Abstract: Foreign policy of Alexander II - success or failure. Alexander II

Foreign policy of Alexander II - success or failure?

Completed by Burkatsky I.N. group DM-11

Alexander II Nikolaevich

12th Emperor All-Russian

Predecessor: Nikolai I

Successor: Alexander III

Place of birth: Moscow, Kremlin

Place of death: Petersburg, Winter Palace

Spouse:1. Maria Alexandrovna (Maximilian-Wilhelmina of Hesse)
2. Ekaterina Mikhailovna Dolgorukova, Your Serene Highness Princess Yurievskaya

Dynasty: Romanovs

Father: Nikolai I

Mother: Charlotte of Prussia (Alexandra Fedorovna)

Alexander took power at a difficult moment, when it was obvious to everyone that Russia was doomed to defeat in the Crimean War. Amazement, resentment, pain, anger and irritation reigned in society. The first years of his reign became a harsh school of political education for Alexander. It was then that he fully felt all the discontent accumulated in society and drank all the bitterness of cruel and fair criticism.

In March 1856, with the active participation of Prince Gorchakov, the Peace of Paris was concluded. It cost Russia the Black Sea Fleet, but it was still much less shameful than one might have expected. After the Peace of Paris, which was perceived by the entire Russian society as a national humiliation, Russia's foreign policy prestige fell extremely low. Alexander had to spend a lot of effort before he returned to his state the weight that it had before the Crimean War. Only after going through the shame of defeat, Alexander was able to decide on reforms, but he never forgot the main goal of these reforms - to revive the military power of the Russian Empire. It is reported that, while presiding over one meeting in 1863, the sovereign said: “Seven years ago I committed one act at this table, which I can define because I did it: I signed the Treaty of Paris, and it was cowardice.” And, hitting the table with his fist, he said: “Yes, it was cowardice, and I will not repeat it!” This episode sharply characterizes the severity of the bitter feeling hidden by the sovereign. Neither he nor Gorchakov forgot the humiliation of 1856. The goal of Russian foreign policy from that time on was the destruction of the Treaty of Paris. The remedy is the restoration of destroyed military power.

Failures Successes

March 18 (30), 1856 - Treaty of Paris - The Treaty was concluded between Russia, France, England, Turkey, Austria, Sardinia and Prussia. Russia lost Kars, the mouth of the Danube and part of southern Bessarabia. Russia and Türkiye lost the right to maintain a navy in the Black Sea. The exclusive Russian protectorate over the Danube principalities was abolished.

September 1857 - Meeting of Alexander 2 and Napoleon 3 - The Russian emperor was forced to improve relations with yesterday's military enemy, trying to avoid further confrontation with Europe.

May 1858 - Treaty of Aigun between Russia and China - According to the Treaty of Aigun, the border along the Amur was established, the Amur region was recognized as belonging to Russia, and the lands from the river. Ussuri to the sea - undivided. Only Russian and Chinese ships were allowed to navigate the Amur, Sungari and Ussuri rivers.

June 1858 - Tianjin Treaty between Russia and China - clauses of the treaty provided Russian subjects with the rights of the most favored nation, while the rights of Russian merchants in China expanded significantly.

1863 – deterioration of relations with France due to failure to communicate to support Russian demands

1867 – Russian-American agreement on the sale of Alaska and the Aleutian Islands to America. – Alexander 2 sold Alaska and the Aleutian Islands (an area of ​​1.5 million sq. km) to the United States for $7.2 million (11 million rubles) to strengthen ties with America and replenish the treasury.

April 1877 - the severance of diplomatic relations between Russia and Turkey - having accumulated enough strength and began to carry out military reform, Russia was ready for a new war with Turkey, the reason for which was the brutal suppression of the liberation movement of the southern Slavs by the Ottomans.

June 1858 - signing of trade agreements with England and Belgium - Russia tried in every possible way to avoid the isolation of Russia from Europe that began under Nicholas 1.

June 1858 - annexation of Chechnya to Russia (commanded by A.I. Baryatinsky)

March 3, 1859 - the conclusion of a secret Russian-French agreement - provided for the benevolent neutrality of Russia in the event of a war between France and the Kingdom of Sardinia against Austria.

1860 - the annexation of the Zachuysky region to Russia - this modest step preceded a large-scale military invasion of Central Asia.

November 14, 1860 - Beijing Treaty between Russia and China - the Ussuri region annexed to Russia.

1877-1878 - War with Turkey. It ended with the Peace of San Stefano, modified by the Treaty of Berlin - “The concessions made by Russian diplomacy at the Berlin Congress caused greater discontent and disappointment both in Russian society and among the Balkan peoples and weakened the authority of the Russian government at home and abroad” (S.G. Pushkarev)

June-July 1878 - Berlin Congress - was convened at the initiative of England and Austria-Hungary to revise the terms of the Treaty of San Stefano. As a result of the congress, the Berlin Treaty was signed. The annexation of the mouth of the Danube, the fortress of Ardahan, Kars and Batum with its districts to Russia was recognized. Russia was forced to abandon other advantages achieved in San Stefano under pressure from the Western powers

Spring 1864 - end of the Caucasian War - the grueling war lasted 47 years, but the mountaineers were eventually forced to lay down their arms

1864-1865 - the annexation of Central Asia to Russia - without significant effort and unnecessary sacrifices, the empire absorbed the richest lands into its sphere of influence, which became the last major territorial acquisition in the history of the Russian Empire.

March 1867 - Russian-Japanese Treaty on Sakhalin - the Japanese government renounced its claims to the northern part of the island, retaining southern Sakhalin.

January 1868 - peace treaty between Russia and the Kokanad Khanate - Khudoyar Khan recognized vassal dependence on Russia and ceded all the conquered lands to it. Russian subjects received the right to free trade in the Khanate.

Chancellor Prince Gorchakov himself, who represented Russia at the congress, admitted in a note to Alexander: “The Berlin Congress is the darkest page in my career.” The Emperor noted: “And in mine too.” This was the end of the war, on which more than a billion rubles were spent (with a total budget of 600 million in 1878) and for the sake of which domestic finances were completely upset.

February 1881 – St. Petersburg Russian-Chinese Treaty – The Treaty was concluded instead of Livadia. Russia refused to acquire acquisitions in the valley of the Tekes River and the Muzart Pass, except for the western section of the Ili Valley. Trade privileges for Russian merchants are limited.

June 23, 1868 - the peace treaty between Russia and the Bukhara Emirate - established the vassal dependence of the Bukhara Emirate on Russia.

Autumn 1869 - Russian-English agreement - provided for the creation of a neutral zone between Russian and British possessions in Central Asia, including the territory of Afghanistan.

June 1870 - meeting of Emperors Alexander 2 and Wilhelm 1 - the meeting took place in Ems. The Prussian emperor promised to support Russian interests in the Middle East.

January 1871 - London International Conference - at the conference of the countries participating in the Treaty of Paris, Russia achieved the abolition of the humiliating articles of the treaty and officially received the opportunity to maintain a navy in the Black Sea.

1873 – Union of 3 Emperors - Russia ensured the security of its western borders. The treaty was important in a defensive sense and determined positions in the Balkans

On August 12, 1873 - a peace treaty between Russia and the Khiva Khanate - the lands of the Khanate along the right bank of the Amu Darya River were annexed to Russia. Khiva recognized vassal dependence on Russia. Russian merchants were exempt from paying duties.

April 25, 1875 - Russo-Japanese Treaty - concerned territorial disputes between the two countries. Russia transferred the Kuril Islands to Japan in exchange for the southern part of Sakhalin.

February 1876 - decree on the annexation of the Kokand Khanate to the Russian Empire - the last of the largest states in Central Asia was forced to recognize Russian rule.

July 1876 - Russian-Austrian negotiations - both emperors and chancellors of both powers participated in the negotiations. The parties agreed to pursue a coordinated policy between Russia and Austria regarding the Balkans.

January 1877 - a secret Austro-Russian convention - was signed in Budapest and provided for Austrian neutrality in the war between Russia and Turkey.

April 1877 - The capture of the Bayazet fortress by Russian troops - the Caucasian theater of military operations and in this war it was very promising for Russia.

November 6, 1877 - the capture of the Kars fortress by the Russians - the capture of this most important fortress in the Caucasus made the prospects for a significant increase in Russian influence in the Middle East realistic.

January 1878 - Russian occupation of Adrianople - this event meant the complete collapse of Turkish war plans. The road to Istanbul was open, and the Turks were under threat of complete defeat.

February 19, 1878 - signing of the San Stefano preliminary peace treaty between Russia and Turkey - according to the treaty, autonomy was granted to Bulgaria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, independence to Serbia, Montenegro and Romania. Southern Bessarabia, the fortresses of Ardagan, Kars, Batum, Bayazet and the Alashkert Valley were annexed to Russia

October 2, 1879 - preliminary signing of the Russian-Chinese treaty - the treaty signed in Livadia restored the power of the Chinese government in the Ili region and granted Russian citizens the right to duty-free trade in Mongolia and walled Western China. China ceded to Russia a small area in the West of the Ili Valley, the Tekas River basin and the Muzart Pass. The Chinese government refused to ratify the treaty.

Criteria for comparing the table: treaties that increase the international authority of Russia, the number of successful and unsuccessful treaties, the overall result of Russian foreign policy under Alexander II, the results of the treaties.

Based on the table, we can conclude that Russia under Alexander II entered into agreements that contributed to the favorable development of foreign policy. Russia tried to conduct its foreign policy peacefully, and there were more successful treaties than those that in one way or another adversely affected the position and authority of the country. Even though Russia had defeats in foreign policy, it was able to regain its international authority and position.

Bottom line

Thus, foreign policy after the Crimean War turned out to be quite effective. The long struggle for the abolition of the restrictive articles of the Paris Peace was crowned with success. As a result of this, Russia has once again regained its leading position in the “European concert”. Successful transformations in the economy and military affairs made it possible to achieve a spectacular victory in the next Russian-Turkish war, which showed Russia’s dedication, its ability to come to the rescue, guided not by imperial interests, but by high moral aspirations, the desire to help those dying from cruelty and injustice. No other European power throughout the 19th century was able to undertake something similar.

The main directions of the foreign policy of Alexander II:

After the Crimean War Alexander II placed the main emphasis on domestic policy, this goal determined the movement and in foreign policy: exit from Russia’s isolation and restoration of the greatness of the Russian state on the world political arena. The talented diplomat A.M. Gorchakov played a huge role in restoring Russia’s role.

Initially, it was necessary to break the anti-Russian coalition from France, England and Austria. This bloc was already filled with internal disagreements, which was to Russia's advantage. A rapprochement with France was planned, but when France went to war with Austria, Russia avoided obligations, which served as a reason for a rapprochement with Austria.

Ultimately, Russia announced that the terms of the Paris Treaty regarding the impossibility of keeping the Russian fleet in the Black Sea were no longer supported. Despite protests from England, Austria and Turkey, Russia began to rebuild its navy and fortifications.

On May 21, 1864, the last center of resistance of the Caucasian peoples was suppressed and they finally became part of Russia. The war in the Caucasus ended successfully for Russia.

Kazakhs voluntarily accepted Russian citizenship. Gradually, Russian troops took more and more campaigns in Asia to capture new territories. Officially this was England's area of ​​influence, but Russia had an economic interest in owning areas rich in cotton.

In the 60-80s of the 19th century, Tashkent was conquered, then Samarkand, and soon Ashgabat, despite the stubborn resistance of local residents. Although these peoples lost their independence, Russia eliminated internecine wars and slavery in these territories. Railroads were built, and cotton growing and mining began to develop rapidly. At the same time, Russian policy was very flexible in relation to local culture and religion.

In the Russian Far East, an agreement was signed with China on establishing borders. For this, a convenient case was chosen when Russia did not support the war of England and France against China. The Russians had already created settlements in the Amur region, which made it possible to draw the border along these settlements.

It was more difficult to establish borders with Japan, but in the end, Sakhalin Island completely went to Russia, and the Kuril Islands to Japan.

In the mid-19th century, Americans (poachers, traders, entrepreneurs) began to enter Alaska. The costs of maintaining the remote territory began to exceed income, and Russia sought to establish friendly relations with America, so Alexander II sold Alaska to America for the paltry sum of $7.2 million. This was a serious underestimation of possessions, which turned out to be rich in gold and oil, and, moreover, in the end, could give serious political weight to Russia in Western countries.

Born on April 17, 1818 in Moscow. In 1855, Alexander became Sovereign of All Russia during one of the most difficult periods for the Russian Empire. Immediately after ascending to the throne, the newly-crowned emperor was faced with a huge problem in the form of Crimean War.

Foreign policy of Alexander II.

The Crimean War began in the last years of the reign of Nicholas I. The main reason for the war was the growth of anti-Russian sentiment in Europe. Most of all, England, France, Austria, and the Ottoman Empire did not want a strong Russia. The reason for the outbreak of war was a dispute between France and Russia over the rights to holy places in Palestine, and especially to Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem (then the church was under the control of the Orthodox Church, in our time it belongs to three dioceses at once - the Orthodox, Catholic and Armenian churches). The fact is that the cunning Turks, who then controlled these territories, made the same promises to both Russian Orthodox and French Catholics.

November 18, 1853 Russian Black Sea Fleet during the famous Battle of Sinop defeated the forces of the Ottoman Empire. However, after this victory, things became very difficult. The allied fleet of the British and French entered the Black Sea and joined the Turks.

During the Crimean War, fighting took place not only in the Black Sea, but also far beyond its borders:

1. Ground fighting in Silistria (the Black Sea coast near the mouth of the Danube) and Moldavia, first against the Turks, and a little later the British and French in 1853-1854. Russia was forced to retreat, since Austria-Hungary intended to enter the war, which could cause the Russian army to be completely surrounded.
2. Military operations in the south of the Caucasus. The Turkish attack was repulsed, and in 1855 the large Ottoman fortress of Kars was taken.
3. Attack on Odessa and Ochakov in 1854. The French-English ships fired at both cities, but met a barrage of return fire and retreated with losses. The large British steamship Tiger was sunk and 225 crew members were captured.
4. Allied attacks in the Sea of ​​Azov in 1855. They ended with shelling of Taganrog and Mariupol, as well as robbery on the Belosarayskaya Spit and in the Berdyansk region.
5. British attack in the Baltic Sea. An attempt to lure the Russian Baltic Fleet from Kronstadt Bay into the open sea, since they could not take the fortress in any way. As a result, the British fired from afar, received return fire and retreated.
6. Attack of the British from the White Sea (in the Arctic). The Solovetsky Monastery was damaged, and the Resurrection Cathedral was destroyed (near the city of Kola on the Kola Peninsula).
7. The British attack from the Pacific Ocean on the Peter and Paul Fortress in the second half of August 1854. The garrison of Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky successfully repelled the attack and defeated the landing force.
8. Attack on Kinburn (near Nikolaev) on the northern Black Sea coast - October 2, 1855. The city was captured.
9. Defense of Sevastopol. It lasted 11 months, but the heroic actions of the defenders did not save the city. Fall of Sevastopol occurred on September 8, 1855 after the sixth bombardment of the city by the French and the subsequent capture of Malakhov Kurgan.

On February 13, 1856 it was signed Treaty of Paris and the war ended. The allies captured Crimea, pushed Russia back from Bessarabia, but the offensive ended there (the allies understood that deepening into the lands of the Russian Empire threatened complete defeat and another Russian campaign to Paris). The cunning British stopped in time, and thus Russia was considered the losing side. By the way, Alexander II fought on at least six fronts and without a single ally. In such conditions, the Peace of Paris was far from the worst option for the Russian emperor. As a result of the treaty, political influence over Bessarabia was lost, although Alexander took back Crimea and Sevastopol in exchange for the Turkish Kars he captured. In addition, the Black Sea was declared neutral waters, where neither the Russians nor the Turks could have a combat fleet.

Of course, Russia could not remain in such cramped conditions for long. In addition, in the 70s of the 19th century, a liberation movement against the domination of the Turks began in the Balkan countries, and support for Orthodox citizens of other states was not the last point in the policy of the Russian sovereigns.

In 1877 it began Russian-Turkish war. The reason for the outbreak of war was the brutal suppression in Bulgaria April uprising Orthodox Bulgarians. During a lightning raid through the Balkan countries (the exception was the five-month siege of the city of Pleven in Bulgaria), with the support of the local population, Russian troops liberated all these territories from Ottoman influence. In 1878 it was convened Berlin Congress, a little later fixed Treaty of San Stefano between Russia and Ottoman Empire, according to which Romania and Montenegro became independent states. Bulgaria received broad autonomy and privileges for the Orthodox population as part of the Ottoman Empire, and Bosnia and Herzegovina received similar autonomy as part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. As for Russia itself, Alexander II returned Bessarabia and also recaptured the Kara region in the Caucasus. In addition, the Black Sea Fleet was restored.

During reign of Alexander II significant territories of Central Asia (Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, part of Afghanistan and Iran), as well as the Far East (Transbaikalia, Ussuri Territory, Khabarovsk Territory and partly Manchuria) were annexed to the Russian Empire - according to Beijing Treaty 1860 with the Chinese.

In 1867, after long negotiations, the sale of Alaska To the United States of America for $7.2 million. This transaction was driven by the following factors:

1. It is not economically profitable to transport people and goods to such a remote region.
2. Alaska's vulnerability and the challenges of its protection.
3. An economic crisis caused, in large part, by the defeat in the Crimean War and the costs of it.
4. The fact of this sale established friendly relations with the United States of America for several decades, as well as the Japanese Empire (since at the same time the Kuril Islands were given to the Japanese Emperor in exchange for Sakhalin).

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION

Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education

Tolyatti State University

Department of History and Philosophy

Test

On the topic: “Foreign policy of Alexander II”

Completed by student gr. ELbz-1231:

Kondulukov Ilya Sergeevich

Checked by: Candidate of Historical Sciences, Associate Professor Bezgina O.A.

Tolyatti 2015

Introduction

After the end of the Crimean War, Alexander II's main focus was on carrying out internal reforms. Their success depended to a large extent on the external situation: a new war could disrupt the transformation. The Emperor appointed consistent supporters of his course as ambassadors to the largest states of the world. Prince A. M. Gorchakov was appointed head of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in 1856. In a letter to Alexander II, he defined the main foreign policy goal of the country as follows: “Given the current situation of our state and Europe in general, Russia’s main attention should be persistently directed to the implementation of the cause of our internal development, and all foreign policy should be subordinated to this task.”

Based on this goal, the main directions of foreign policy were identified: breaking out of international isolation and restoring Russia’s role as a great power, repealing the humiliating articles of the Paris Peace Treaty that prohibited having a fleet and military fortifications on the Black Sea. In addition, it was necessary to secure borders with neighboring states in Central Asia and the Far East through treaties. These complex tasks were entrusted to the diplomatic talent of A. M. Gorchakov.

Alexander Mikhailovich Gorchakov (1798-1883), after graduating from the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum in 1817, where he studied with A. S. Pushkin, entered the diplomatic service. Before the start of the Crimean War, at the Vienna Conference of Ambassadors, he made a lot of efforts to keep Austria and a number of other powers from entering the war against Russia. A. M. Gorchakov was distinguished by his independence of character, high morality, and had extensive connections among political figures of foreign countries. He enjoyed great confidence from Emperor Alexander II not only in matters of foreign policy, but also in matters of carrying out reforms within the country. For services to the Fatherland, Gorchakov was awarded the highest honors, including the title of His Serene Highness Prince and the highest civilian rank in the Table of Ranks - State Chancellor of the Russian Empire.

Gorchakov, skillfully using the contradictions between the European powers, achieved the agreements necessary for his state. Being a supporter of a cautious foreign policy, he showed restraint in Central Asian affairs, trying to counteract the aggressive plans of the War Ministry.

The reign of Alexander II, so rich in terms of internal reforms, was also marked in terms of foreign policy by a series of military actions, which ultimately again raised the temporarily diminished importance of Russia after the Crimean War and again gave it its rightful position in the host of European powers. As a matter of fact, despite the fact that the matter of internal renewal absorbed almost all the attention of the government, especially in the first half of the reign of Alexander II, the war with external enemies went on almost continuously on the outskirts of the state.

First of all, upon his accession to the throne, Alexander II had to end another war, which he inherited from his previous reign along with the Crimean one. It was a war with the Caucasian highlanders. This struggle, which has been going on for a long time, costing Russia a lot of effort and resources, has not yet produced any decisive results.

Russia's foreign policy under Alexander II was aimed primarily at resolving the eastern question. The defeat in the Crimean War undermined Russia's international authority and led to its loss of predominant influence in the Balkans. Neutralization of the Black Sea made the country's southern maritime borders defenseless, hampered the development of the South and hampered the expansion of foreign trade.

The main task of Russian diplomacy was the abolition of the articles of the Paris Treaty. For this, reliable allies were needed. England continued to be Russia's most dangerous adversary due to rivalry in the Transcaucasus and Central Asia. Austria itself tried to gain a foothold in the Balkans.

Türkiye in its policy was guided by England. Prussia was still weak. To the greatest extent, Russia's interests were served by rapprochement with France, which competed with England in the Mediterranean. To strengthen its position in the East, Russia continued to rely on the liberation struggle of Christian peoples against Turkey.

European politics

The main efforts of Russian diplomacy were aimed at finding allies in Europe, breaking out of isolation and the collapse of the anti-Russian bloc, which included France, England and Austria. The situation that developed in Europe at that time was to Russia's advantage. The former allies in the anti-Russian coalition were torn apart by sharp disagreements, sometimes leading to wars.

Russia's main efforts were aimed at rapprochement with France. In September 1857, Alexander II met with the French Emperor Napoleon III, and in February 1859, an agreement on Franco-Russian cooperation was signed. However, this union did not become long-lasting and durable. And when the war between France and Austria began in April 1859, Russia avoided French help, thereby seriously undermining Franco-Russian relations. But relations between Russia and Austria have improved significantly. With these actions, Gorchakov actually destroyed the anti-Russian alliance and brought Russia out of international isolation.

Polish uprising 1863-1864 and the attempts of England and France to intervene, under the pretext of this uprising, in the internal affairs of Russia caused an acute crisis, ending in a rapprochement between Russia and Prussia, which allowed the Polish rebels to be pursued on its territory. Subsequently, Russia took a position of benevolent neutrality towards Prussia during its wars against Austria (1866) and France (1870-1871).

Having secured the support of Prussia, Gorchakov launched an attack on the articles of the Paris Peace Treaty of 1856 that were unfavorable for Russia. In October 1870, at the height of the Franco-Prussian War, he declared that Russia no longer considered itself bound by the obligations of the Paris Treaty regarding “neutralization” Black Sea, which were repeatedly violated by other powers. Despite the protests of England, Austria and Turkey, Russia began to create a navy in the Black Sea, restore destroyed ones and build new military fortifications. Thus, this foreign policy task was resolved peacefully.

The defeat of France in the war with Prussia and the subsequent unification of Germany changed the balance of power in Europe. A powerful warlike power emerged on the western borders of Russia. The alliance between Germany and Austria (since 1867 - Austria-Hungary) posed a particular threat. In order to prevent this union and at the same time neutralize England, irritated by Russia’s successes in Central Asia, Gorchakov organized a meeting of the emperors of Russia, Germany and Austria-Hungary in 1873. According to the agreement signed by the three monarchs, they pledged to provide each other with assistance, including military assistance. But when, 2 years after the signing of the agreement, Germany again intended to attack France, Russia, alarmed by the excessive strengthening of the Germans, opposed a new war. The “Union of Three Emperors” finally collapsed in 1878.

Thus, Alexander II managed to fulfill the main foreign policy task in the main European direction. Russia achieved the repeal of the most humiliating articles of the Treaty of Paris and peacefully restored its former influence. This had a beneficial effect on the implementation of reforms and the end of wars in the Caucasus and Central Asia.

Eastern crisis of the 70s. XIX century

Since 1864, the Porte began to settle Circassians here in Bulgaria, who were evicted from the Caucasus in order to avoid Russian domination. Accustomed to living by robbery and robbery in their homeland, they were called bashi-bazouks, and began to oppress the Bulgarian peasants, forcing them to work for themselves, like serfs. The ancient hatred between Christians and Muslims flared up with renewed vigor. The peasants took up arms. And so, to take revenge for this uprising, Turkey sent thousands of Circassians and other regular troops against Bulgaria. In Batak alone, out of 7,000 inhabitants, 5,000 people were beaten. An investigation undertaken by the French envoy revealed that 20,000 Christians had died within three months. All of Europe was gripped by indignation. But this feeling had the strongest impact in Russia and in all Slavic lands. Russian volunteers from all classes of society flocked to help the rebels; Society's sympathy was expressed through all sorts of voluntary donations. Serbia was unsuccessful due to the numerical superiority of the Turks.

Russian public attention loudly demanded war. Emperor Alexander II, due to his characteristic peacefulness, wanted to avoid it and reach an agreement through diplomatic negotiations. But neither the Constantinople Conference (November 11, 1876) nor the London Protocol led to any results. Türkiye refused to fulfill even the mildest demands, counting on the support of England. War became inevitable. On April 12, 1877, Russian troops stationed near Chisinau were given the order to enter Turkey. On the same day, the Caucasian troops, of which Prince Mikhail Nikolaevich was appointed commander-in-chief, entered the borders of Asian Turkey. The Eastern War of 1877-1878 began, covering the Russian soldier with such loud, unfading glory of valor.

(24) April 1877, Russia declared war on Turkey: after the parade of troops in Chisinau, at a solemn prayer service, Bishop of Chisinau and Khotyn Pavel (Lebedev) read the Manifesto of Alexander II on the declaration of war on Turkey.

Only a war in one campaign made it possible for Russia to avoid European intervention. According to reports from a military agent in England, London needed 13-14 weeks to prepare an expeditionary army of 50-60 thousand people, and another 8-10 weeks to prepare the Constantinople position. In addition, the army had to be transported by sea, skirting Europe. In none of the Russian-Turkish wars did the time factor play such a significant role. Türkiye pinned its hopes on a successful defense.

The war plan against Turkey was drawn up back in October 1876 by General N. N. Obruchev. By March 1877, the project was corrected by the Emperor himself, the Minister of War, the Commander-in-Chief, Grand Duke Nikolai Nikolaevich the Elder, his assistant to the staff, General A. A. Nepokoichitsky, and the assistant chief of staff, Major General K. V. Levitsky. In May 1877, Russian troops entered the territory of Romania.

The troops of Romania, which acted on the side of Russia, began to act actively only in August.

During the ensuing hostilities, the Russian army managed, using the passivity of the Turks, to successfully cross the Danube, capture the Shipka Pass and, after a five-month siege, force the best Turkish army of Osman Pasha to capitulate in Plevna. The subsequent raid through the Balkans, during which the Russian army defeated the last Turkish units blocking the road to Constantinople, led to the Ottoman Empire's withdrawal from the war. At the Berlin Congress held in the summer of 1878, the Berlin Treaty was signed, which recorded the return to Russia of the southern part of Bessarabia and the annexation of Kars, Ardahan and Batum. The statehood of Bulgaria (conquered by the Ottoman Empire in 1396) was restored as the vassal Principality of Bulgaria; The territories of Serbia, Montenegro and Romania increased, and Turkish Bosnia and Herzegovina was occupied by Austria-Hungary.

The Treaty of San Stefano on February 19, 1878, in addition to its direct goal - the liberation of the Balkan Slavs, brought brilliant results to Russia. The intervention of Europe, which jealously followed Russia's successes, with the Treaty of Berlin significantly narrowed the size of the occupied territory, but they still remain very significant. Russia acquired the Danube part of Bessarabia and the Turkish regions bordering Transcaucasia with the fortresses of Kars, Agdagan and Batum, converted into a free port.

Expansion of Russia's geopolitical space and annexation of Central Asia

In the early 60s. The voluntary acceptance of Russian citizenship by the Kazakhs was completed. But their lands were still subject to raids from neighboring states: the Bukhara Emirate, the Khiva and Kokand Khanates. Kazakhs were captured and then sold into slavery. To prevent such actions, fortification systems began to be created along the Russian border. However, the raids continued, and the governors-general of the border regions, on their own initiative, made retaliatory campaigns.

These trips, or expeditions as they were called, caused discontent in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. It did not want to aggravate relations with England, which considered Central Asia an area of ​​its influence. But the War Ministry, trying to restore the authority of the Russian army, shaken after the Crimean War, secretly supported the actions of its military leaders. And Alexander II himself was not averse to expanding his possessions in the east. Central Asia was of not only military but also economic interest for Russia, both as a source of cotton for the textile industry and as a place to sell Russian goods. Therefore, actions to annex Central Asia found wide support in industrial and merchant circles.

In June 1865, Russian troops under the command of General M.G. Chernyaev, taking advantage of the war between Bukhara and Kokand, captured the largest city in Central Asia, Tashkent, and a number of other cities almost without losses. This caused a protest from England, and Alexander II was forced to dismiss Chernyaev for “arbitrariness.” But all the conquered lands were annexed to Russia. The Turkestan Governor-General (Turkestan Territory) was formed here, the head of which was appointed by the tsar General K. P. Kaufman.

The arrogant behavior of the Bukhara emir, who demanded the cleansing of the conquered Kokand territory by Russia and confiscated the property of Russian merchants living in Bukhara, as well as the insult to the Russian mission sent for negotiations to Bukhara, led to the final break. On May 20, 1866, General Romanovsky with a 2,000-strong detachment inflicted the first crushing defeat on the Bukharans. However, small Bukhara detachments continued constant raids and attacks on Russian troops. In 1868, General Kaufman captured the famous city of Central Asia, Samarkand. According to the peace treaty of June 23, 1868, the Bukhara Khanate was supposed to cede border territories to Russia and become a vassal of the Russian government, which, in turn, supported it during times of unrest and unrest.

Since 1855, the Kyrgyz and Kazakh tribes subordinate to the Khanate began to transfer to Russian citizenship, unable to tolerate the arbitrariness and lawlessness of the Kokand governors. This led to armed conflicts between the Khanate and Russian troops, for example, in 1850, an expedition was undertaken across the Ili River in order to destroy the Touchubek fortification, which served as a stronghold for K. gangs, but it was only possible to capture it in 1851, and in 1854 The Vernoye fortification was built on the Almaty River (see) and the entire Trans-Ili region became part of Russia. In order to protect the Kazakhs, Russian subjects, the Orenburg military governor Obruchev built the Raimskoye (later Aral) fortification in 1847, near the mouth of the Syr Darya, and proposed to occupy Ak-Mosque. In 1852, on the initiative of the new Orenburg governor Perovsky, Colonel Blaramberg, with a detachment of 500 people, destroyed two K. fortresses Kumysh-Kurgan and Chim-Kurgan and stormed Ak-Mosque, but was repulsed. In 1853, Perovsky personally with a detachment of 2,767 people, with 12 guns, moved to Ak-Mosque, where there were 300 Kokands with 3 guns, and took it by storm on July 27; Ak-Mosque was soon renamed Fort Perovsky. In the same 1853, the Kokands twice tried to recapture Ak-Mosque, but on August 24, military foreman Borodin, with 275 people with 3 guns, scattered 7,000 Kokands at Kum-suat, and on December 14, Major Shkup, with 550 people with 4 guns, defeated on the left bank of the Syr there were 13,000 Kokands who had 17 copper guns. After this, a number of fortifications were erected along the lower Syr (Kazalinsk, Karamakchi, and from 1861 Dzhyulek). In 1860, the West Siberian authorities equipped, under the command of Colonel Zimmerman, a small detachment that destroyed the K. fortifications of Pishpek and Tokmak. The Kokand people declared a holy war (gazavat) and in October 1860 concentrated, numbering 20,000 people, at the fortification of Uzun-Agach (56 versts from Verny), where they were defeated by Colonel Kolpakovsky (3 companies, 4 hundreds and 4 guns), who then took and Pishpek, resumed by the Kokands, where this time a Russian garrison was left; At the same time, the small fortresses of Tokmak and Kostek were also occupied by the Russians. By constructing a chain of fortifications from the side of Orenburg along the lower reaches of the Syr Darya, and from the side of western Siberia along the Alatau, the Russian border was gradually closed, but at that time a huge space of about 650 miles remained unoccupied and served as a gate for the invasion of the Kokand people into the Kazakh steppes. In 1864, it was decided that two detachments, one from Orenburg, the other from western Siberia, would go towards each other, the Orenburg one - up the Syr Darya to the city of Turkestan, and the West Siberian one - along the Kyrgyz ridge. The West Siberian detachment, 2500 people, under the command of Colonel Chernyaev, left Verny, took the Aulie-ata fortress by storm on June 5, 1864, and the Orenburg detachment, 1200 people, under the command of Colonel Verevkin, moved from Fort Perovsky to the city of Turkestan, which was taken using trench work on June 12. Leaving a garrison in Aulie-ata, Chernyaev, at the head of 1,298 people, moved to Chimkent and, attracting an Orenburg detachment, took it by storm on July 20. Then an assault was launched on Tashkent (114 versts from Chimkent), but it was repulsed. In 1865, from the newly occupied region, with the annexation of the territory of the former Syrdarya line, the Turkestan region was formed, of which Chernyaev was appointed military governor. Rumors that the Bukhara emir was going to capture Tashkent prompted Chernyaev to occupy on April 29 the small K. fortification of Niaz-bek, which dominated the waters of Tashkent, and then he and a detachment of 1951 people, with 12 guns, camped 8 versts from Tashkent, where, under the command of Alim-kul, up to 30,000 Kokandans were concentrated, with 50 guns. On May 9, Alim-kul made a sortie, during which he was mortally wounded. His death gave the defense of Tashkent an unfavorable turn: the struggle of parties in the city intensified, and the energy in defending the fortress walls weakened. Chernyaev decided to take advantage of this and after a three-day assault (May 15-17), he took Tashkent, losing 25 people killed and 117 wounded; The losses of the Kokand people were very significant. In 1866, Khojent was also occupied. At the same time, Yakub Beg, the former ruler of Tashkent, fled to Kashgar, which became temporarily independent from China.

Cut off from Bukhara, Khudoyar Khan accepted (1868) the trade agreement proposed to him by Adjutant General von Kaufmann, by virtue of which Russians in the K. Khanate and Kokands in Russian possessions acquired the right of free stay and travel, establishment of caravanserais, maintenance trading agencies (caravan bashi), duties could be levied in the amount of no more than 2 ½ % of the cost of the product. A commercial agreement with Russia in 1868 actually made Kokand a dependent state on it.

Population dissatisfaction with Khudayar's internal policies led to an uprising (1873-1876). In 1875, the Kipchak Abdurakhman-Avtobachi (son of the Muslim Kul executed by Khudoyar) became the head of those dissatisfied with Khudoyar, and all opponents of the Russians and the clergy joined him. Khudoyar fled and his eldest son Nasr-Eddin was proclaimed khan. At the same time, a holy war was declared, and numerous bands of Kipchak invaded Russian borders and occupied the upper reaches of Zeravshan and the outskirts of Khojent. Abdurakhman-Avtobachi, having gathered up to 10 thousand people, made the center of his operations K. the fortification of Mahram on the left bank of the Syr Darya (44 versts from Khojent), but on August 22, 1875, General Kaufman (with a detachment of 16 companies, 8 hundreds and 20 guns ) took this fortress and completely defeated the Kokand people, who lost more than 2 thousand killed; Damage on the Russian side was limited to 5 killed and 8 wounded. On August 29, he occupied Kokand without firing a shot, on September 8, Margelan; on September 22, an agreement was concluded with Nasr-Eddin, by virtue of which he recognized himself as a servant of the Russian Tsar and pledged to pay an annual tribute of 500 thousand rubles. and ceded all the lands north of Naryn; Of the latter, the Namangan department was formed.

But as soon as the Russians left, an uprising broke out in the Khanate. Abdurakhman-Avtobachi, who fled to Uzgent, deposed Nasr-Eddin, who fled to Khojent, and proclaimed the impostor Pulat-bek khan. The unrest was also reflected in the Namangan department. Its chief, the later famous Skobelev, suppressed the uprising that took place in Tyurya-Kurgan Batyr-Tyurey, but the residents of Namangan, taking advantage of his absence, attacked the Russian garrison, for which the returning Skobelev subjected the city to severe bombardment.

Then Skobelev, with a detachment of 2800 people, moved to Andijan, which he stormed on January 8, and on January 10 the Andijan residents expressed their submission. On January 28, 1876, Abdurakhman surrendered to prisoners of war and was exiled to Yekaterinoslavl, and the captured Pulat-bek was hanged in Margelan. Nasr-Eddin returned to his capital, but due to the difficulty of his position, he decided to win over to his side a party hostile to Russia and the fanatical clergy. As a result, Skobelev hastened to occupy Kokand, where he captured 62 guns and huge reserves of ammunition (February 8), and on February 19, the Highest decree was issued to annex the entire territory of the Khanate and form the Fergana region from it.

In the summer of 1876, Skobelev undertook an expedition to Alai and forced the leader of the Kirghiz, Abdul-bek, to flee to the Kashgar possessions, after which the Kirghiz were finally brought to submission.

The lands of the Kokand Khanate entered the Fergana region of Russian Turkestan.

By the 70s. XIX century The Russian Empire conquered the two largest states in Central Asia - the Bukhara and Kokand Khanates. Significant territories of these states were annexed. The last independent state in Central Asia remained the Khanate of Khiva. It was surrounded on all sides by Russian territories and the territories of the Russian vassal Bukhara Khanate.

The conquest of the Khiva Khanate was carried out by the forces of four detachments that set out at the end of February and beginning of March 1873 from Tashkent (General Kaufman), Orenburg (General Veryovkin), Mangyshlak (Colonel Lomakin) and Krasnovodsk (Colonel Markozov) (2-5 thousand people each) with a total number of 12-13 thousand people and 56 guns, 4600 horses and 20 thousand camels. The command of all detachments was entrusted to the Turkestan Governor-General, General Kaufman K.P.

Having set out on February 26 from the Emba post, the Orenburg detachment of General Veryovkin headed through the steppes covered with deep snow to Khiva. The campaign was extremely difficult: it began in the harsh winter, it ended in scorching heat in the sands. During the journey, skirmishes with the enemy occurred almost every day and the Khiva cities of Khojeyli, Mangit and others were taken. On May 14, the vanguard of the Orenburg detachment linked up with the Mangyshlak detachment of Colonel Lomakin. On May 26, the united Orenburg and Mangyshlak detachments approached Khiva from the north, and on May 28, both detachments settled in a position opposite the Shakhabad Gate of Khiva; On May 28, the united detachments stormed the gate, General Verevkin was wounded in the head during the assault, and command passed to Colonel Saranchov. On May 29, the Turkestan detachment of Adjutant General Kaufman approached Khiva from the southeast and entered Khiva from the south, a truce was declared and the Khivans capitulated. However, due to the anarchy that prevailed in the city, the northern part of the city did not know about the capitulation and did not open the gates, which caused an assault on the northern part of the wall. Mikhail Skobelev with two companies stormed the Shakhabat Gate, was the first to get inside the fortress, and although he was attacked by the enemy, he held the gate and rampart behind him. The assault was stopped by order of General K.P. Kaufman, who at that time was peacefully entering the city from the opposite side.

The Krasnovodsk detachment of Colonel Markozov was forced to return to Krasnovodsk due to lack of water and did not take part in the capture of Khiva.

To protect these lands from the east, the Semirechensk Cossack Army was formed in 1867 along the border with China. In response to the “holy war” declared by the Bukhara emir, Russian troops captured Samarkand in May 1868 and forced the emir to admit dependence on Russia in 1873. In the same year, the Khan of Khiva also became dependent. The religious circles of the Kokand Khanate called for a “holy war” against the Russians. In 1875, Russian troops under the command of General M.D. Skobelev, in the course of rapid actions, defeated the Khan’s troops. In February 1876, the Kokand Khanate was abolished, and its territory was included in the Fergana region of the Turkestan Governor-General.

The conquest of Central Asia also took place from the Caspian Sea. In 1869, Russian troops under the command of General N. G. Stoletov landed on its eastern bank and founded the city of Krasnovodsk. Further advance to the east, towards Bukhara, met stubborn resistance from the Turkmen tribes. The Geok-Tepe oasis became a stronghold of resistance for the large Tekin tribe. Repeated attempts by Russian troops to take possession of it failed.

Later, M.D. Skobelev was appointed commander of the Russian troops in western Turkmenistan. For uninterrupted supply of Russian troops, a railway line was built from Krasnovodsk towards Geok-Tepe. On January 12, 1881, after a fierce battle, Russian troops captured Geok-Tepe, and a week later - Ashgabat.

Russia's conquest of Central Asia deprived the peoples who inhabited it of statehood. But at the same time, internecine wars stopped, slavery and the slave trade were eliminated, and part of the lands confiscated from the feudal lords who fought against the Russian troops was transferred to the peasants. Cotton growing and sericulture began to develop quickly, railway construction, and the extraction of oil, coal, and non-ferrous metals began.

In the annexed lands, the Russian government pursued a flexible policy, avoiding disruption of the usual way of life, without interfering in national culture and religious relations.

Far Eastern politics

Until the middle of the 19th century. Russia had no officially recognized borders with its neighbors in the Far East. Russian pioneers continued to settle in these lands, as well as in Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands. The expeditions of Admiral G. I. Nevelsky to the coast of the Tatar Strait and Sakhalin (1850-1855) and the Governor-General of Eastern Siberia N. N. Muravyov, who explored the shores of the Amur (1854-1855), were of great not only scientific but also political significance. To consolidate, develop and protect lands along the Amur, the Transbaikal Cossack Army was created in 1851, and in 1858 - the Amur Cossack Army.

Untied in the late 50s. England and France's "opium war" against China was not supported by Russia, which caused a favorable response in Beijing. N.N. Muravyov took advantage of this. He invited the Chinese government to sign an agreement on establishing the border between the countries. The presence of settlements of Russian pioneers in the Amur region served as a compelling argument to justify Russia’s rights to these lands. In May 1858, N.N. Muravyov signed the Aigun Treaty with representatives of the Chinese government, according to which the border with China was established along the Amur River until the confluence of the Ussuri River. The Ussuri region between this river and the Pacific Ocean was declared a joint Russian-Chinese possession. In 1860, a new Treaty of Beijing was signed, according to which the Ussuri region was declared the possession of Russia. On June 20, 1860, Russian sailors entered the Golden Horn Bay and founded the port of Vladivostok.

Negotiations to determine the border between Russia and Japan were difficult. According to the agreement concluded in the Japanese city of Shimoda in 1855, at the height of the Crimean War, the Kuril Islands were recognized as the territory of Russia, and Sakhalin Island as the joint possession of the two countries. After the signing of the treaty, a significant number of Japanese settlers rushed to Sakhalin. In 1875, in order to avoid complications with Japan, Russia agreed to sign a new treaty. Sakhalin completely went to Russia, and the islands of the Kuril chain went to Japan.

April (May 7), 1875 in St. Petersburg, Alexander Mikhailovich Gorchakov from Russia and Enomoto Takeaki from Japan signed an agreement on the exchange of territories (St. Petersburg Treaty).

According to this treatise, the ownership of the Russian Empire in exchange for 18 Kuril Islands (Shumshu, Alaid, Paramushir, Makanrushi, Onekotan, Kharimkotan, Ekarma, Shiashkotan, Mussir, Raikoke, Matua, Rastua, the islands of Sredneva and Ushisir, Ketoi, Simusir, Broughton, the islands of Cherpoy and Brat Cherpoev, Urup) the island of Sakhalin was completely transferred.

(22) August 1875 in Tokyo, an additional article was adopted to the treaty regulating the rights of residents remaining in the ceded territories.

The Russo-Japanese Treaty of 1875 evoked mixed reactions in both countries. Many in Japan condemned him, believing that the Japanese government exchanged Sakhalin, which had important political and economic significance, for the “small ridge of pebbles” that they imagined the Kuril Islands to be. Others simply stated that Japan had exchanged "one part of its territory for another." Similar assessments were heard from the Russian side: many believed that both territories belonged to Russia by right of discoverer. The 1875 treaty did not become the final act of territorial demarcation between Russia and Japan and could not prevent further conflicts between the two countries.

By the middle of the 19th century. American entrepreneurs, traders, and poachers began to penetrate into Russian America - Alaska. Protecting and maintaining this remote territory became increasingly difficult, with costs far outpacing Alaska's income. American possessions have become a burden for the state.

At the same time, the government of Alexander II sought to eliminate possible contradictions and strengthen the friendly relations that had developed between the United States and Russia. The Emperor decided to sell Alaska to the American government for an insignificant amount for a transaction of this scale - 7.2 million dollars.

The sale of Alaska in 1867 showed that the Russian government had underestimated the economic and military importance of its possessions in the Pacific Ocean. It is impossible not to take into account the fact that Russia’s main opponents in Europe - England and France - were at that time on the verge of war with the United States. The sale of Alaska was a demonstration of Russian support for the United States.

Conclusion

During the reign of Alexander II, Russia acquired significant areas of land in the Far East and Central Asia. Taking advantage of the difficult situation of China, to which France and England declared war in 1857, the Governor-General of Eastern Siberia Muravyov-Amursky occupied the Amur region (on the left bank of the Amur), and according to the Aigun Treaty (1858) it was ceded by China to Russia ; in 1860, according to an agreement concluded by gr. Ignatiev in Beijing, the Ussuri region (Primorsky region) was also annexed to Russia; In the newly acquired region, a number of Russian cities soon arose - Blagoveshchensk, Khabarovsk, Nikolaevsk, Vladivostok, and a wide field opened up for the future agricultural colonization of Russian "settlers". In exchange for the Kuril Islands, the southern part of the island was acquired from Japan. Sakhalin. But the deserted northwestern part of the American continent, the Alaska Peninsula, was sold in 1867 to the United States of America (for $7 million, and many Americans believed that it was not worth it).

In the 60s and 70s. Russian possessions were widely spread in Central Asia. Before the Russian conquest, there were three Muslim khanates - Kokand (on the right bank of the Syr Darya River), Bukhara (between the Syr Darya and Amu Darya rivers) and Khiva (on the left bank of the Amu Darya River). Russian possessions in Southern Siberia and the Steppe region (between the Caspian and Aral seas) often experienced raids and robberies by the Turkmens, who sometimes also captured Russian trade caravans. Border misunderstandings and clashes led to the fact that in 1860 the Kokand Khanate declared a “holy war” against Russia; Generals Verevkin and Chernyaev, who commanded the Russian troops, took the most important cities of the Kokand Khanate, Turkestan and Tashkent, and in 1866 the conquered regions were annexed to Russia, forming the Turkestan Governor-General; in 1867, General Kaufman, an energetic military administrator who successfully pursued the further conquest and pacification of the region, was appointed governor-general of Turkestan. As a result of the wars of 1868-1876. the entire Kokand Khanate was annexed to Russia, and Khiva and Bukhara lost part of their possessions and recognized the Russian protectorate over themselves. In order to ensure the safety of the new Russian possessions from attacks by native tribes roaming in the area south of the river. Amu Darya, detachments of Russian troops advanced further to the south, to the borders of Persia and Afghanistan; in 1881, General Skobelev took the Tekin fortress of Geok-Tepe, and in 1884, Russian troops occupied Merv. The approach of Russian possessions close to the borders of Afghanistan, beyond which British India was located, caused great alarm in England. British diplomacy and English public opinion demanded a stop to Russian advance in Central Asia and hotly attacked this manifestation of “Russian imperialism.”

In the Caucasus, under Alexander II, half a century of struggle with the highlanders ended. After a long heroic resistance to the Russian conquerors in the mountains of Dagestan, the leader of the Caucasian Muslim mountaineers Shamil was forced to surrender to the Russian commander-in-chief, Prince Baryatinsky (in 1859, in the village of Gunib). This completed the conquest of the Caucasus. In 1864, the conquest of the Western Caucasus was also completed. The entire Caucasus was divided into administrative districts of the Russian type and subordinated to the management of the Russian administration.

Territorial acquisitions in the Caucasus, Central Asia and the Far East completed the political unification of the vast Eurasian Plain. The multinational state, called the All-Russian Empire, covered the space from the Vistula and the Baltic Sea to the shores of the Pacific Ocean and from the shores of the Arctic Ocean to the borders of Persia and Afghanistan. The peoples who inhabited this space were connected not only by political, but also by economic and cultural ties.

If in the government’s relations with “foreigners” “biases” of nationalism and chauvinism sometimes appeared, then the Russian people as a whole and its best representatives in literature never suffered from the disease of national conceit and did not consider their neighbors as “inferior races.” Back in the 17th century. The Orthodox church authorities in Siberia complained to the secular authorities that Russian settlers in Siberia were becoming too quickly, easily and closely close to the natives, and this ability and desire to establish good neighborly relations with other peoples living under the same roof remained a characteristic feature of both the Russian people and Russian intelligentsia, multinational in its ethnic origin, but united in its spirit - the spirit of broad tolerance and lack of chauvinism.

Khanate of Khiva crisis uprising

List of sources and literature used

1. Arefieva A.A. History of the Russian state - M., 2003

Vorontsova E.N. History Reader - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2005

Zakharova L.G. Alexander II. 1855-1881 // Romanovs. Historical portraits. - M., 1997

Zakharova L.G. Great reforms of the 1860-1870s: a turning point in Russian history? // Domestic history, 2005 - No. 4

Klyuchevsky V.O. History of Russia: a complete course of lectures, vol. 2 - Minsk: Harvest, 2003

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History lesson plan in 8th grade

Lesson topic: “Foreign policy of Alexander II”

The purpose of the lesson: Introduce students to the main events of Russian foreign policy under Alexander II.

Lesson objectives:

- educational: find out the reasons and course of Russia’s actions to cancel the neutralization of the Black Sea; study the main stages of the conquest of Central Asia; identify the achievements and failures of Russian diplomacy under Alexander II;

-developing: develop skills in working with maps, including contour maps, analyze historical sources, answer questions, and draw conclusions.

- educational: interest in the subject, feelings of patriotism and love for one’s homeland.

Lesson plan:

Russian foreign policy after the Crimean War.

The balance of power in Europe in the 60-70s.

The triumph of Russian diplomacy.

"The Alliance of the Three Emperors."

Conquest of Central Asia.

New terms and dates: London Conference 1871; cancellation of neutralization of the Black Sea; 60-80s - annexation of Central Asia to Russia; 1875 - St. Petersburg Treaty with Japan on the transfer of the Kuril Islands to it, and to Russia - about. Sakhalin; 1858 - Treaty of Aigun, 1860 - Beijing Treaty between Russia and China on the delimitation of territory.

Preliminary preparation: Student’s message “Minister of Foreign Affairs - His Serene Highness Prince A. M. Gorchakov.”

Lesson type: Learning new material

Forms of student work: problem-search, frontal, independent.

Necessary technical equipment: computer, multimedia projector, interactive whiteboard, individual assignments, presentation on the topic.

Lesson structure and flow

1. Organizational moment (1 minute);

2.Checking homework (5 minutes);

3. Learning new material (20 minutes)

4. Consolidation of knowledge and skills (12 minutes);

6. Summing up the lesson (5 minutes)

7. Homework (2 minutes).

Table 1.

STRUCTURE AND PROGRESS OF THE LESSON

Lesson stage

Name of EORs used

(indicating the serial number from Table 2)

Teacher activities

(indicating actions with ESM, for example, demonstration)

Student activity

Time

(per minute)

Organizing time.

Greeting students;

Checking their attendance and readiness for the lesson;

Greeting from the teacher;

Checking homework.

How did the crisis in Alexander II's domestic policy manifest itself?

What steps have the government taken to overcome the crisis? - How effective were they?

How did the assassination of Alexander II affect the internal situation in the country and the internal political course of the government?

Learning new material

2. The balance of power in Europe in the 60-70s.

3.Triumph of Russian diplomacy

4. "The Alliance of the Three Emperors"

5. Conquest of Central Asia

London Convention of 1871

Alliance of Three Emperors

K.P. Kaufman

M. D. Skobelev

Announces the topic of the lesson. A plan to work on.

Conversation with students

What is foreign policy?

Think about what was the main task of Russian foreign policy after the Crimean War?

Write on the board and in your notebook:

Foreign policy of Alexander II:

Middle Eastern direction;

European direction;

Central Asian direction;

Far Eastern direction.

Russia sought to cancel the neutralization of the Black Sea through diplomatic means, conducted negotiations and took advantage of the contradictions between the powers.

Conversation with students

Remember after which war in the 1870s the balance of power in Europe changed?

The success of Prussia in the fight against Denmark, Austria, and then the defeat of France led to the fact that neither France nor Austria could resist Russia. England did not dare to participate in wars alone. Without European support, Türkiye did not dare to oppose Russia. Prussia supported Russia in its intentions. In this situation, Russia invited the governments of all states that signed the Paris Treaty to meet to discuss the issue of canceling the neutralization of the Black Sea.

Write on the board and in your notebook:

London Conference (March 1871) - protocol on neutralization of the Black Sea.

Conclusion: Russia regained the right to build fortresses and maintain a fleet on the Black Sea. Thus, the southern borders of the country were strengthened. This diplomatic victory for Russia testified to the growth of its international authority. Much credit for this belonged to the Minister of Foreign Affairs A. M. Gorchakov.

In the 1870s, after the London Conference, a rapprochement between Russia and Germany took place. In such a rapprochement, Russia could see a certain guarantee against an attack on it by Germany, which became extremely intensified after its victory over France. For Russia, it was also a way to get out of the international isolation in which it found itself after the Crimean War. As a result, in 1873, an agreement was concluded between Russia, Germany and Austria, according to which, in the event of an attack on one of these countries, negotiations on joint actions would begin between the allies. In history, this agreement between Russia, Germany and Austria was called the “Union of Three Emperors”.

Students work with a contour map - mark:

1) Kokand, Khiva khanates, Bukhara Emirate;

2) Afghanistan;

3) Orenburg, Syr-Darya and West Siberian lines of fortifications;

4) Aulie-Ata, Turkestan, Chimkent;

5) Tashkent and the year of its entry into Russia;

6) Khojent, Ura-Tyube;

7) Khiva, the year of capture by Russian troops;

8) Transcaspian region;

9) Caspian Sea, Aral Sea, river. Syrdarya, Amudarya.

By the middle of the 19th century. in Asia and Kazakhstan the following situation has developed.

Kazakh zhuzes (associations) were nominally subject to Russian citizenship. Further in the south there were three independent states - the Kokand, Khiva Khanates and the Bukhara Emirate. Even further south was Afghanistan.

In the first half of the 19th century. The Russian government tried to establish trade and economic relations with Central Asia. However, Russian merchants were subject to high duties, and caravans were robbed. The Central Asian peoples made constant predatory raids on Russian territory. There was no clear line of fortification on the border with the Central Asian states. On the other hand, the actions and influence of England in Afghanistan and Iran, its desire to advance further worried Russia, which entered into a struggle with Great Britain for states in Central Asia and the Middle East.

In 1864, a military offensive began. First to the Kokand Khanate. Small Russian troops captured the cities of Aulie-Ata, Turkestan, and Chimkent. As a result, the Orenburg and West Siberian fortifications were connected.

Guess what were the further plans of the Russian command?

The military stationed in Central Asia insisted on continuing the offensive, but the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Ministry of War proposed to gain a foothold on the occupied lines.

While the decision was being made, Major General Chernyaev with a detachment of 1000 people launched an attack on Tashkent with a population of 100 thousand. Despite the first failure, the attempt to take Tashkent was repeated, and in 1866 the city was included in Russia.

In 1864, a law was passed on the formation of the Turkestan General Government, the head of which was appointed K. P. Kaufman.

As a result of prolonged military operations against the Bukhara Emirate, part of its territory became part of Russia. Military operations against the Khiva Khanate were successful and the capture of Khiva is proof of this.

Write on the board and in your notebook:

By 1873, Khiva, Bukhara, and Kokand had become vassal possessions of Russia, while their rulers retained the right to resolve issues of internal politics.

In the early 70-80s. Russian troops under the command of General M.D. Skobelev continued to subjugate the territories of the Trans-Caspian region by force of arms.

One of the results of the conquest of Central Asia was the elimination of slavery and the slave trade in the Khanate of Khiva. The Russian government freed up to 40,000 slaves.

Write down the topic of the lesson in your notebook.

Relations with other states.

Cancellation of the articles of the Paris Treaty that prohibited Russia from having a navy, arsenals and fortresses in the Black Sea. This condition of the treaty made Russia's southern borders unprotected and undermined its influence in the Balkans and the Middle East.

Write it down in a notebook.

The balance of power in Europe changed after the Franco-Prussian War.

Write it down in a notebook.

Student message: “The Minister of Foreign Affairs is His Serene Highness Prince A. M. Gorchakov.”

a) continue the offensive;

b) stop there.

Write it down in a notebook.

The cessation of raids, the beginning of more active economic development of the region, trade, the use of natural resources (cotton growing, sericulture) Establishment of influence in Central Asia, which was claimed by England.

Consolidation of knowledge.

Perform a test task

Summing up the work and evaluating students' activities.

Give ratings

Homework.

Write down homework.

Appendix to the lesson plan "Alexander's Foreign PolicyII »

Table 2.

LIST OF EOR USED IN THIS LESSON

Resource name

Type, type of resource

Information submission form(illustration, presentation, video clips, test, model, etc.)

Khanate of Khiva

Informational

Dictionary entry about the state in Central Asia in 1511-1920.

K. P. Kaufman

Informational

Biographical information about a statesman of the 19th century.

M. D. Skobelev

Informational

Assignments for the paragraph “Foreign Policy of Alexander II”

Control

Interactive test task