among the friends and followers of M.V. Lomonosov, who worked on research into nature, and in particular the fauna of Russia, it is first of all necessary to note Academician Stepan Petrovich Krasheninnikov. The scientist’s main work, “Description of the Kamchatka Land” (1755), was later translated into many European languages. The book is a comprehensive description of the region, in which natural phenomena and human life are considered in mutual connection.

This is the first experience in domestic and world science of a comprehensive geographical description of a certain territory. The book had a great influence on the further development of zoogeographical and faunal research in Russia.

In the 19th century Russian scientists began studying the flora of other countries - China, Mongolia, Asia Minor, etc. M.A. Maksimovich in “Plant Systematics” (1831) made the first attempt to consider evolution as a process of speciation. By the second half of the 19th century. - beginning of the 20th century the relative activities of such prominent Russian scientists as botanists L.S. Tsenkovsky, A.N. Beketov, D.I. Ivanovsky; plant physiologists A.S. Faminiin, K.A. Timiryazev; plant morphologist I.I. Gorozhankin; plant cytologists I.I. Gerasimov and S.G. Navashin and others. G.V. Morozov studied the dynamics of forest communities.

The works of Russian scientists were widely used by scientists all over the world. The study of the flora of Russia contributed to the deepening and clarification of plant classifications, provided material for conclusions related to the geographical distribution of plants and ecology, made it possible to identify centers of origin of cultivated plants and establish geographical patterns in the distribution of their hereditary characteristics, and allowed significant success in plant breeding to be achieved.

Academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences K. F. Wolf (1734-1794) is known in world science as one of the founders embryology and a defender of the doctrine he developed about epigenesis, i.e., the gradual development of organisms through neoplasms. His works shattered the reformist, metaphysical ideas that were dominant at that time, which reinforced the dogma of the immutability of species, affirmed the idea of ​​development from simple to complex, and thereby prepared the ground for the approval of the evolutionary idea.

By the beginning of the 60s of the XIX century. The embryology of vertebrates was developed in sufficient detail, while that of invertebrates was presented in the form of isolated facts not connected by a common guiding idea. By this time, the process of crushing the eggs of some coelenterates, worms, mollusks and echinoderms, the structure and transformation of the larvae of many invertebrates had been described in detail, however, almost nothing was known about the internal processes of their development, about the methods of anlage and differentiation of their organs, and most importantly , it was not possible to reliably find common features in embryonic processes in animals belonging to different types.

Evolutionary embryology as a science based on historical principle has not yet emerged. The date of its origin is considered to be the mid-60s - the beginning of research by the founders of evolutionary comparative embryology A.O. Kovalevsky and I.I. Mechnikov. The approval of Darwin's theory of the origin of the entire animal world on the basis of embryological material, tested in numerous experimental studies, was the basis for the creation of comparative embryology by Kovalevsky.

One of the outstanding zoologists of the first half of the 19th century. is academician Karl Maksimovich Baer. Baer's most valuable research is related to embryology. However, he is known not only as an embryologist, but also as an outstanding ichthyologist, geographer-traveler, anthropologist and ethnographer, a thoughtful and energetic researcher of the natural resources of Russia. Darwin highly valued Baer as a scientist and in his work “The Origin of Species” he names his name among his predecessors. This outstanding biologist became famous as the creator of modern comparative embryology.

Vladimir Onufrievich Kovalevsky (1842-1883) - an outstanding paleontologist, founder evolutionary paleontology. He was the successor of the best materialist traditions of Russian biological science, which developed under the influence of the great Russian materialist philosophers. The research of V. O. Kovalevsky, his ideas and conclusions regarding the general laws of evolution, were the initial data for the successful development of problems of evolutionary paleontology and, in particular, issues directly related to the phylogeny of the animal world.

In the 19th centuries. In Russia, science has made great strides in medicine. Physiology has also made significant progress. Since the 18th century (under Peter I) systematic training of medical workers began in Russia. In the 19th century Many Russian scientists worked in the field of anatomy and physiology.

The works of P. A. Zagorsky, I. V. Builsky, and N. I. Pirogov had a great influence on the development of domestic anatomy. The brilliant Russian scientist N.I. Pirogov (1810-1881) worked in the field of surgery, anatomy and other areas of medicine. He developed the fundamentals of topographical (relative) anatomy, is the founder of military field surgery, developed a clear system for organizing surgical care for the wounded in war, and proposed a number of new methods of ether anesthesia.

P. F. Lesgaft (1837-1909), V. P. Vorobyov (1876-1937), V. N. Tonkov (1872-1954) and many others made a great contribution to the development, and physiology - V. A. Basov, N. A. Mislavsky, V. F. Ovsyannikov, A. Ya. Kulyabko, S. P. Botkin and others.

A special role in the development of physiology was played by I.M. Sechenov and I.P. Pavlov. Of exceptional importance was the book by I.M. Sechenov “Reflexes of the Brain” (1863), in which the position was first expressed that all brain activity is reflexive in nature.

Over more than 60 years of scientific activity, I. P. Pavlov (1849-1936) developed a number of different problems in physiology, which had a great influence on the development of not only medicine, but also biology in general. He made great discoveries in various areas of physiology - blood circulation, digestion and the study of the work of the cerebral hemispheres.

The works of I. P. Pavlov found brilliant confirmation of the idea expressed by I. M. Sechenov about the reflex nature of organ activity. Of particular importance are the studies of I. P. Pavlov devoted to the study of the cerebral cortex. He established that the basis of the activity of the cerebral cortex is the process of formation of conditioned reflexes (1895).

Thus, outstanding Russian scientists made a great contribution to the formation and development of the system of biological sciences.

Generally, in the 19th century The heyday of the taxonomy of the animal and plant kingdoms began. Systematics ceased to be a descriptive science, engaged in a simple enumeration of forms based on artificial classification, and became a precise part of research in which the search for causes and natural connections came to the fore.

Conclusion

As a result of the research

Until the 19th century, the concept of “biology” did not exist, and those who studied nature were called natural scientists, naturalists. Now these scientists are called the founders of biological sciences. Let us remember who the Russian biologists were (and we will briefly describe their discoveries) who influenced the development of biology as a science and laid the foundation for its new directions.

Vavilov N.I. (1887-1943)

Our biologists and their discoveries are known throughout the world. Among the most famous is Nikolai Ivanovich Vavilov, a Soviet botanist, geographer, breeder, and geneticist. Born into a merchant family, he was educated at the Agricultural Institute. For twenty years he led scientific expeditions studying the plant world. He traveled almost the entire globe, with the exception of Australia and Antarctica. He collected a unique collection of seeds of various plants.

During his expeditions, the scientist identified centers of origin of cultivated plants. He suggested that there were certain centers of their origin. He made a huge contribution to the study of plant immunity and revealed what made it possible to establish patterns in the evolution of the plant world. In 1940, the botanist was arrested on trumped-up charges of embezzlement. Died in prison, posthumously rehabilitated.

Kovalevsky A.O. (1840-1901)

Among the pioneers, domestic biologists occupy a worthy place. And their discoveries influenced the development of world science. Among the world-famous researchers of invertebrates is Alexander Onufrievich Kovalevsky, embryologist and biologist. He was educated at St. Petersburg University. He studied marine animals and undertook expeditions to the Red, Caspian, Mediterranean and Adriatic seas. He created the Sevastopol Marine Biological Station and was its director for a long time. He made a huge contribution to aquarium husbandry.

Alexander Onufrievich studied embryology and physiology of invertebrates. He was a supporter of Darwinism and studied the mechanisms of evolution. Conducted research in the field of physiology, anatomy and histology of invertebrates. He became one of the founders of evolutionary embryology and histology.

Mechnikov I.I. (1845-1916)

Our biologists and their discoveries were appreciated throughout the world. Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov won the Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine in 1908. Mechnikov was born into the family of an officer and received his education at Kharkov University. He discovered intracellular digestion, cellular immunity, and proved, using embryological methods, the common origin of vertebrates and invertebrates.

He worked on issues of evolutionary and comparative embryology and, together with Kovalevsky, became the founder of this scientific direction. Mechnikov's works were of great importance in the fight against infectious diseases, typhoid, tuberculosis, and cholera. The scientist was interested in the aging process. He believed that premature death is caused by poisoning with microbial toxins and promoted hygienic methods of control, assigning a large role to the restoration of intestinal microflora with the help of fermented milk products. The scientist created the Russian school of immunology, microbiology, and pathology.

Pavlov I.P. (1849-1936)

What contribution did domestic biologists and their discoveries make to the study of higher nervous activity? The first Russian Nobel laureate in the field of medicine was Ivan Petrovich Pavlov for his work on the physiology of digestion. The great Russian biologist and physiologist became the creator of the science of higher nervous activity. He introduced the concept of unconditioned and conditioned reflexes.

The scientist came from a family of clergy and himself graduated from the Ryazan Theological Seminary. But in my last year I read a book by I.M. Sechenov about brain reflexes and became interested in biology and medicine. He studied animal physiology at St. Petersburg University. Pavlov, using surgical methods, studied the physiology of digestion in detail for 10 years and received the Nobel Prize for this research. The next area of ​​interest was higher nervous activity, to the study of which he devoted 35 years. He introduced the basic concepts of the science of behavior - conditioned and unconditioned reflexes, reinforcement.

Koltsov N.K. (1872-1940)

We continue the topic “Domestic biologists and their discoveries.” Nikolai Konstantinovich Koltsov - biologist, founder of the school of experimental biology. Born into a family of an accountant. He graduated from Moscow University, where he studied comparative anatomy and embryology and collected scientific material in European laboratories. Organized a laboratory of experimental biology at the Shanyavsky People's University.

He studied the biophysics of the cell, the factors that determine its shape. These works were included in science under the name “Koltsov’s principle.” Koltsov is one of the founders of the first laboratories and the department of experimental biology in Russia. The scientist founded three biological stations. He became the first Russian scientist to use the physicochemical method in biological research.

Timiryazev K.A. (1843-1920)

Domestic biologists and their discoveries in the field of plant physiology contributed to the development of the scientific foundations of agronomy. Timiryazev Kliment Arkadyevich was a naturalist, a researcher of photosynthesis and a promoter of Darwin's ideas. The scientist came from a noble family and graduated from St. Petersburg University.

Timiryazev studied plant nutrition, photosynthesis, and drought resistance. The scientist was engaged not only in pure science, but also attached great importance to the practical application of research. He was in charge of an experimental field where he tested various fertilizers and recorded their effect on the crop. Thanks to this research, agriculture has made significant progress along the path of intensification.

Michurin I.V. (1855-1935)

Russian biologists and their discoveries have significantly influenced agriculture and horticulture. Ivan Vladimirovich Michurin - and breeder. His ancestors were small-scale nobles, from whom the scientist adopted an interest in gardening. Even in early childhood, he looked after the garden, many of the trees in which were grafted by his father, grandfather and great-grandfather. Michurin began selection work in a rented, neglected estate. During the period of his activity, he developed more than 300 varieties of cultivated plants, including those adapted to the conditions of central Russia.

Tikhomirov A.A. (1850-1931)

Russian biologists and their discoveries helped develop new directions in agriculture. Alexander Andreevich Tikhomirov - biologist, doctor of zoology and rector of Moscow University. He received a law degree at St. Petersburg University, but became interested in biology and received a second degree at Moscow University in the department of natural sciences. The scientist discovered such a phenomenon as artificial parthenogenesis, one of the most important sections in individual development. He made a great contribution to the development of sericulture.

Sechenov I.M. (1829-1905)

The topic “Famous biologists and their discoveries” will be incomplete without mentioning Ivan Mikhailovich Sechenov. This is a famous Russian evolutionary biologist, physiologist and educator. Born into a landowner's family, he received his education at the Main Engineering School and Moscow University.

The scientist examined the brain and discovered a center that causes inhibition of the central nervous system and proved the influence of the brain on muscle activity. He wrote the classic work “Reflexes of the Brain,” where he formulated the idea that conscious and unconscious acts are performed in the form of reflexes. He imagined the brain as a computer that controls all life processes. Substantiated the respiratory function of blood. The scientist created the domestic school of physiology.

Ivanovsky D.I. (1864-1920)

The end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries was the time when great Russian biologists worked. And their discoveries (a table of any size could not contain their list) contributed to the development of medicine and biology. Among them is Dmitry Iosifovich Ivanovsky, a physiologist, microbiologist and founder of virology. He was educated at St. Petersburg University. Even during his studies, he showed interest in plant diseases.

The scientist suggested that diseases are caused by tiny bacteria or toxins. The viruses themselves were seen using an electron microscope only 50 years later. It is Ivanovsky who is considered the founder of virology as a science. The scientist studied the process of alcoholic fermentation and the influence of chlorophyll and oxygen on it, as well as soil microbiology.

Chetverikov S.S. (1880-1959)

Russian biologists and their discoveries made a great contribution to the development of genetics. Chetverikov Sergei Sergeevich was born a scientist in the family of a manufacturer, and received his education at Moscow University. This is an outstanding evolutionary geneticist who organized the study of heredity in animal populations. Thanks to these studies, the scientist is considered the founder of evolutionary genetics. He laid the foundation for a new discipline - population genetics.

You have read the article “Famous domestic biologists and their discoveries.” A table of their achievements can be compiled based on the proposed material.

Search Lectures

What concept should be entered in the blank in this table?

19. A microbiologist wanted to find out how quickly one type of bacteria multiplies in different nutrient media. He took two flasks, filled them halfway with different nutrient media and placed approximately the same number of bacteria in them. Every 20 minutes he removed samples and counted the number of bacteria in them. The data from his research are reflected in the table.

Study the table “Change in the rate of reproduction of bacteria over a certain time” and answer the questions.

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Biology

1868 - discovery of the pattern of hereditary traits

Gregor Johann Mendel (1822-1884). Austrian naturalist. While conducting experiments on pea hybridization, I traced the inheritance of parental traits in the offspring of the first and second generations and came to the conclusion that heredity is determined by constancy, independence and free combination of traits.

1892 - theory of heredity

August Weissmann (1834-1914).

German biologist. Observations of the developmental cycle of protozoa led Weismann to the hypothesis of the continuity of the “germ plasm”, and he saw in this cytological arguments about the impossibility of inheritance of acquired characteristics - a conclusion that was important for the development of the theory of evolution and Darwinism.

Weisman emphasized the sharp difference between inherited traits and acquired traits, which, as Weisman argued, are not inherited.

He was the first to understand the fundamental role of the chromosomal apparatus in cell division, although he could not prove his assumptions at that time due to the lack of experimental scientific data.

1865-1880s - biochemical theory of fermentation. Pasteurization. Immunology Research

Louis Pasteur (1822-1895). French scientist whose works laid the foundation for the development of microbiology as an independent scientific discipline.

Pasteur developed a biochemical theory of fermentation; he showed that microorganisms play an active role in this process. As a result of these studies, a method was developed to protect wine, beer, milk, fruit and berry juices and other food products from spoilage - a process later called pasteurization.

From studying fermentation processes, Pasteur moved on to studying the causative agents of infectious diseases in animals and humans and searching for methods to combat these diseases. Pasteur's outstanding achievement was the discovery of the principle of protective vaccinations against chicken cholera, cattle anthrax, and rabies.

The method of preventive vaccination that he developed, which produces active immunity against the causative agent of the disease, has become widespread throughout the world. His studies of pathogenic microbes served as the basis for the development of medical microbiology and the study of immunity.

1846 - discovery of ether anesthesia. U.

Morton, American physician.

1847 - first use of ether anesthesia and plaster casts in the field

19th century medicine

Nikolai Ivanovich Pirogov (1810-1881).

Russian surgeon and anatomist, whose research laid the foundation for the anatomical and experimental direction in surgery; founder of military field surgery.

The rich personal experience of a military surgeon allowed Pirogov to develop for the first time a clear system for organizing surgical care for the wounded in war. He proposed and introduced into practice a fixed plaster cast for gunshot wounds (during the Crimean War of 1853-1856). The operation of resection of the elbow joint developed by Pirogov helped limit amputations. Pirogov’s practical experience in the use of various antiseptic substances in the treatment of wounds (tincture of iodine, bleach solution, silver nitrate) anticipated the work of the English surgeon J.

Lister on the creation of antiseptics. In 1847, Pirogov published a study on the effect of ether on the animal body. He proposed a number of new methods of ether anesthesia (intravenous, intratracheal, rectal), and created devices for administering anesthesia. Pirogov investigated the essence of anesthesia; he pointed out that the narcotic substance has an effect on the central nervous system through the blood, regardless of the route of its introduction into the body.

At the same time, Pirogov paid special attention to the presence of sulfur impurities in the ether, which can be dangerous to humans, and developed methods for purifying ether from these impurities. In 1847, Pirogov was the first to use ether anesthesia in the field.

1863 - study by I.M. Sechenov “Reflexes of the Brain”

Ivan Mikhailovich Sechenov (1829-1905).

Russian naturalist, materialist thinker, founder of the Russian physiological school, creator of the natural science direction in psychology.

Sechenov studied many problems of physiology and psychology. However, his “Reflexes of the Brain” are of greatest importance, where for the first time the problems of psychology were solved from the standpoint of physiology, from the standpoint of natural science.

1867-1880s

Discovery of antiseptics

Joseph Lister (1827-1912). English surgeon, famous for introducing antiseptics into medical practice. Based on the works and clinical data of N. I. Pirogov, L. Pasteur and others, Lister, as a result of many years of research, developed methods for disinfecting wounds with a solution of carbolic acid.

He also proposed an antiseptic bandage impregnated with carbolic acid. Lister also developed new methods of surgical technique, in particular, he introduced antiseptic absorbable catgut as a material for surgical sutures.

1895 - discovery of conditioned reflexes. Research in the field of higher nervous activity.

Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (1849-1936). Russian physiologist, creator of the doctrine of higher nervous activity of animals and humans.

He conducted exceptional research on the functioning of the human cardiovascular system, on the physiology of digestion, on the functions of the cerebral hemispheres, proved the principle of reflex self-regulation of all body systems, and discovered conditioned reflexes.

Development of biology in the 19th century

The most significant events of the first half of the 19th century were the formation of paleontology and the biological foundations of stratigraphy, the emergence of cell theory, the formation of comparative anatomy and comparative embryology. The central events of the second half of the 19th century were the publication of Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species and the spread of the evolutionary approach to many biological disciplines.

Cell theory

The cell theory was formulated in 1839.

German zoologist and physiologist T. Schwann. According to this theory, all organisms have a cellular structure. The cell theory asserted the unity of the animal and plant worlds, the presence of a single element of the body of a living organism - the cell. Like any major scientific generalization, the cell theory did not arise suddenly: it was preceded by individual discoveries of various researchers.

At the beginning of the 19th century. Attempts have been made to study the internal contents of the cell.

In 1825, the Czech scientist J. Purkinė discovered the nucleus in the egg of birds. In 1831, the English botanist R. Brown first described the nucleus in plant cells, and in 1833 he came to the conclusion that the nucleus is an essential part of the plant cell.

Thus, at this time, the idea of ​​the structure of the cell changed: the main thing in its organization began to be considered not the cell wall, but the contents.

The German botanist M. came closest to formulating the cell theory.

Schleiden, who established that the body of plants consists of cells.

Numerous observations regarding the structure of the cell and a generalization of the accumulated data allowed T.

Schwann in 1839 made a number of conclusions, which were later called the cell theory. The scientist showed that all living organisms consist of cells, that the cells of plants and animals are fundamentally similar to each other.

Cell theory includes the following basic principles:

1) A cell is an elementary unit of living things, capable of self-renewal, self-regulation and self-reproduction and is the unit of structure, functioning and development of all living organisms.

2) The cells of all living organisms are similar in structure, chemical composition and basic manifestations of life activity.

3) Cell reproduction occurs by dividing the original mother cell.

4) In a multicellular organism, cells specialize in functions and form tissues from which organs and their systems are built, interconnected by intercellular, humoral and neural forms of regulation.

The creation of the cell theory became the most important event in biology, one of the decisive proofs of the unity of living nature.

Cell theory had a significant influence on the development of biology as a science and served as the foundation for the development of such disciplines as embryology, histology and physiology.

It made it possible to create the basis for understanding life, the individual development of organisms, and to explain the evolutionary connection between them. The basic principles of cell theory have retained their significance today, although over more than one hundred and fifty years new information has been obtained about the structure, life activity and development of the cell.

Evolutionary theory Ch.

A revolution in science was made by the book of the great English naturalist Charles Darwin, “The Origin of Species,” written in 1859. Having summarized the empirical material of contemporary biology and breeding practice, using the results of his own observations during his travels, he revealed the main factors in the evolution of the organic world.

In the book “Changes in Domestic Animals and Cultivated Plants” (1868), he presented additional factual material to the main work. In the book “The Descent of Man and Sexual Selection” (1871), he put forward the hypothesis of the origin of man from an ape-like ancestor.

The essence of Darwin's concept of evolution comes down to a number of logical, experimentally verifiable and confirmed by a huge amount of factual data:

1) Within each species of living organisms, there is a huge range of individual hereditary variability in morphological, physiological, behavioral and any other characteristics.

This variability may be continuous, quantitative, or intermittent qualitative, but it always exists.

2) All living organisms reproduce exponentially.

3) Life resources for any type of living organism are limited, and therefore there must be a struggle for existence either between individuals of the same species, or between individuals of different species, or with natural conditions. In the concept of “struggle for existence,” Darwin included not only the individual’s actual struggle for life, but also the struggle for success in reproduction.

4) In the conditions of the struggle for existence, the most adapted individuals survive and give birth to offspring, having those deviations that accidentally turned out to be adaptive to given environmental conditions.

This is a fundamentally important point in Darwin's argument. Deviations do not arise directionally - in response to the action of the environment, but randomly. Few of them prove useful in specific conditions. The descendants of a surviving individual, who inherit the beneficial deviation that allowed their ancestor to survive, turn out to be more adapted to the given environment than other members of the population.

5) Darwin called the survival and preferential reproduction of adapted individuals natural selection.

6) Natural selection of individual isolated varieties in different conditions of existence gradually leads to divergence (divergence) of the characteristics of these varieties and, ultimately, to speciation.

Darwin's theory is based on the property of organisms repeating similar types of metabolism and individual development in general over a series of generations - the property of heredity.

Heredity, together with variability, ensures the constancy and diversity of life forms and underlies the evolution of living nature. Darwin used one of the main concepts of his theory of evolution—the concept of “struggle for existence”—to denote the relationships between organisms, as well as the relationships between organisms and abiotic conditions leading to the death of less adapted individuals and the survival of more adapted individuals.

Darwin identified two main forms of variability:

Certain variability - the ability of all individuals of the same species under certain environmental conditions to react in the same way to these conditions (climate, soil);

Uncertain variability, the nature of which does not correspond to changes in external conditions.

In modern terminology, undefined variability is called mutation.

Mutation is an indeterminate variability, unlike a definite one, that is hereditary in nature. According to Darwin, minor changes in the first generation are amplified in subsequent ones. Darwin emphasized that it is uncertain variability that plays a decisive role in evolution. It is usually associated with harmful and neutral mutations, but mutations that turn out to be promising are also possible. The inevitable result of the struggle for existence and hereditary variability of organisms, according to Darwin, is the process of survival and reproduction of organisms most adapted to environmental conditions, and the death of those unadapted during the evolution - natural selection.

The mechanism of natural selection in nature operates similarly to that of breeders, i.e.

adds up insignificant and uncertain individual differences and forms from them the necessary adaptations in organisms, as well as interspecific differences. This mechanism discards unnecessary forms and forms new species.

The thesis of natural selection, along with the principles of the struggle for existence, heredity and variability, is the basis of Darwin's theory of evolution.

Cell theory and Darwin's doctrine of evolution are the most significant achievements of biology of the 19th century.

But I think it is worth mentioning other fairly important discoveries.

With the development of physics and chemistry, changes in medicine also occur. Over time, the number of applications for electricity is increasing. Its use in medicine marked the beginning of electro- and iontophoresis. The discovery of X-rays by Roentgen aroused particular interest among doctors. Physics laboratories where the equipment used by Roentgen to produce X-rays was created were attacked by doctors and their patients, who suspected that they contained once swallowed needles, buttons, etc.

The history of medicine has never known such a rapid implementation of discoveries in the field of electricity, as happened with the new diagnostic tool - X-rays.

Since the end of the 19th century, experiments on animals began to determine the threshold - dangerous - values ​​of current and voltage. The determination of these values ​​was necessitated by the need to create protective measures.

A very important discovery in the field of medicine and biology was the discovery of vitamins.

Back in 1820, our compatriot P. Vishnevsky first suggested the existence of a certain substance in antiscorbutic products that promotes the proper functioning of the body.

The actual discovery of vitamins belongs to N. Lunin, who proved in 1880 that food contains certain vital elements. The term "vitamins" is derived from the Latin roots: "vita" - life and "amine" - a nitrogen compound.

In the 19th century, the fight against infectious diseases began.

The English doctor Jenner invented a vaccine, Robert Koch discovered the causative agent of tuberculosis - Koch's bacillus, and also developed preventive measures against epidemics and created medicines.

Development of microbiology in the 19th century

Louis Pasteur gave the world a new science - microbiology.

This man, who made a number of brilliant discoveries, had to defend his truths all his life in useless disputes. Naturalists around the world debated whether or not “spontaneous generation” of living organisms exists.

Pasteur did not argue, Pasteur worked. Why does wine ferment? Why does milk sour? Pasteur established that the fermentation process is a biological process caused by microbes.

In Pasteur's laboratory there is still a flask of amazing shape - a fragile structure with a bizarrely curved nose.

More than 100 years ago, new wine was poured into it. It has not turned sour to this day - the secret of its form protects it from fermentation microbes.

Pasteur's experiments were of great importance for the creation of methods for sterilization and pasteurization (heating a liquid to 80 ° C to kill microorganisms, and then rapidly cooling it) of various products.

He developed methods of preventive vaccinations against infectious diseases. His research served as the basis for the teachings of immunity.

Genetics

The author of these works, Czech researcher Gregor Mendel, showed that the characteristics of organisms are determined by discrete hereditary factors. However, these works remained virtually unknown for almost 35 years - from 1865 to 1900.

Galen (129 or 131 years old - about 200 or 217 years old) - Roman physician, surgeon and philosopher. Galen made significant contributions to the understanding of many scientific disciplines, including anatomy, physiology, pathology, pharmacology, and neurology, as well as philosophy and logic. Its anatomy based on dissection of monkeys and pigs. His theory that the brain controls movement through the nervous system is still relevant today. Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564) - physician and anatomist, physician to Charles V, then Philip II.

A younger contemporary of Paracelsus, the founder of scientific anatomy. The main work “On the structure of the human body.” Vesalius dissected human corpses to illustrate his words. The book contains a thorough study of the organs and the entire structure of the human body.
William Harvey (1578-1657) - English physician, anatomist, physiologist, embryologist of the first half of the 17th century, known for discovering the systemic and pulmonary circulation.

The founder of modern physiology and embryology.. In the works “Anatomical study of the movement of the heart and blood in animals” (1628), he outlined the doctrine of blood circulation, which refuted the ideas that had prevailed since the time of Galen. For the first time he expressed the idea that “all living things come from eggs.” Redi Francesco (1626-1698), Italian naturalist, physician and writer.

To prove the impossibility of spontaneous generation of flies from rotten meat, in his experiment he isolated the meat from the flies
10350506477000-10350516764000 Robert Hooke (1635 - 1703) - English naturalist, encyclopedist. For the first time he used a microscope to study plant and animal tissues. Studying a section of the cork and core of elderberry, I noticed that they contain many cells.

He gave them the name cell. He introduced the term “cell” into biology, although R. Hooke saw not the cells themselves, but the shells of plant cells. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723) - Dutch naturalist, member of the Royal Society of London, discovered protozoa (microbes). One of the founders of scientific microscopy.
Having made lenses with 150-300x magnification, he first observed and sketched (publications since 1673) a number of protozoa, sperm, bacteria, red blood cells and their movement in capillaries.
Carl Linnaeus (1707 – 1778) - Swedish naturalist, naturalist, botanist, zoologist, mineralogist, doctor, 18th century.

The founder of the biological taxonomy of flora and fauna, Linnaeus was the first to use the binary nomenclature of species names and built the most successful artificial classification of plants and animals, describing about 1,500 plant species. Karl advocated the constancy of species and creationism. Author of “System of Nature” (1735), “Philosophy of Botany” (1751), etc. Spallanzani Lazzaro (1729-1799), Italian naturalist. For the first time he proved the impossibility of spontaneous generation of microorganisms (experiments with broth), and carried out artificial insemination in amphibians and mammals.

Supporter of preformationism
Edward Anthony Jenner (1749-1823) - English doctor, developed the world's first vaccine - against smallpox, inoculating the cowpox virus, which is not dangerous to humans.

“Not a single doctor has saved the lives of such a significant number of people as this man” J.-B. Lamarck (1744-1829) the great French naturalist and biologist of the late 18th - early 19th centuries, known for creating the first scientific theory of the evolution of the living world. He introduced the terms “biology” (1802), “zoology of invertebrates” (1794) and defined their content. Laid the foundations of invertebrate taxonomy. He developed the basic principles of classifying plants and animals in the form of a family tree from protozoa to humans.
Created the first evolutionary theory.

His main scientific work is the two-volume Philosophy of Zoology (1809)
1905-44450012649205715000 Charles Robert Darwin (1809-1882) - the great English naturalist and biologist of the mid-19th century, naturalist, traveler, creator of Darwinism, foreign corresponding member.
Known for creating the theory of evolution based on the struggle for existence and natural selection. He identified three forms of struggle for existence: intraspecific, interspecific and with unfavorable conditions.

Wallace Alfred Russell (1823–1913), English naturalist and writer.
who created the theory of natural selection simultaneously with Charles Darwin
Matthias Jakob Schleiden (1804-1881) - German botanist.

made his discoveries in the field of cytology, one of the authors of the cell theory.
1838, M. Schleiden proved that the nucleus is an essential component of all plant cells Theodor Schwann (1810 - 1882)
German cytologist, histologist and physiologist, author of cell theory.
He made his discoveries in the field of cytology.
Nikolai Ivanovich Pirogov (1810-1881) - Russian surgeon and anatomist, naturalist and teacher, public figure, founder of military field surgery and anatomical-experimental trends in surgery (gr.

from cheir - hand and ergon - work). Known in science for being the first to use anesthesia in surgery. Gregor Johann Mendel (1822-1884) - Austrian naturalist, botanist and religious leader, Augustinian monk, abbot.
The founder of the doctrine of heredity (Mendelism).

Using statistical methods to analyze the results of hybridization of pea varieties, the scientist formulated the laws of heredity (Mendel's laws), which became the first step towards modern genetics.
147828017907000 Louis Pasteur (1822 - 1895) - French scientist, one of the founders of stereochemistry, microbiology and immunology.

I used the rabies vaccine for the first time. In 1864, he proposed a method of disinfecting wine by heating it for a long time to 50-60°C, which was named “Pasteurization” in his honor. In 1860-1862, the scientist experimentally refuted the hypothesis of spontaneous generation of microorganisms (experiments with broth and a flask with an S-shaped neck).

1060453048000 Sechenov Ivan Mikhailovich (1829-1905)
The founder of the Russian school of physiologists. Proved that mental life is the result of the activity of human brain cells
established the nature of mental phenomena, which are based on physiological processes - reflexes
Botkin Sergei Petrovich (1832 -1889)
Russian general practitioner.

He created a doctrine according to which the body is a single whole, and the nervous system plays the leading role in its life activity and connection with the external environment.
Pavlov Ivan Petrovich (1849-1936) - Russian scientist, physiologist, creator of the doctrine of higher nervous activity. Classic works on the physiology of blood circulation and digestion (Nobel Prize, 1904).
He studied the physiology of digestion, higher nervous activity of animals and humans.

Identified the mechanisms of the emergence of conditioned reflexes
Timiryazev Kliment Arkadyevich (1843-1920) an outstanding Russian botanist and physiologist, researcher of the process of photosynthesis, supporter and popularizer of Darwinism.

Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov (1845-1916) made his discoveries in the field of botany. Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov (1845-1916) was a Russian biologist and pathologist, one of the founders of comparative pathology, evolutionary embryology and domestic microbiology, immunology.

Nobel laureate, creator of the doctrine of phagocytosis and cellular theory of immunity
Paul Ehrlich (1854-1915). - German doctor, immunologist, bacteriologist, chemist, founder of chemotherapy. Nobel Prize winner (1908) for the discovery of humoral immunity. Ukhtomsky Alexey Alekseevich (1875 - 1942)
Famous physiologist. Created the doctrine of dominance (principle of dominance)
Burdenko Nikolai Nilovich (1876-1946) Russian surgeon. Creator of a surgical school of experimental direction.

Developed operations on the spinal cord.
Vladimir Ivanovich Vernadsky (1863 - 1945) - Russian and Soviet natural scientist, thinker and public figure of the late 19th century and the first half of the 20th century, known for creating the doctrine of the biosphere and noosphere. One of the representatives of Russian cosmism; creator of the science of biogeochemistry.
Oparin Alexander Ivanovich (1894 - 1980), biochemist, founder of technical biochemistry.

In 1922 he put forward a biochemical theory of the origin of life. According to Oparin's theory, all life on Earth arose from coacervates - self-organizing high-molecular structures that spontaneously formed in the “primary ocean.” Oparin's theory became the foundation of evolutionary biochemistry.

John Haldane (1860-1936). - an English scientist in 1929, independently of Oparin A.I., put forward a biochemical hypothesis of the origin of life.
Watson and Crick developed a model of DNA in 1953. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1962 James Watson with Francis Crick and Maurice G.F. Wilkins

Page 7 of 9

Biology

1868 - discovery of the pattern of hereditary traits

Gregor Johann Mendel (1822-1884). Austrian naturalist. While conducting experiments on pea hybridization, I traced the inheritance of parental traits in the offspring of the first and second generations and came to the conclusion that heredity is determined by constancy, independence and free combination of traits.

1892 - theory of heredity

August Weissmann (1834-1914). German biologist. Observations of the developmental cycle of protozoa led Weismann to the hypothesis of the continuity of the “germ plasm”, and he saw in this cytological arguments about the impossibility of inheritance of acquired characteristics - a conclusion that was important for the development of the theory of evolution and Darwinism. Weisman emphasized the sharp difference between inherited traits and acquired traits, which, as Weisman argued, are not inherited. He was the first to understand the fundamental role of the chromosomal apparatus in cell division, although he could not prove his assumptions at that time due to the lack of experimental scientific data.

1865-1880s - biochemical theory of fermentation. Pasteurization. Immunology Research

Louis Pasteur (1822-1895). French scientist whose works laid the foundation for the development of microbiology as an independent scientific discipline. Pasteur developed a biochemical theory of fermentation; he showed that microorganisms play an active role in this process. As a result of these studies, a method was developed to protect wine, beer, milk, fruit and berry juices and other food products from spoilage - a process later called pasteurization. From studying fermentation processes, Pasteur moved on to studying the causative agents of infectious diseases in animals and humans and searching for methods to combat these diseases. Pasteur's outstanding achievement was the discovery of the principle of protective vaccinations against chicken cholera, cattle anthrax, and rabies. The method of preventive vaccination that he developed, which produces active immunity against the causative agent of the disease, has become widespread throughout the world. His studies of pathogenic microbes served as the basis for the development of medical microbiology and the study of immunity.

1846 - discovery of ether anesthesia. W. Morton, American doctor.

1847 - first use of ether anesthesia and plaster casts in the field

19th century medicine

Nikolai Ivanovich Pirogov (1810-1881). Russian surgeon and anatomist, whose research laid the foundation for the anatomical and experimental direction in surgery; founder of military field surgery. The rich personal experience of a military surgeon allowed Pirogov to develop for the first time a clear system for organizing surgical care for the wounded in war. He proposed and introduced into practice a fixed plaster cast for gunshot wounds (during the Crimean War of 1853-1856). The operation of resection of the elbow joint developed by Pirogov helped limit amputations. Pirogov’s practical experience in the use of various antiseptic substances in the treatment of wounds (tincture of iodine, bleach solution, silver nitrate) anticipated the work of the English surgeon J. Lister on the creation of antiseptics. In 1847, Pirogov published a study on the effect of ether on the animal body. He proposed a number of new methods of ether anesthesia (intravenous, intratracheal, rectal), and created devices for administering anesthesia. Pirogov investigated the essence of anesthesia; he pointed out that the narcotic substance has an effect on the central nervous system through the blood, regardless of the route of its introduction into the body. At the same time, Pirogov paid special attention to the presence of sulfur impurities in the ether, which can be dangerous to humans, and developed methods for purifying ether from these impurities. In 1847, Pirogov was the first to use ether anesthesia in the field.

1863 - study by I.M. Sechenov “Reflexes of the Brain”

Ivan Mikhailovich Sechenov (1829-1905). Russian naturalist, materialist thinker, founder of the Russian physiological school, creator of the natural science direction in psychology. Sechenov studied many problems of physiology and psychology. However, his “Reflexes of the Brain” are of greatest importance, where for the first time the problems of psychology were solved from the standpoint of physiology, from the standpoint of natural science.

1867-1880s - discovery of antiseptics

Joseph Lister (1827-1912). English surgeon, famous for introducing antiseptics into medical practice. Based on the works and clinical data of N. I. Pirogov, L. Pasteur and others, Lister, as a result of many years of research, developed methods for disinfecting wounds with a solution of carbolic acid. He also proposed an antiseptic bandage impregnated with carbolic acid. Lister also developed new methods of surgical technique, in particular, he introduced antiseptic absorbable catgut as a material for surgical sutures.

1895 - discovery of conditioned reflexes. Research in the field of higher nervous activity.

Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (1849-1936). Russian physiologist, creator of the doctrine of higher nervous activity of animals and humans. He conducted exceptional research on the functioning of the human cardiovascular system, on the physiology of digestion, on the functions of the cerebral hemispheres, proved the principle of reflex self-regulation of all body systems, and discovered conditioned reflexes.

Education At the beginning of the 19th century. In Russia, a system of higher, secondary and primary education was formed; a reform in the field of education (under Alexander I).

Under Nicholas I, all types of schools were preserved, but each of them became class-specific. God's law, literacy and arithmetic. Representatives of the “lower classes” studied. Parish one-class schools Russian language, arithmetic, geometry, history and geography. Children of merchants, artisans, townspeople. District three-year schools All sciences. Children of nobles, officials, merchants of the first guild. Seven-grade gymnasiums

Working with a document. Read the document and answer the question. In the rescript of Nicholas I of August 19, 1827, it is said that “the subjects of teaching and the very methods of teaching” must be “consistent with the future purpose of the students.” It is necessary that in the future the student “does not strive to rise beyond measure to the state in which he is destined to remain.” – How do you understand the words of the document?

Biology. In 1806, he argued that the earth's surface and the creatures inhabiting it undergo fundamental changes over time. Ivan Alekseevich Dvigubsky In 1816, he put forward and proved the idea that all phenomena in nature are caused by natural causes and are subject to general laws of development. Justin Evdokimovich Dyadkovsky His work “The General Law of the Development of Nature” (1834) substantiated the ideas about the development of living organisms. (predecessor of Charles Darwin and his teachings. Karl Maksimovich Baer

In the 19th century Russian scientists began studying the flora of other countries - China, Mongolia, Asia Minor, etc. M.A. Maksimovich in Plant Systematics (1831) made the first attempt to consider evolution as a process of speciation. By the second half of the 19th century. - beginning of the 20th century the relative activities of such prominent Russian scientists as botanists L.S. Tsenkovsky, A.N. Beketov, D.I. Ivanovsky; plant physiologists A.S. Faminiin, K.A. Timiryazev; plant morphologist I.I. Gorozhankin; plant cytologists I.I. Gerasimov and S.G. Navashin and others. G.V. Morozov studied the dynamics of forest communities. Maksimovich, Mikhail Alexandrovich

The works of Russian scientists were widely used by scientists all over the world. The study of the flora of Russia contributed to the deepening and clarification of plant classifications, provided material for conclusions related to the geographical distribution of plants and ecology, made it possible to identify centers of origin of cultivated plants and establish geographical patterns in the distribution of their hereditary characteristics, and allowed significant success in plant breeding to be achieved.

Wolf, Caspar Friedrich Academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences K. F. Wolf (gg.) is known in world science as one of the founders of embryology and a defender of the doctrine he developed about epigenesis, i.e. the gradual development of organisms through neoplasms. His works shattered the reformist, metaphysical ideas that were dominant at that time, which reinforced the dogma of the immutability of species, affirmed the idea of ​​development from simple to complex, and thereby prepared the ground for the approval of the evolutionary idea.

By the beginning of the 60s of the XIX century. The embryology of vertebrates was developed in sufficient detail, while that of invertebrates was presented in the form of isolated facts not connected by a common guiding idea. By this time, the process of crushing the eggs of some coelenterates, worms, mollusks and echinoderms, the structure and transformation of the larvae of many invertebrates had been described in detail, however, almost nothing was known about the internal processes of their development, about the methods of anlage and differentiation of their organs, and most importantly , it was not possible to reliably find common features in embryonic processes in animals belonging to different types. Evolutionary embryology as a science based on historical principles has not yet emerged. The date of its origin is considered to be the mid-60s - the beginning of research by the founders of evolutionary comparative embryology A.O. Kovalevsky and I.I. Mechnikov. The approval of Darwin's theory of the origin of the entire animal world on the basis of embryological material, tested in numerous experimental studies, was the basis for the creation of comparative embryology by Kovalevsky.

Karl Ernst von Baer, ​​or, as he was called in Russia, Karl Maksimovich Baer One of the outstanding zoologists of the first half of the 19th century. is academician Karl Maksimovich Baer. Baer's most valuable research is related to embryology. However, he is known not only as an embryologist, but also as an outstanding ichthyologist, geographer-traveler, anthropologist and ethnographer, a thoughtful and energetic researcher of the natural resources of Russia. Darwin highly valued Baer as a scientist and in his work “The Origin of Species” he names his name among his predecessors. This outstanding biologist became famous as the creator of modern comparative embryology.

Kovalevsky, Vladimir Onufrievich Vladimir Onufrievich Kovalevsky (gg.) - an outstanding paleontologist, founder of evolutionary paleontology. He was a continuer of the best materialist traditions of Russian biological science, which developed under the influence of the great Russian materialist philosophers. The research of V. O. Kovalevsky, his ideas and conclusions regarding the general laws of evolution, were the initial data for the successful development of problems of evolutionary paleontology and, in particular, issues directly related to the phylogeny of the animal world.

In the 19th centuries. In Russia, science has made great strides in medicine. Physiology has also made significant progress. Since the 18th century (under Peter I) systematic training of medical workers began in Russia. In the 19th century Many Russian scientists worked in the field of anatomy and physiology.

Pirogov The works of P. A. Zagorsky, I. V. Builsky, and N. I. Pirogov had a great influence on the development of domestic anatomy. The brilliant Russian scientist N.I. Pirogov (gg.) worked in the field of surgery, anatomy and other areas of medicine. He developed the fundamentals of topographical (relative) anatomy, is the founder of military field surgery, developed a clear system for organizing surgical care for the wounded in war, and proposed a number of new methods of ether anesthesia.

A special role in the development of physiology was played by I.M. Sechenov and I.P. Pavlov. Of exceptional importance was the book by I.M. Sechenov “Reflexes of the Brain” (1863), in which the position was first expressed that all brain activity is reflexive in nature. Pavlov, Ivan Petrovich Sechenov, Ivan Mikhailovich

Over more than 60 years of scientific activity, I.P. Pavlov (gg.) developed a number of different problems of physiology, which had a great influence on the development of not only medicine, but also biology in general. He made great discoveries in various areas of physiology - blood circulation, digestion and the study of the work of the cerebral hemispheres. The works of I. P. Pavlov found brilliant confirmation of the idea expressed by I. M. Sechenov about the reflex nature of organ activity. Of particular importance are the studies of I. P. Pavlov devoted to the study of the cerebral cortex. He established that the basis of the activity of the cerebral cortex is the process of formation of conditioned reflexes (1895).

A great contribution to the development was made by P. F. Lesgaft (gg.), V. P. Vorobyov (gg.), V. N. Tonkov (gg.) and many others, and to the development of physiology - V. A. Basov, N. A. Mislavsky, V. F. Ovsyannikov, A. Ya. Kulyabko, S. P. Botkin and others.

Thus, outstanding Russian scientists made a great contribution to the formation and development of the system of biological sciences. In general, in the 19th century. The heyday of the taxonomy of the animal and plant kingdoms began. Systematics ceased to be a descriptive science, engaged in a simple enumeration of forms based on artificial classification, and became a precise part of research in which the search for causes and natural connections came to the fore.