Rene Descartes discoveries and contributions to science. Biography of the mathematician René Descartes: the method of radical doubt

(1596-1650) French philosopher

The future philosopher was born in the south of France, in the province of Touraine, in the family of a parliamentary adviser, French nobleman Joachim Descartes. The Cartesian family, devoutly Catholic and royalist, has long settled in Poitou and Touraine. In these provinces were their land holdings and family estates.

René's mother, Jeanne Brochard, was the daughter of Lieutenant General René Brochard. She died early, when the boy was only a year old. Rene was in poor health, inherited, as he said, from his mother a slight cough and pallor of the face.

The family of Rene Descartes was enlightened at that time, and its members took part in the cultural life of the country. One of the philosopher's ancestors, Pierre Descartes, was a doctor of medicine. Another relative of Descartes, a skilled surgeon and an expert on kidney diseases, was also a doctor. Maybe that's why Rene had an interest in anatomy, physiology and medicine from an early age.

On the other hand, the grandfather of the future thinker was on friendly terms with the poet Gaspard d "Auvergne, who gained fame for his translations of the Italian politician Niccolo Machiavelli and correspondence with the famous French poet P. Ronsard.

True, Rene's father was a typical nobleman and landowner, who cared more about expanding his estates and bureaucratic career than about the development of scientific and literary horizons. But the cultural traditions in the family were supported by women. Rene's mother came from the maternal side of the Sauze family, who for a number of years were the curators of the royal library of the University of Poitiers.

In early childhood, René Descartes lived with his parents in the small town of Lae, which was located on the banks of a small river that flows into a tributary of the Loire. All around stretched fields, vineyards, orchards. From childhood, the boy fell in love with secluded walks in the garden, where he could observe the life of plants, animals and insects. Rene was brought up with his older brother Pierre and sister Jeanne, whom he kept a good memory of for the rest of his life.

When the boy grew up, his father took him to a Jesuit college that had just opened in the town of La Flèche (Anjou province). At the end of the 16th and beginning of the 17th century, the well-known order of the "brothers of Jesus" was famous for its educational institutions. The college at La Flèche was the best among them and was considered one of the most famous schools in Europe, outstanding figures of science and literature came out of the walls of this educational institution.

Strict orders reigned here, but, contrary to the established rules, Rene Descartes was allowed to sleep not in a common dormitory, but in a separate room; moreover, he was allowed to stay in bed in the morning as much as he liked and not attend the morning classes, which were obligatory for everyone. So he developed a habit of thinking, lying in bed in the morning, mathematical and other problems and lessons. René Descartes retained this habit for the rest of his life, although the questions and subjects of his thoughts subsequently completely changed.

The college taught not only rhetoric, grammar, theology, and scholastic, that is, medieval, school philosophy, which were mandatory for that time. The curriculum also included mathematics and elements of the physical sciences.

The training began with the assimilation of the basics of Latin grammar. Works of ancient poetry, including Ovid's Metamorphoses, as well as biographies of famous heroes of ancient Greece and ancient Rome, were given as material for reading and exercises. Latin was not studied as a dead language that can only be used to read ancient authors - no, the students of the college had to write and speak it. And indeed, subsequently Descartes had to use Latin several times as a spoken language: for the first time - during his stay in Holland, and then - in France, when defending theses in a dispute. The writings of René Descartes, which he intended mainly for scientists, theologians and students, were also written in Latin. Some of Descartes' letters are also written in Latin, and even some notes that he made for himself, for example, notes on anatomy. It is no coincidence that the philosophical system, the author of which was René Descartes, was called Cartesianism - after the Latinized form of his name (Cartesius).

When Rene was in high school, which the college called philosophical, he invented his own method of proof and stood out from the rest of the students with his ability to debate. Descartes began by precisely defining all the terms that were included in the reasoning, then he sought to substantiate all the provisions that needed to be proved and coordinate them with each other. As a result, he reduced his entire proof to one single argument, but so strong and thorough that it turned out to be a very difficult task to refute it. This method not only surprised Descartes' teachers, but often confused them.

There is very little information about his life in La Flèche, and it is unlikely that there were many interesting external events in it. Rene Descartes studied a lot, and even more thought about what he read in books and about what could not be found in any books of that time.

After graduating from the course, he, as was customary there, donated all his school books to the collegiate library, making his own inscriptions on them. Descartes left the school where he spent at least ten years of his life, on good terms with his mentors and leaders, but in deep doubts about the reliability of what they taught him.

These doubts were not dispelled by additional studies in jurisprudence and medicine, which Rene Descartes began after completing his philosophy course at La Flèche. These classes were most likely held in the university town of Poitiers in 1615-1616. Here, on November 10, 1616, Descartes was approved as a bachelor and licentiate of law. After leaving school, the brilliantly educated Rene went to Paris. Here he plunges into the secular Parisian life and indulges in all its charms, including card games.

So Rene Descartes gradually became a scientist, although his father dreamed of a military career for his son, of his rapid promotion, with awards and promotions, of beneficial connections and patrons for the family. René did not formally object to his father's advice to enter the military service, but he had his own special views on this.

He did not want to become, as it is now commonly called, a career soldier and receive an officer's salary for his service. It seemed to him much more convenient the position of a volunteer, who is only listed in the military service, but does not receive money and remains free from duties and service dependence.

At the same time, the military rank and uniform gave Descartes certain advantages in his future plans: he outlined for himself an extensive program of educational trips to other countries. In the 17th century, roads in European countries were not safe, so it was safer and more convenient to travel with troops than alone.

Now René Descartes had to choose which army to join. Due to his social position, family and personal connections, he could easily achieve enrollment in one of the French regiments in the country. But with his special goals in mind, Descartes decided to enlist in the Dutch army.

In the summer of 1618 he left his native land and went to Holland. At first he lived in Breda, where his regiment was stationed. But he did not stay long in Holland. He really liked this country, and yet he decided to go further in order to explore the world not from books, but to see everything with his own eyes. He wanted to visit a number of countries in Central and Eastern Europe, get acquainted with their sights, and establish contacts with scientists.

In August 1619, René Descartes was in Frankfurt, where he witnessed the coronation of Ferdinand II. There he was caught by the Thirty Years' War, in which he even took part.

René Descartes spent the winter of 1619-1620 in one of the village estates in complete solitude, far from everything that could scatter his thoughts and attention. On the night of November 10, 1619, an event occurred to him, which subsequently gave rise to many interpretations. During that night he had three dreams, one after the other, which were evidently prepared and inspired by great mental exertion. At that time, the thoughts of the philosopher were occupied by several ideas - "universal mathematics", the idea of ​​\u200b\u200btransforming algebra, and, finally, the idea of ​​\u200b\u200ba method of expressing all quantities through lines, and lines - through algebraic characteristics. One of these ideas, after long intense reflections, lit up the consciousness of Descartes in a dream, in which, of course, there was nothing mysterious and supernatural.

In the spring of 1620, René Descartes left his winter retreat and decided to return to France. After living for some time in Paris, he undertook a journey to Italy. At that time, this country was considered the world center of science and artistic culture. His path lay through Switzerland and Tyrol, through Basel, Innsbruck, then through mountain passes and the Italian plain to the shores of the Adriatic Sea and the lagoons of Venice. Descartes traveled not only as a young inquisitive scientist, but also as a man of the world. He carefully observed human manners, customs and ceremonies. At first he intended to stay and live in Italy for several years, but after a while, without much regret, he left this country and returned to Paris.

Here Rene Descartes led a completely secular life, corresponding to the mores of that time. He had fun, played cards, even fought duels, visited theaters, attended concerts, read fashionable novels, poetry. However, secular entertainment did not interfere with the inner life of the philosopher, intense mental work was constantly going on in his head, a new view of science and philosophy was being formed. The main feature of his philosophy is the desire to reveal the fundamental principle of everything that exists, material, and the thinker considered doubt to be the main thing for achieving this goal. The outside world will reveal its laws if everything is subjected to careful critical analysis. The philosopher believed in the power of human thinking, and his famous phrase remained in the history of mankind for centuries: "I think - therefore, I exist."

The attention of Rene Descartes was also attracted by the issues of optics, mechanics, physics, which were dealt with by many advanced scientists of that time. But he went further: he introduced mathematical analysis into physics, which allowed him to penetrate even deeper into the secrets of mathematical constructions than his contemporaries could do. To work in a calm environment, the scientist again went to Holland.

Rene Descartes continues to conduct extensive correspondence, he is recognized by everyone, he is a great mathematician, the creator of a new philosophical system. The Swedish queen Christina, through Pierre Chan, a close friend of Descartes, with whom he corresponded, sends an invitation to Descartes to come to Sweden. According to Pierre Chanu, the Swedish queen would like to study Cartesian philosophy under the guidance of its creator. He hesitates for a long time whether to go or not to go: after warm France and cozy Holland - to the harsh country of rocks and ice. But Shanu eventually convinced his friend, and Descartes agrees. August 31, 1649 he arrives in Stockholm.

The next day, Rene Descartes was received by the Swedish Queen Christina, who promised that she would meet the great scientist in everything, that the rhythm of his work would not be disturbed in any way, that she would free him from the presence of tiresome court ceremonies. And one more thing: she would like Descartes to stay forever in Sweden. But the life of the court was not to the taste of the French mathematician.

Out of envy, the royal courtiers wove intrigues against him.

Queen Christina instructed Rene Descartes to develop the charter of the Swedish Academy of Sciences, which she was going to establish, and also offered him the post of president of the Academy, but he rejected this offer, thanking him for the high honor, and motivated his refusal by the fact that he was a foreigner. In the meantime, the queen decided to start philosophy classes, three times a week from five to nine in the morning, because, being energetic and cheerful, she got up at four in the morning. For Rene Descartes, this meant a violation of the daily routine, the usual regime.

The winter was unusually cold, and the scientist fell ill with pneumonia. Every day he got worse, and on the ninth day of illness, February 11, 1650, Descartes died, at the age of only fifty-four years, his friends and acquaintances flatly refused to believe the message of his death. The greatest thinker of France was buried in Stockholm in an ordinary cemetery. Only in 1666, his ashes were transported to France, as a precious asset of the nation, which he is quite rightly considered to this day. The scientific and philosophical ideas of René Descartes survived both himself and his time.

Rene Descartes (03/31/1596 - 02/11/1650) - French philosopher, physicist, mathematician, mechanic. Created analytical geometry, algebraic symbols, mechanism, method of radical doubt.

Milestones of life

The scientist was born in the French city of Lae, which was later renamed Descartes. His parents belonged to an ancient noble family, but were not rich. The mother died when the boy was a year old. The father served as a judge, the upbringing of three children (Descartes was the youngest son) was handled by his mother's grandmother.

The boy grew frail, but was actively interested in everything that was happening around him. He studied at La Fleche, where his teacher was the mathematician Jean Francois. Even then, the young man formed a rejection of the philosophical foundations of that time. After completing his secondary education, Descartes studied law at the University of Poitiers. Then he served in the army, in connection with this he was in Holland, Hungary, Belgium, the Czech Republic, participated in several battles related to the Thirty Years' War. During military service, he met I. Beckman, who had a significant impact on the self-determination of a novice scientist. By nature, Descartes was silent, somewhat arrogant, preferred solitude, was active only in communication with loved ones.

In his native country in 1628, Descartes was condemned by the Jesuits for freethinking, because of which he moved to Holland, where he completely devoted himself to scientific work for twenty whole years. All this time he communicates with the scientific community through his friend M. Mersenne, works in various fields - from anatomy to astronomy. He wrote his first work "On the World" in 1634, but the book was not published due to the persecution of Galileo by the church. In 1635, Descartes' daughter, Francine, was born from a relationship with a maid, who died of scarlet fever at the age of five.

Descartes argues with the Swedish Queen Christina (copy of a painting by P. Dumesnil, 1884)

The first published work - "Discourse on the method" in 1637 - is considered the beginning of a new European philosophy. In 1644, the treatise "Principles of Philosophy" was published, in which Descartes formulated his main theses. The church still disapproved of the works of the scientist, and in 1649, at the invitation of the queen, he moved to Sweden, where he soon died of pneumonia. There is another version of the cause of his death - poisoning by Catholic ministers.

After his death, the works of Descartes were forbidden to be read by the church, and his philosophy could not be taught on French soil. After his death, the remains of Descartes were reburied in Paris only 17 years later, in the abbey of Saint-Germain-des-Pres. Despite the fact that at the end of the 18th century it was decided to transfer the ashes of the scientist to the Pantheon, he still rests in the abbey.

Contribution to science

Descartes criticized scholasticism, laid the foundation for a completely new philosophy, the main meaning is in the duality of soul and body, material and ideal. His teaching laid the foundations for such methods of cognition as rationalism and mechanism.

The rationalistic and skeptical worldview of Descartes contributed to the emergence of the philosophical direction of Cartesianism. In his writings, he proves the existence of God, talks about love and hate, lays the foundations of ethics. The teachings of Descartes influenced the views of such thinkers as Spinoza, Locke, Hume, Pascal, and others.

The main rationalist requirements according to Descartes are as follows:

• to take as a basis only the true and obvious, to begin with provisions in the truth of which there can be no doubt;
• any problem must be divided into the number of parts necessary for its successful solution;
• move from the most known, proven to the least known and unproven;
• any gaps in the logical chain are unacceptable, the results and conclusions must be double-checked.

The scientist worked hard on the study of living organisms, which he considered complex machines. Recognized the existence of the soul only in humans. He studied the structure of organs, reflex mechanisms. Descartes gave the concept of a reflex, revealed voluntary and involuntary movements, which made it possible to further develop this area of ​​physiology.

Reflex Diagram, Treatise on Man

He considered mathematics to be the basis of all sciences, the universal method of cognition. In the Geometry appendix to the Discourses on Method, Descartes outlined the foundations of analytic geometry, which makes it possible to study figures by means of algebra. For the first time he applied the method of coordinates, mathematical notations that are used in modern science, discovered the concept of a function. "Geometry" was a reference book for many scientists and had a powerful influence on the mathematical work of the second half of the 17th century. Many mathematical terms are named after him (Cartesian sheet, Cartesian tree, Cartesian oval, Cartesian product, coordinate system).

In physics, Descartes' views were based on the concept of moving matter; he did not recognize emptiness and atoms. Contributed to the development of knowledge about motion, heat, magnetism and other processes. In optics, he formulated the law of refraction of light, thanks to which it became possible to significantly improve optical instruments, which in turn advanced astronomy and microscopy. He was recognized as the leading mathematician and optician of his time. A lunar crater, an asteroid, is named after Descartes.

Drawing by Descartes depicting the observation of a rainbow, 1637

Curious facts

• Descartes was such a sickly child that even in a strict Jesuit school he was allowed to get up later than the rest of the students.
• The Swedish Queen Christina, who was a fan of the scientist, persuaded him to move to Stockholm, where she made her rise at five in the morning and teach her science. The fragile health of Descartes could not endure such loads and the harsh northern climate.
• The coordinate system discovered by Descartes reduced the number of duels in France. In those days, there were often bloody disputes over seats in the theater, the designation of rows and seats minimized the proceedings.
• During the reburial in France, it was discovered that the skull of Descartes had disappeared, which was passed from hand to hand, later appeared at a Swedish auction, then was transferred to a Paris museum. There are also suggestions that collectors appropriated the jaw and finger of Descartes.
• In the region of the crater on the Moon, named after the scientist, the strongest magnetic anomalies and moonquakes are constantly observed.
• The Russian academician I. Pavlov considered Descartes the forerunner of his research and erected a monument to him in the form of a bust next to his laboratory at the Institute of Physiology.

A brilliant mathematician, the creator of analytic geometry and modern algebraic symbolism, the author of mechanism in physics and the method of radical doubt in philosophy, the forerunner of reflexology in physiology, is rightfully recognized as the greatest French scientist.

An outstanding mathematician and philosopher was born in the town of Lae (province of Touraine) on March 31, 1596. René Descartes devoted his entire life to science. “I think, therefore I am” - this Latin aphorism became the motto of all life for Rene Descartes.

Excellent education, talent and indestructible desire for knowledge allowed Descartes to reach great heights in mathematics, physics and philosophy. The mathematical and philosophical discoveries of Descartes won him great fame and a large number of followers. However, there were also many opponents of the philosophy of Descartes, who for many years survived the scientist for freethinking from the country. Therefore, the scientist had to seek solitude in Holland, where he spent most of his life and created all the most outstanding scientific works and made the most incredible discoveries. He still spends several years in his native Paris, but the attitude of the churchmen took an even more hostile attitude towards the activities of the great mathematician and philosopher. In 1694, the scientist left his homeland and moved to the capital Stockholm, where on February 11, 1650, at the age of 54, he died of pneumonia. Even after the death of an outstanding scientist, he was not left alone. Descartes' major writings were included in the "Index" of banned books, and the teaching of Descartes' philosophy was severely persecuted. However, other times have come and the merits of Descartes in the development of mathematical and philosophical science were appreciated.

So, let's see what was the merit of Descartes and what discoveries were made by an outstanding scientist?

The twenty years spent in Holland were very fruitful. In this country, Descartes found the long-awaited peace and solitude in order to devote himself entirely to scientific research, philosophical reasoning and practical tests. It was in Holland that he wrote the main works on mathematics, physics, astronomy, physiology, and philosophy. Among them, the most famous are: "Rules for the Guidance of the Mind", "Treatise on Light", "Metaphysical Reflections on the First Philosophy", "Principles of Philosophy", "Description of the Human Body" and others. By all accounts, Descartes' best work was Discourse on Method, published in 1637.

By the way, this reasoning had another version, specially edited in order to avoid the persecution of the Inquisition.

Analytic geometry is presented in Descartes' "reasoning". The appendices to this book present the results of research in the field of algebra, geometry, optics, and much more.

Descartes discovered a way to use mathematics for visual representation and mathematical analysis of various phenomena of reality.

Tomb of Descartes (right - epitaph), in the church of Saint-Germain des Prés

A particularly important discovery of this book was a new mathematical symbolism based on the revised symbols of Vieta. The new mathematical symbolism of Descartes is very close to modern. Descartes uses the letters a, b, c... to designate the coefficients, and x, y, z for unknowns. The modern form of the natural exponent has not changed at all for several centuries. It was thanks to Descartes that a line appeared above the radical expression. Thus, the equations are reduced to the canonical form (zero on the right side). Descartes called his symbolic algebra "General Mathematics", designed to explain "everything related to order and measure."

Thanks to the creation of analytic geometry, it became possible to study the geometric properties of curves and bodies in algebraic language. Now the equations of the curve were analyzed in some coordinate system. Later, this coordinate system was called Cartesian.

In the appendix to his famous appendix "Geometry", Descartes indicated methods for solving algebraic equations, including geometric and mechanical ones, and gave a detailed classification of algebraic curves. The decisive step towards understanding "function" was a new way to define a curve, using an equation.

By the way, it is Descartes who formulates the exact "rule of signs" for determining the number of positive roots of an equation. In addition, Descartes conducted a deep study of algebraic functions (polynomials), studied a number of "mechanical" functions (spirals, cycloids).

The most important merits of Descartes also include the formulation of the “fundamental theorem of algebra”: the total number of real and complex roots of an equation is equal to its degree. According to tradition, Descartes classifies negative roots as false, but separates them from imaginary (complex) ones. Descartes considers non-negative real and irrational numbers as equal in rights, which are defined through the ratio of the length of a certain segment to the length standard. Subsequently, a similar definition of the number was adopted by Newton and Euler.

After the publication of the book Discourses on Method, Descartes became a universally recognized authority in mathematics and optics. This scientific work has been a reference book for most European scientists for many centuries. In the scientific works of mathematicians of the second half of the 17th century, the influence of the brilliant creation of Descartes is clearly traced.

It must be said that Descartes also made a huge contribution to the formation of mechanics, optics and astronomy.

It is Descartes who introduces the concept of “force” (measure) of motion (quantity of motion). Under this term, the eminent scientist primarily meant the product of the "size" of the body (mass) by the absolute value of its speed. Descartes formulates the "law of conservation of motion" (quantity of motion), which was later refined.

An outstanding scientist was engaged in the study of the law of impact. He owns the first formulation of the "law of inertia" (1644).

In 1637, Descartes' book Dioptric was published, which outlined the basic laws of propagation, reflection and refraction of light, expressed the idea of ​​ether as a carrier of light, and explained the nature of the rainbow.

Subsequent generations appreciated Descartes' contribution to the development of mathematics, physics, philosophy and physiology. A crater on the Moon is named after an outstanding French scientist.

Rene Descartes is the greatest scientist and thinker, the founder of European rationalistic philosophy. The philosophy of Descartes has become a fundamental teaching. The thinker's contribution to mathematics and psychology became fundamental for subsequent great discoveries.

short biography

Rene Descartes was born on March 31, 1596 in France, in the province of Touraine. He came from a noble family, ancient, but impoverished. He was a sickly child. Already at an early age, he showed great interest in science and was distinguished by curiosity.

In 1606, his father sent Descartes to the Jesuit College of La Flèche. There he studied mathematics and other sciences. There he formed a negative opinion of scholastic philosophy, and maintained this attitude throughout his life. After graduating from the college, Descartes continued his education at the University of Poitiers. In 1616 he became a bachelor in law.

The next year, Descartes entered the military service in order to know the world. This year was decisive for him in scientific questions and views. He traveled extensively in Europe, participated in battles. Despite the lack of time, he did not leave his studies in philosophy and science. In 1619, while in a winter camp near Neuburg, Descartes decided to analyze the existing philosophy and build it anew.

This decision caused Descartes to retire. He spent several years traveling in Germany, Italy, Paris. In 1628 the philosopher moved to Holland and spent 20 years there. This time, he devoted to writing the most significant works - "The World", "Discourses on the Method ...", "The Origin of Philosophy". Descartes for a long time refused to publish his works in order to avoid clashes with the clergy. The ideas of the philosopher were accused of freethinking, but there were also supporters of his teachings, including the Swedish Queen Christina. In 1649 she invited him to Sweden to teach her philosophy. Shortly after moving to Stockholm, Descartes fell ill with pneumonia. In poor health and unaccustomed to the harsh climate, he died on February 11, 1650.

Doubt as a rationalistic method

The philosophy of René Descartes is one of the foundations of the European. It is based on the search for irrefutable foundations for any knowledge. The thinker sought to achieve absolute truth, reliable and logically unshakable. Opposite approaches were:

• empiricism, based on sensory experience and content with relative truth;
• mysticism, based on supersensible, mystical knowledge.

Descartes, in his search for truth, did not rely on sensory experience, considering its reliability doubtful. Evidence of the unreliability of empirical experience is in numerous deceptions of the senses. Nor did Descartes rely on mystical knowledge. According to the philosopher, in search of absolute truth, everything can be questioned. The only undeniable fact is our thinking. The fact of thinking convinces us of our existence. Descartes expressed this belief in the famous aphorism "I think, therefore I am." This truth is irrefutable, and therefore, is the first point on which the worldview of Descartes was built. In his opinion, humanity has no other criterion of clarity. Therefore, all philosophical positions should be built on it.

Thoughts on God and the material world

Descartes talked a lot about the existence of God and the nature of the material world. The belief in the existence of the material world is based on human sensory perception, but it cannot be established for certain whether people are being deceived by their perception. Descartes was looking for a guarantee of the reliability of sensory perception. Such a guarantee is only the fact that the being that created man with his feelings and sensations is perfect and denies the idea of ​​deception.

Man recognizes himself as imperfect only in comparison with the all-perfect being - God. The thought of such a being could only be planted in the minds of people by God himself. This means that the idea of ​​God as a perfect being is already proof of him. Another proof is that our own being can only be explained by recognizing the existence of God. After all, if a person were not created by God, but came from himself, he would put all the perfect qualities into himself. The origin of man from the ancestors shows that there is the root cause - God.

The reasoning of the scientist was built as follows: God is a perfect being, and among his perfections there is also absolute truthfulness. This means that human sensory knowledge is true. After all, God could not deceive people, since deception contradicts the idea of ​​him as a perfect being.

Duality of material and ideal

Descartes worked a lot on the main issue of philosophy, and in his judgments he demonstrated dualism - that is, the acceptance of two principles at once, material and ideal. But despite this, the scientist was a materialist in matters relating to the explanations of nature. The universe is made of matter and motion, there is no divine power in it. He also talked about animals, calling them complex machines.

But, as far as man is concerned, here we are talking about the immaterial soul and the participation of God. This concept was the dualistic attitude of the scientist. Descartes believed that the activity of the human soul cannot be explained on the basis of mechanical principles. Thought is not identified with bodily organs, it is pure spirit. The plasticity and adaptability of the soul proves its divine origin. The main difference between human thinking is universality, the ability to serve under various circumstances.

An equally important difference between a person and a machine (including animals), Descartes considered the presence of meaningful speech. He reasoned that even weak-minded people can use meaningful speech. Deaf-mutes invent a meaningful sign language. Animals, even if they are healthy and raised in ideal conditions, are incapable of such a thing. Animals have organs for pronouncing words, but they don't think like humans do.

Views on ethics and morality

The ethical views of the scientist were based on the "natural light" of reason. Reasoning about ethics Descartes expressed in letters, writings and in the work "Discourse on the method." In relation to the thinker, the influence of Stoicism is noticeable. The ideas of Stoicism were based on courage and firmness, manifested in life's trials. The Stoics equalized people before the world law. They considered moral deeds as an act of self-preservation and the common good, and immoral deeds as self-destruction.

Then, in letters to Princess Elizabeth, Descartes described his own ideas of ethics. He argued that spirit and matter are opposite, and a person needs to move away from the bodily aspects. The thinker described the idea of ​​"the infinity of the universe", which consisted in the rise above the material, earthly, and in humility before the wisdom of God.

The scientist believed that the highest form of intellectual love (as opposed to passionate) is love for God, as for that infinite whole, of which we are a part. Love, even disorderly, is higher than hate. The philosopher considered hatred an indicator of human weakness. He saw the essence of morality in the ability to love what is worthy of love. This gives a person true joy. Descartes condemned people who stifled their conscience with tobacco and alcohol.

Contribution to philosophy

Descartes courageously approached the questions of philosophy, insisting on a new attitude towards the truths on which science is based. He demanded to give up trust in sensory knowledge (empiricism) in order to build a new world of philosophy. The foundations of science must stand the test of radical doubt. He demonstrated clarity and simplicity of thinking, relying on the fact of human self-consciousness as an absolute truth. The thinker recognized metaphysics, but, analyzing nature, leaned towards mechanism. Therefore, in the future, materialists referred to him, whose views he did not share.

The teachings and views of Descartes gave rise to many disputes among representatives of philosophy and theology. The opponents of his teachings were Hobbes, the Jesuit Valois, Gassendi. They accused him of skepticism and atheism, they hounded him. But the thinker also had adherents of his theories in Holland and France.

Influence on various sciences

Descartes made an undeniable contribution to physiological and psychological anthropology. Not all of his views later turned out to be correct, but some ideas were extremely important. The fundamental discovery in the field of psychology was his idea of ​​reflexes and reflex activity. Also, he studied the nature of affects - bodily states that act as regulators of the psyche. The term "affects" is also used in the modern world as certain emotional states.

Descartes made a number of important discoveries in mathematics. He became the founder of analytic geometry, created the method of indefinite coefficients, worked on understanding the meaning of negative roots of equations. One of his most significant achievements is his way of showing the nature and properties of any curve using equations between a pair of variable coordinates. The works of Descartes opened up new possibilities for scientists in geometry. On the foundation laid by the thinker, brilliant and extremely important discoveries were built. The works "Geometry" and "Dioptrics" published by him revealed the themes of the refraction of light rays. In the future, this served as the foundation for the great discoveries of Newton and Leibniz.

We all know Newton's statement from school: "If I have seen further than others, it is because I stood on the shoulders of giants." One of these "giants", the precursor scientists, was René Descartes.

Chapter 1. Childhood of Descartes and a Brief History of the Family

Rene was born on March 31, 1596 in the city of Lae, located in the province of Touraine. My father belonged to an old noble family, but not too rich. Joachim Descartes was a member of parliament and served as a judge on the Breton High Court in the town of Rennes (620 km from home). Therefore, the family saw him only six months. Mother, Jeanne Brochard, was the daughter of the viceroy of the king in the province. One of Rene's relatives, Pierre Descartes, was a doctor of medicine, and the other studied kidney diseases and was known as an excellent surgeon. Descartes was the third child in the family. His mother died a year after his birth. The father handed over the children to the care of their maternal grandmother, so Rene was brought up by her until the age of 10, along with her brother Pierre and sister Jeanne.

Chapter 2

Descartes from childhood was distinguished by curiosity and asked so many questions that his father called him "the little philosopher." In 1606, at the age of 10, René went to the Jesuit College of the city of La Flèche. This institution was founded to produce educated priests capable of restoring the prestige of the Catholic Church. Irony of fate, it was from these walls that a man emerged who called on everyone to seek the truth about the world not on the pages of the Bible, but through personal research and observation. And for once in your life to doubt all things. He studied the ancient languages ​​(Latin and Greek), the works of ancient and medieval writers, the rules of rhetoric, philosophy, logic, ethics, metaphysics, mathematics and physics. The La Fleche Collegium was famous for its in-depth study of mathematical disciplines. Descartes wrote that he really liked mathematics because of its veracity, but had absolutely no idea how to apply it to daily life, except in crafts. It was here that René, who had considerable mathematical ability, began to study geometry and algebra, navigation and fortification. This was explained by the fact that all the students were from noble families, and the younger sons after graduation could become either priests or soldiers.

Chapter 3. His Universities

In 1613, Rene completed his studies at the College. Not having a penchant for either a military career or a spiritual one, he decides to have some fun in Paris, joins the "golden youth", leads a cheerful lifestyle. He is even fond of card games, but he was attracted by the need to perform mathematical calculations, and not by the possibility of winning.

After a year and a half, he completely lost interest in social life. Descartes for some time locked himself in a house on the Rue Faubourg Saint-Germain, trying to write a treatise "On the Deity". Then he enters the University of Poitiers to study law and medicine. In 1616, Rene received a bachelor's degree in law, but the legal path did not attract him either. To which his father ironically remarks that, apparently, he is only good for writing. It should also be noted that René was a student many more times: in 1618, while in Holland, he entered the military school in Breda, in 1629 he studied philosophy at the Franeker University, in 1630 - mathematics at the University of Leiden. And everywhere, as in the College, he was annoyed by the dominance of scholastic methods, which recognized only speculative reflections on the essence of things, supported only by quotations from the Bible and already existing scientific treatises.

Chapter 4

Descartes realized that to know the truth about nature and man is possible only through continuous observation and reflection. Therefore, for almost ten years he traveled through Europe, tormented by the Thirty Years' War. Traveling alone was dangerous, so Rene came up with an interesting solution. He acted as a volunteer officer (without pay) in different armies so as not to have duties. Descartes lived on rent from land inherited from his mother, and therefore could do without a "salary".

For the first trip, he chose Holland, at that time an advanced bourgeois power, known for its religious tolerance and intensive economic development. Freethinkers from all over Europe flocked here, the latest discoveries were published here, which in Catholic countries immediately fell into the Index of Forbidden Books.

In 1618, he met the director of the Dortrecht school and doctor of medicine I. Beckman. One story tells that out of desperation, he wrote a difficult mathematical problem on the street wall, which he could not cope with for a long time, and Descartes, who was passing by, solved it on the same day. Beckmann possessed extensive knowledge and pushed René to scientific research, extracting from idleness and forcing him to remember what he had taught before. Already at the end of the year, the essay "On Music" appeared, with gratitude to Beckman.

In 1619-21. he traveled to Germany and nearby countries. In 1622-28. René was in Paris, again leading a scattered secular lifestyle. True, in 1623-24. he traveled to Italy and Switzerland, making a special visit to Rome. It must be said that it was Descartes who gave the idea to number the seats in Parisian operas and theaters in order to avoid fights and scandals for the best seats. Contemporaries considered this a brilliant solution, but for us a ticket indicating the row and place is a common thing.

In the late 1620s in Paris, he became friends with M. Mersenne. At that time, there were no magazines, so it was possible to learn about the discoveries or ideas of colleagues only through the process of private correspondence. Mersenne was the center of such communication in France.

Rene willingly shared his conclusions with friends, and they persuaded him to start writing a treatise. As he himself says, it seemed to him so difficult that he did not dare to do it until someone started a rumor that the work had already been created. After that, I still had to create it.

Chapter 5

Holland was the best place to work on the treatise. Descartes went there in 1628. Being a restless and taciturn hypochondriac in life, he constantly changed his place of residence. Thus began 20 years of continuous scientific activity of Rene Descartes, when every day he confirmed his famous saying: "I think, therefore I am."

Here he began to write "Rules for the guidance of the mind", which he abandoned in 1629, starting work on the huge work "The World". The task before him was a large-scale one - to draw and explain a picture of the universe. By 1633, the work was completed, but Descartes, being a good Catholic and a very cautious person, decided not to publish it, because it was based on the same principles as the infamous work of Galileo. Part of the work was then included in the essay "Reflection on the Method", published in 1637. It became the basis for the laws of logic and the philosophical trend of Cartesianism. In it, the philosopher raised questions about the scientific method, about the sciences and ways of their further development, about morality, the existence of God and the immortality of the soul. Works were attached to the treatise: "Dioptrics", "Meteors", "Geometry".

When he lived in Amsterdam, he met a common servant girl, Helen Jans. In 1635 their daughter Francine was born. It is curious that the scientist and historian John Magaffi tried to link together two facts: in 1634, Descartes created an essay "On Man and the Formation of the Embryo", and in one of the scientist's personal books the entry "Conceived on 10/15/1634" was found. Until now, no one can say whether this child was the fruit of love or the curiosity of Rene Descartes. However, he was very attached to her, although he presented her to everyone as his niece. The daughter died of scarlet fever at the age of 5, which caused him great pain. Almost at the same time, father and sister Jeanne passed away. Only work distracts from sad thoughts. In 1641, the treatise "Reflections on the First Philosophy" was published, in 1644 - "The Elements of Philosophy". In 1648, Descartes completed "Description of the human body. On the formation of an animal", but did not publish it. When writing it, the scientist himself dissected animals, not relying on anatomical atlases and existing works. In 1649, he published Passions of the Soul, which, despite the title worthy of a love story, told about the spiritual and bodily qualities of a person.

Chapter 7

In the 1640s, his ideas found many adherents. B. Pascal, P. Gassendi, T. Hobbes, A. Arno were considered his friends. Professors H. Renery and H. Deroy from Utrecht and A. Heerbord from Leipzig declared themselves Carthusians. He was persecuted by the church, because the usual scholastic traditions were in danger. Descartes' opponents were the Dutch professor G. Voetsy and the Parisian mathematician J. Roberval. After the death of the scientist, a decree of Louis XIV appeared, according to which it was forbidden to teach Cartesianism in French schools. Nevertheless, his works influenced the work of the next generation of scientists: B. Spinoza, N. Malebranche, I. Kant, D. Locke, G. Leibniz, A. Arno, E. Husserl.

Chapter 8

In order to leave this "combat zone", in 1649 the scientist accepted the invitation of Queen Christina, who not only asked him to come, but even sent a ship for him. She really wanted to create an Academy of Sciences in Stockholm and become the first philosopher queen. But in just a few months, too harsh a climate and a violation of the usual daily routine (the queen demanded classes at 5 in the morning) led to pneumonia. The scientist complained that the Swedish winter is so severe that even a person's thoughts freeze here. Descartes recognized only two medicines: rest and diet, and therefore launched the disease. His friends did not believe in his death for a long time, because he was not yet 54 years old. Khristina's courtiers whispered about poisoning with meat, and the inscription on the scientist's tombstone was ambiguous: "He paid for the attacks of his rivals with his innocent life."

In 1666, France nevertheless caught on and decided that Descartes' place was in his native land. The remains were moved, but the skull disappeared. During the French Revolution, the coffin was again reburied, now it is in the chapel of the church of Saint-Germain-des-Prés, where tourists can see a black marble slab with the inscription "Renatus Cartesius". The skull surfaced after some time at an auction and was transferred to France, now it is stored in the Paris Museum of Man. So the head and body of the scientist were separated by the Seine. There is also some irony in this, because even during his lifetime, Rene Descartes separated the requirements of the mind from the desires of the body, devoting more time to science than to the manifestation of human feelings.

Chapter 9

Mathematicians: thanks to him, analytical geometry appeared, the terms "imaginary number" and "real number", the usual notation for degrees and variable values ​​​​x, y, z, the theory of tangents to curves, formulas for calculating the volumes of bodies of revolution; fundamentals of the theory of equations, relationship between quantity and function, rectilinear coordinate system. Coordinates, an oval, a parabola, and a leaf are named after him;
- Philosophers: formulated the philosophical method "radical doubt" and the rationalism of the New Time;
- physicists: raised the question of the scientific explanation of the origin of the solar system; created the first theory of the rainbow and formulas for determining the center of gravity of bodies of revolution, formulated the law of refraction of light at the boundary of different media, the concept of "body inertia", which practically coincided with Newton's. It became possible to improve optical instruments, and therefore astronomers named a lunar crater in his honor;
- doctors: formulated a theory about the body as a complex mechanism; introduced the concept of "reflex", for which Academician I.P. Pavlov especially thanked him, placing a bust of a scientist near his laboratory. He created a description of the anatomy of the eye, almost as good as the modern one.