Word stress. Proclitics and enclitics

Intonation

2. PHRASE AND LOGICAL Stress.

A complete syntactic intonation-semantic rhythmic unit is called a syntagma or phrase. A syntagma can be one word or a group of words, for example: Autumn. Our entire poor garden is crumbling. From pause to pause, the words are spoken together. This unity is dictated by the meaning and content of the sentence. A group of words representing a syntagma has an emphasis on one of the words, mostly the last one. From the end of August / the air begins to get colder (K. Ushinsky). Every day I there are more and more golden leaves (K. Ushinsky). One of the words in the group stands out: the phrasal stress falls on it: August, get colder, during the day, more leaves. In practice, this is achieved by slightly strengthening or raising the voice, slowing down the rate of pronunciation of the word, and a pause after it.

Logical stress must be distinguished from phrasal stress. (True, sometimes these types of stress coincide: the same word bears both phrasal and logical stress.) The main words in a sentence are highlighted, with the tone of voice and the force of exhalation they come to the fore, subordinating other words. This “bringing the tone of voice and the force of exhalation of a word to the forefront in a semantic sense is called logical stress.” In a simple sentence, as a rule, there is one logical stress, for example: From the end of August the air begins to get colder.

But there are often sentences with two or several logical stresses. For example: Valleys, hills, fields flashed.

Here homogeneous members: valleys, hills, fields - are logically highlighted and become shocking.

Logical stress is very important in oral speech. Calling it a trump card for the expressiveness of oral speech, K. S. Stanislavsky said: “The accent is the index finger, marking the most important word in a phrase or in a bar! The highlighted word contains the soul, the inner essence, the main points of the subtext!” . Stanislavsky attached great importance to logical stress in artistic (stage) speech: “Stress is a loving or malicious, respectful or contemptuous, open or cunning, ambiguous, sarcastic emphasis on a stressed syllable or word. This is presenting it, as if on a tray.”

If the logical stress is highlighted incorrectly, then the meaning of the entire phrase may also be incorrect. Let's see how the content of a statement changes depending on the place of logical stress in the sentence. We place emphasis on each word of the sentence in turn:

You Will you be at the theater today? (and not anyone else?)

You today you will in the theatre? (will you come or not?)

You Today will you be at the theater? (and not tomorrow, not the day after tomorrow?)

Today you will be in theater?(and not at work, not at home?)

The correct placement of logical stress is determined by the meaning of the entire work or its part (piece). The last phrase of Krylov’s fable “The Pig under the Oak” sounds like this: Whenever up I could raise your snout, I wish you it is seen it was, I that these acorns I on to me are growing... Of all the stresses marked with underlining, the strongest is the combination on me. This logical selection is due to the content of the fable: the pig harmed the tree whose fruits it ate.

In each sentence it is necessary to find the word on which the logical stress falls. The practice of reading and speaking has developed a number of guidelines on how to place logical stress. These rules are set out, for example, in the famous book by Vsevolod Aksenov “The Art of the Literary Word”. With few exceptions, these rules help when reading the text being prepared. Let me give you some of them:

1. Logical stress is usually placed on nouns and sometimes on verbs in cases where the verb is the main logical word and usually comes at the end of a phrase or when a noun is replaced by a pronoun. For example: They gathered in the hall spectators. The table was covered

2. Logical stress cannot be placed on adjectives and pronouns. For example: Today is frosty day. Thank you you. You Sorry me.

3. When comparing, the placement of logical stress does not obey this rule. For example: I don't like blue color, and greenny. To me I like it, but not for you.

4. When combining two nouns, the stress always falls on the noun, taken in the genitive case and answering the questions whose? whom? what? For example: This is an order commander.(When rearranging words the same way: This commander order).

5. Repetition of words, when each subsequent one strengthens the meaning and meaning of the previous one, requires logical emphasis on each word with increasing intensification. For example: But what is in me now? boils, worries,infuriates.

6. Enumerations in all cases (just like counting) require independent stress on each word. For example me got up, washed his face, got dressed And drank tea. Appeared in the clearing tank, behind him second, third, fourth...

7. When combining author’s (or narrative) words with direct speech (when the text contains the own words of one of the characters), the logical emphasis is maintained on the main word of one’s own speech. For example: - Yes Fine“, in my opinion,” Fedor muttered through his teeth. These or other rules for setting logical stress cannot be mechanically applied. You should always take into account the content of the entire work, its leading idea, the entire context, as well as the tasks that the reader sets for himself when reading the work in a given audience. It is not recommended to “abuse” logical stresses. Speech overloaded with stress loses its meaning. Sometimes this overload is the result of the separation of words during pronunciation. “Separation is the first step towards emphasizing... - the first step towards extending the emphasis to what does not require emphasis; this is the beginning of that unbearable speech where every word becomes “significant”, where there is no longer anything important, because everything is important, where everything matters, and therefore nothing means anything anymore. Such speech is unbearable, it is worse than unclear, because you don’t hear unclear speech or you don’t have to listen, but this speech forces oneself to listen, and at the same time it is impossible to understand, because when the emphasis does not help the clear disclosure of the thought, it distorts and destroys it ) .

One must learn not only to place stress, but also to remove or weaken it, shading the rest of the phrase; this shading should not mean hasty and unclear pronunciation of the entire phrase. “Fussiness makes speech difficult. What makes it easier is her calmness and restraint.” Removing stress from other words already highlights the stressed word. For example: The whole thing has passed a week,I before mother gathered them on the road.11 Chuk and Gek I did not waste time Same. 11 Chuk made himself dagger I from a kitchen knife, I and Huck found himself a smooth stick, I hammered a nail into it, I and it turned out peak... 11 Finally everything was done finished. (A. Gaidar.) A strong emphasis on the word finished weakens the emphasis on words on the road, too, dagger, pike, and with some words: stick, nail - removes the stress that follows the rules. The context dictates that some words be emphasized and others obscured.

American English

Within a semantic group (syntagma), not all words are pronounced the same; it highlights significant words that have an independent lexical meaning with phrasal stress...

Intonation and its components

Among the components of intonation, stress occupies a special place. It, like intonation itself, belongs to the supersegmental elements of language. When they talk about stress, they usually mean verbal stress (i.e....

Intonation and its components

Logical stress is the selection of the most significant word from the point of view of a given situation using intonation means. Logical stress can be used to highlight any word in a phrase. Phrase The student reads carefully...

Intonation and its components

To characterize the emotional expressiveness of a word, Shcherba introduced the term “emphatic stress.” This stress “pushes forward” and enhances the emotional side of the word or expresses the speaker’s affective state in connection with a particular word...

Intonation as a stylistic means of expressiveness

Melody and especially the second important component of intonation - volume (intensity) are used to emphasize certain parts of the utterance, called phrasal stress...

Basic ways of expressing grammatical meanings in English

Stress is not the most typical way of expressing grammatical meaning, since in English stress is fixed and motionless. There are several pairs of words that can be attributed to this method. It's worth noting...

Depending on which language unit a particular part is allocated to, a distinction is made between verbal and phrasal stress...

Comparison of word stress in German and Russian languages

Depending on the phonetic means by which verbal stress is carried out, a distinction is made between force, quantity and musical stress. V.N. Nemchenko in his textbook gives the following definitions of types of stress: Power stress...

Comparison of word stress in German and Russian languages

Comparison of word stress in German and Russian languages

In some words in speech, along with the main stress, additional stress may occur. This type of stress is called collateral. This stress is usually found in polysyllabic words. For example, aircraft manufacturing, flax spinning...

Comparison of word stress in German and Russian languages

Comparison of word stress in German and Russian languages

In complex proper names and geographical names, the place of stress may be different. In some words it falls on the first component of a compound word, in others - on the second: Tempelhof, Scharlottenburg, Elberfeldt, Saarbrucken, Schonefeld, Heilbronn...

Ways of expressing grammatical meanings

To express grammatical meanings, only stress that can change can be used: monotonic movable stress; polytonic (musical) stress. Movable stress is used, for example...

Ways of expressing grammatical meanings in morphology

Stress, like meaningful alternation, is a way of expressing the grammatical meaning of a word using phonetic means. Dynamic monotonic stress can become a grammatical way...

Theory of translation from English

The sentences found in a paragraph are ways of developing ideas in the paragraph. They are closely related to the Key sentence (fragment)...

Clitics

Stressed/unstressed is a property not only of a vowel, but of the entire syllable. A stressed syllable is characterized by clear articulation of all sounds. In Russian, stress can fall on any syllable of a word and on any morpheme - prefix, root, suffix and ending: release, house, road, dining room, business, dear, distribute, regroup. This stress is called free.

Functions of Russian accent

Word stress- this is the selection of one of the syllables of a non-monosyllabic word. With the help of stress, part of the sound chain is combined into a single whole - a phonetic word.

The methods of highlighting a stressed syllable are different in different languages. The power of a vowel is reflected in its volume. Each vowel has its own threshold of volume and stress. Vowels pronounced louder than this threshold are perceived as stressed. Stressed vowels are also characterized by a special timbre.

Accent functions:

- lexicological– is an additional means of distinguishing words atlas

- morphological– is an additional means of distinguishing the grammatical form of a word (ruki - I.P. plural and rukI - R.p. singular)

Such options are rare in the Republic of Armenia. RY has a fixed, stable stress.

Some words in speech are not stressed. They are adjacent to other words, forming one phonetic word with them. An unstressed word that comes before the stressed word to which it is adjacent is called proclitico y. Proclitics are usually monosyllabic prepositions, conjunctions and some particles: on the mountain, to me; sister | and brother; said | for them to come; Don't know. An unstressed word that comes after the stressed word to which it is adjacent is called enclitic. Enclitics are usually monosyllabic particles: tell me, he will come, on his back, under his arms.

Some words in English may have not one, but 2 or 3 stresses - one main, others - secondary. Secondary ones are usually on the first syllable, and main ones on the others:

Compound words from two stems Old Russian (eleven, twenty)

Many compound words (building materials, children)

Words with prefixes after outside, between, inside and foreign language elements archi, anti, super near-literary, dust jacket

In complex and compound words consisting of 3 stems, 3 stresses are possible. aerial photography

Speech tact– part of a phonetic phrase, limited by a short pause and characterized by intonation incompleteness.

Phrase stress– highlighting in the speech stream the most semantically important word; such stress is one of the beats.

The structure of stress in RL is defined as complex and there are no uniform patterns in this structure and stress is acquired along with the assimilation of the word.

Need to remember:

– If the accent in the short form of the feminine gender falls on the ending, then in the short forms of the neuter gender and masculine the stress is on the basis and usually coincides with the stress in the full form: be ly - whiteA , be l, be lo (but all around is white-whiteO ); I dark - clearA , I Sep,I sno.
– In most plural forms there are fluctuations in stress placement: be ly – whites , ble bottoms - pales , blAnd zyki - closeAnd , nAnd language - lowAnd , drinkI us - drunks , Pat sty - emptys , I dreams are clears , etcO shame(obsolete) – simples .
- But only easyAnd , etcA You.
– If in the short form the feminine gender falls on the ending, then in the comparative form it falls on the suffix: lengthA – lengthe e, visibleA – visiblee e. FullA – fulle e.
– If in the short feminine form the emphasis falls on the stem, then in a comparative degree the emphasis falls on the stem: lilO va – lilO vee, beautifulAnd va – beautifulAnd vee, flaxAnd va-lenAnd vee, spokeAnd va - spokeAnd in her.

4. Incorrect placement of stress on the basis of the word, and not on its ending, in feminine singular past tense verbs is often encountered: vzI la instead of tookA , spA la instead of sleptA and so on

Pronunciation standards

Difficulties arise in the pronunciation of a number of words due to the indistinguishability of letters in the printed text e And e , since only one graphic symbol is used to denote them - e . This situation leads to a distortion of the phonetic appearance of the word and causes frequent pronunciation errors. There are two sets of words to remember:

1) with a letter e and the sound [" uh]: af e ra, be e , live e , Grenada e r, op e ka, os e long, idiot e native, foreigner e nny, w e non-hater;

2) with a letter e and the sound [" O]: hopeless e payment e capable, man e vry, white e syy, bl e cool, w e personal, w e lch (option - w e lie), alone e ny.

In some pairs of words, different meanings are accompanied by different sounds of the stressed vowel: ist e kshiy (term) – but: ist e kshiy (blood), screams like a loud voice e nal – but: decree, announced e in the morning, etc.

Bar accent – stronger stress on one word from the entire speech structure.

Phrase stress – stronger emphasis on one of the bars of the phrase.

Usually occurs on the last word of a speech beat, and phrasal stress emphasizes the last beat.

Example: Lizaveta Iva[”]novna | sat in her room, | still in his ballroom attire, | immersed in deep contemplation.

Bar accent – ​​[”]

Phrase stress – [”’]

Here, bar and phrasal stress are not related to meaning. A word emphasized by bar or phrasal stress is not more important in terms of meaning. The function of bar and phrase stress is to phonetically combine several words into a speech bar and several bars into a phrase.

The bar stress can also move to other words of the bar. This is due to the actual division of the sentence, when the bar stress highlights the rheme, that is, usually something new that is communicated in the sentence.

Example: the rooks flew away - a new message may be that it was the rooks that flew away, and then the bar stress will highlight this word.

Logical stress – highlighting a word in a speech beat with a stronger emphasis to emphasize its special meaning. It is stronger than the tact and can fall on any word of the speech tact. Logical stress is associated with explicit or implied opposition: I[’] will go to the cinema, not you. I'll go['] to the cinema (although I'm very busy). I will go to the cinema[’] (and not somewhere else).

16. Russian intonation.

In a broad sense, intonation is a change in voice in pitch, volume, tempo, timbre (additional coloring of the voice, which is defined metaphorically such as a gloomy voice, cheerful, gentle, etc.)

All components are interconnected, exist in unity, but are still studied separately. Intonation in the narrow sense is a change in voice pitch, i.e. melody of speech.

In every language, there are general and objective patterns in the methodological design of speech, which makes intonation the most characteristic feature of a particular language.

For the Russian language, the pattern was described in the mid-20th century. Elena Andreevna Bryzgunova was able to bring together all the melodic diversity of Russian speech. She noticed that the beginning of any phrase is pronounced in a middle tone (individual for each person), then on some syllable there is a change in tone up or down, the rest of the phrase is pronounced above or below the middle tone.

Structure:

The center is the syllable on which the tone turns.

The precentral part is what is before the center.

Postcentric part - after the center.

In some cases, the precentre. Or post center. Part may be missing.

(the highlighted letters are the letters that are emphasized. I just don’t know how the emphasis is placed in Word.)

Question No. 2: SegmentalAndsupersegmentalphoneticunits. Phrase, speechtact, phoneticword, syllable, soundHowsegmentspeechflow. Our speech is a stream of sounds, a sound chain. This chain is divided into segments, separate units, distinguished by various phonetic means. In the Russian language, such units are a phrase, a phonetic syntagm, a phonetic word, a syllable and a sound. A phrase is a segment of speech united by a special intonation and phrasal stress and concluded between two fairly long pauses. The phrase corresponds to a statement that is relatively complete in meaning. However, a phrase cannot be identified with a sentence. A phrase is a phonetic unit, and a sentence is a grammatical one; they belong to different tiers of language and may not coincide linearly. A phrase can be divided into phonetic syntagms. Phonetic syntagma is also characterized by special intonation and syntagmic stress, but pauses between syntagmas are not required, and they are shorter than interphrase pauses. The division of the speech flow into phrases and syntagmas is determined by the meaning, the meaning that the speaker puts into the utterance. Phonetic syntagmas consisting of more than one word are characterized by semantic and syntactic integrity. Thus, the phrase and phonetic syntagma are distinguished by rhythmic and intonation means; the division of the speech flow into phrases and phonetic syntagms is associated with meaning and syntactic division. A phonetic syntagma can consist of one or more phonetic words. A phonetic word is a segment of a sound chain united by one verbal stress. A phonetic word can correspond to one or more lexical units. A phonetic word is divided into syllables, and syllables are divided into sounds. A sound, a syllable, a phonetic word, a phonetic syntagm, a phrase are different segments of the speech stream. Such linear segments are called segmental units. Sound is the smallest segmental unit. Each next largest segmental unit consists of smaller ones: a syllable of sounds; phonetic word - made of syllables; phonetic syntagma - from phonetic words; phrase - from syntagmas.

Question No. 3: Syllable, emphasis, intonationHowsupersegmentalunits. The supersegmental units of speech include stress and intonation. They serve to combine segmental units in the speech stream. Stress is an essential feature of a word. Can be verbal. Verbal stress is the selection, using phonetic means, of one of the syllables in a word, a stressed syllable. Russian accent is quantitative, i.e. the stressed syllable is characterized by a longer duration. This feature forms the basis of the methodological technique used by teachers in primary schools. In addition, Russian stress is characterized as dynamic or forceful, because the stressed syllable is pronounced with greater force. Combining both characteristics, stress can be called quantitative-dynamic. Russian stress is free, it can fall on any of the syllables. Russian stress can move from syllable to syllable when the form of the same word changes. There are words with fixed stress. As language develops, the placement of word stress may change. There are options when the stress depends on the style of pronunciation. The word has one accent, but there are compound words. They can have two stresses: one is the main one, the second is a secondary one (d O skein A ny) In addition to verbal stress, there is logical stress - highlighting the most significant, from the speaker’s point of view, word. This is essentially new information that sounds in the phrase - rhemma, and that which is already known and is not new is theme. In addition to logical stress, there is: Emphatic - the transfer of emotions. It makes words emotionally rich. If the emotions are positive, then the vowel sound that is under stress is pronounced more elongated and longer. With negative emotions, the consonant sound at the beginning is lengthened. Intonation is a set of means in the organization of sounding speech or the rhythmic and melodic pattern of speech. The elements of intonation include: Melody - the movement of the fundamental tone of the voice. Rate of speech - the speed of speech in time. Timbre of speech - the sound coloring of speech , conveying emotionally expressive shades. The intensity of speech is the strength of pronunciation associated with the strengthening or weakening of exhalation.

Question No. 4: AcousticAndarticulatorycharacteristicssounds. Phonetics is a branch of linguistics that studies the sound side of language. Acoustic phonetics studies the physical features of speech sounds. In acoustics, sound is understood as the result of vibrational movements of a body in a certain environment, accessible to auditory perception. The speech apparatus is a set of organs of the human body adapted for the production and perception of speech. The speech apparatus in a broad sense covers the central nervous system, organs of hearing and vision, as well as speech organs. Based on their role in pronouncing sounds, the speech organs are divided into active and passive. The active organs of speech produce certain movements necessary for the formation of sounds, and are thus particularly important for their formation. The active organs of speech include: vocal cords, tongue, lips, soft palate, uvula, and the entire lower jaw. Passive organs do not perform independent work during sound production and perform only an auxiliary role. The passive organs of speech include the teeth, alveoli, hard palate and the entire upper jaw. To form each speech sound, a complex of work of the speech organs is required in a certain sequence, that is, a very specific articulation is needed. Articulation is the work of the speech organs necessary to pronounce sounds. The complexity of sound articulation also lies in the fact that it is a process in which three phases of sound articulation are distinguished: attack (excursion), endurance and retreat (recursion). An articulation attack is when the speech organs move from a calm state to the position necessary to pronounce a given sound. Exposure is maintaining the position necessary to pronounce a sound. Indentation of articulation consists of transferring the speech organs to a calm state.

Question No. 5: ClassificationvowelssoundsByplaceAnddegreesriselanguage, Byavailabilityorabsencelabialization. IN basis classifications vowels sounds lie following signs: 1) participation of the lips; 2) the degree of elevation of the tongue vertically in relation to the palate; 3) the degree of advancement of the tongue forward or pushed back horizontally. Accordingly, vowels are divided into the following classification groups: 1) rounded (labialized): y [o], y [y]; unrounded - [a], [e], [i], [s]; 2) according to the degree of elevation of the tongue in relation to the palate, the following groups are distinguished: a) vowels of the upper rise (narrow): [i], [s], [ u];b) mid-rise vowels [e], [o]c) low-rise vowels (wide): [a3) according to the degree of the tongue moving forward or moving it back horizontally, the vowels differ: a) front row: [i], [e]; b) middle row [s], [a]; c) back row [y], [o]. Along with sounds, open and closed vowels are distinguished - “shades” of sounds that are pronounced with greater openness or closedness, with a smaller or larger rise of the tongue. They can be more or less advanced forward or backward. For example: 1) vowel sounds [ä], , [ö], [ÿ] - front-medial, pronounced between soft consonants 2) vowel [e¬] pronounced under stress after hard consonants ;3) vowels [ie], [ыъ], [аъ] are only in an unstressed position; 4) vowel – mid-back; 5) vowels [ä], [аъ], – mid-low, etc. An even more subtle analysis of vowels is possible.

Question No. 6: ClassificationconsonantssoundsByplaceeducation. According to the place of formation, consonant sounds are divided into labial and lingual. Labial consonants are those consonants in which an obstruction is formed with the help of the lips. In some cases, when only the lips are involved (the lower lip moves closer to the upper), labiolabial consonants are formed, for example, [b], [p], [m]. In other cases, when the lower lip comes close to the upper teeth, labiodental consonants are formed: for example, [v], [f]. Lingual consonants are those consonants in which, when pronounced, an obstruction is formed using different parts of the tongue in different places in the oral cavity. All consonants of the Russian language are lingual, except for labial ones. Depending on which part of the tongue and in which part of the oral cavity forms an obstruction, the consonants are distinguished as front-lingual, posterior-lingual and middle-lingual. Front-lingual consonants are those in which an obstruction is created in the front part of the oral cavity by bringing the front part of the back of the tongue and its tip closer to the teeth (lower or upper), alveoli or anterior palate. These include most linguistic consonants: for example, [d], [t], [z], [s], [zh], [sh], [ts], [h], [n], [r]. Rear-lingual consonants are consonants, in the formation of which an obstruction occurs in the back of the oral cavity as a result of the convergence of the back of the tongue with the palate. This is, for example, [g], [k], [x]. Midlingual consonants include consonants, during the formation of which a barrier is created in the middle part of the oral cavity, where the middle part of the back of the tongue approaches the palate. The middle language is, for example, the sound [j].

Question No. 7: ClassificationconsonantssoundsBywayeducation. An obstacle to the air flow during the formation of a consonant sound is created by different articulatory organs (they determine the place of sound formation), but the obstacle can be formed in different ways and the air flow can also overcome it in different ways. One of the key characteristics of a consonant in the Russian language - the method of sound formation - depends on how the air overcomes an obstacle in its path. To produce a consonant sound, three main methods of articulation are used: 1) bowing, when, with the help of the articulatory organs, the air flow is completely blocked for some time, and then, under air pressure, the barrier formed by the articulatory organs opens and the air pushes out. To the ear, such a sound is perceived as a very short noise, or an explosion. This is how stop or plosive consonants are formed [p], [p"], [b], [b"], [t], [t"], [d], [d"], [k], [k "], [g], [g"]; 2) a gap when the entire air flow comes out through a narrow channel, which is formed by the organs of articulation, while the air stream passes between them with force and due to friction and air turbulence between the walls of the formed sound arises from the cracks; To the ear, such a sound is perceived as hissing. This is how fricative, or fricative, sounds are formed [f], [f"], [v], [v"], [s], [s"], [z], [z"], [sh], [sh "], [zh], [zh"], [j], [x], [x"]; 3) vibration, when the tip of the tongue vibrates in the outward air stream (in the Russian language, only one type of consonant sounds is formed in this way - trembling sonorants, or vibrants, [r] / [r"]). The first two methods of articulation (bow and gap) can be combined with each other: when the bow is opened, a gap appears through which air passes for some time - this is how bow-clefts are formed consonants, or affricates [ts] and [h"]. The closure of the organs of articulation can be accompanied by the release of part of the air stream through additional channels: through the nose for nasal consonants (this is how nasal sonorant consonants are formed [m], [m"], [n], [n"]) and on the side of the tongue between its edges and the upper teeth (this is how only one type of sounds is formed in the Russian language - consonants [l] / [l"], also called lateral, or lateral consonants).

Question No. 8: ClassificationconsonantssoundsBylevelnoise, participationornon-participationvoteVeducationsound, Byhardness – softness. By noise level: a) sonorous: [p], [l], [m], [n], and their soft pairs, [j]; b) noisy: [b], [c], [g], [ d], [g], [z], [k], [p], [s], [t], [f], [x], [c], [h], [w], etc.; Based on the participation or non-participation of the voice in the formation of sound, dull and voiced tone (voice) are distinguished; tone (voice) is characteristic of the pronunciation of voiced sounds; their articulation requires the obligatory work of the vocal cords. All sonorants [р], [л], [м], [н], [j] are voiced. Among noisy consonants, the following sounds are considered voiced: [b], [c], [d], [d], [zh], [z] and their soft pairs. b) voiceless consonants are pronounced without voice when the vocal cords remain relaxed . Voiced voices of this type include only noisy ones: [k], [p], [s], [t], [f], [x], [sh] and their soft pairs [ts], [ch']. According to availability or lack of voice, many agree to form pairs. It is customary to distinguish 12 pairs of consonants contrasted by deafness and voicedness: b-p, v-f, d-t, z-s, zh-sh, g-k and their soft pairs. Hard unpaired consonants include the consonants [ts], [sh ]. All of them are either hard doubles or soft doubles: [b] - [b'][c] - [c'][g] - [g'][d] - [d'][z] - [z' ] [p] - [p'] [f] - [f'][k] - [k'[t] - [t'][s] - [s'] [m] - [m'][n ] - [n'][r] - [r'][l] - [l'][x] - [x']

Question№ 9: Syllable from articulatory and acoustic points of view. Various syllable theories. Types of syllables. Phonetic words are divided into syllables. There are various definitions of a syllable, which are based on attention to its articulatory or acoustic features. The most common articulatory definition of a syllable is the following: a syllable is a part of a phonetic word consisting of one or more sounds pronounced by one impulse of exhaled air. Articulatory definition of a syllable proposed by L .IN. Shcherboy, based on pulsation theory. According to this theory, a syllable is a segment of speech corresponding to the alternation of pumping and releasing muscular tension of the speech apparatus. In this case, the syllable is formed by each rise followed by a fall; at the beginning of the chain there may be no rise, and at the end there may be a fall. In other articulatory definitions, a syllable is characterized as a sequence of speech movements that is formed by one respiratory push (R. Stetson) or is the result of one control command (L.A. Chistovich). Acoustic definition syllable connected with sonorous theory, proposed by the Danish linguist O. Jespersen and in relation to the Russian language developed by R.I. Avanesov; this theory is the most recognized in modern Russian linguistics. In accordance with this theory, a syllable is a segment with a peak of sonority and a less sonorous environment, a wave of increasing and decreasing sonority. There are more than a dozen theories or interpretations of the syllable. Let's look at the most famous of them. Expiratory or aspiratory. As the name itself suggests, this theory is based on the physiological process of exhalation when speaking. German phonetician Eduard Sievers calls a syllable that part of a word that is pronounced with one impulse of exhaled air. According to this theory, speaking does not occur as a uniform "flow" of air and uniform production of sounds one after another, but in the form of portions of exhaled air, which produce not a single sound, but a group of sounds more closely related to each other than the sounds produced by the next one. a push of air. This theory is the oldest and, perhaps, the most understandable and close to us. Priscian also gave a similar definition (“with one accent and one exhalation”), and we ourselves often observe this phenomenon when we need to pronounce a word separately, i.e. by syllables, as well as during group speaking, chanting, etc. Ballistic theory, or theory of motion. This theory was proposed by R. Stetson. The ballistic theory of the syllable is based on the position that all movements regularly performed by a person, after some time become automated and are performed without control from the corresponding center of higher nervous activity. Moreover, once automated, these movements are no longer subject to conscious control or, at best, are very difficult to correct.

Question№ 10: Syllable division in Russian. The structure of a syllable in the Russian language obeys the law of ascending sonority. This means that the sounds in a syllable are arranged from the least sonorous to the most sonorous. The law of ascending sonority can be illustrated in the words below, if sonority is conventionally designated by numbers: 3 - vowels, 2 - sonorant consonants, 1 - noisy consonants. Water: 1-3/1-3; boat: 2-3/1-1-3; ma-slo: 2-3/1-2-3; wave: 1-3-2/2-3. In the examples given, the basic law of syllable division is implemented at the beginning of a non-initial syllable. The initial and final syllables in the Russian language are constructed according to the same principle of increasing sonority. For example: summer: 2-3/1-3; glass: 1-3/1-2-3. The syllable division when combining significant words is usually preserved in the form that is characteristic of each word included in the phrase: us Turkey - us-Tur-tsi-i; nasturtiums (flowers) - na-stur-tsi-i. A particular pattern of syllable division at the junction of morphemes is the impossibility of pronouncing, firstly, more than two identical consonants between vowels and, secondly, identical consonants before the third (other) consonant within one syllable. This is more often observed at the junction of a root and a suffix and less often at the junction of a prefix and a root or a preposition and a word. For example: odessite [o/de/sit]; art [i/sku/stvo]; part [ra/become/xia]; from the wall [ste/ny], therefore more often - [so/ste/ny].

Question№ 11: Emphasis. Word stress. Phonetic nature of Russian stress. Place of stress in a word. Stress - highlighting (a syllable, a word) with the strength of the voice or raising the tone. Stress is an essential feature of a word. It can be verbal. Verbal stress is the emphasis, using phonetic means, of one of the words in a word of a stressed syllable. What is the phonetic nature of the stress?, Russian nature, i.e. stressed syllable. This feature is the basis of a methodological technique that is used by teachers in elementary school. In addition, Russian stress is characterized by dynamic or forceful, because the stressed syllable is pronounced with greater force. Combining both characteristics, the stress can be called quantitative-dynamic Russian stress is free It can be initial, middle or final. Russian stress can move from syllable to syllable when the form of the same word changes. For example, stol (stress falls on O) - tables (stress falls on Y) - such stress is called movable. There are words that have a fixed stress - chair (the stress falls only on U). With the development of language, the placement of verbal stress may change. For example, in the 19th century A.S. Pushkin wrote music (with emphasis on Y). There are options for setting verbal stress, which depend on the style of stress. A word, as a rule, has one stress, but there are complex words. In addition to verbal stress, they distinguish: logical stress - highlighting the most significant, from the point of view from the point of view of the speaker. This is essential, as a rule, new information in a rheme phrase. And that information that is known and is not new is the topic. Aliphatic stress is the transfer of emotions, it makes words emotionally rich. If the emotions are positive, then the vowel sound is pronounced longer. If the emotions are negative, the consonant sound is pronounced longer.

Question№ 12: The semantic distinguishing function of Russian stress. Fixed and movable stress. Clitics. Meaning-discriminating function is the ability of linguistic means to serve to distinguish lexical units and statements. The semantic-distinguishing function in the Russian language can be performed by sounds (the semantic-distinguishing role of sound) (house - volume), stress (flour - flour), intonation (This is your computer. - This is your computer?). The different place stress of the Russian language in some words is fixed, i.e. .e. when forming grammatical forms of a word, it remains on the same syllable, and in others it is mobile, i.e. When different grammatical forms of a word are formed, it is transferred from one syllable to another (inflectional mobility of stress). Wed. different forms of two words like head and head: head, head, head, head, head, head, head and head, head, head, head, head, head, head; the first of them has a fixed stress, the second - a movable one. Another example: strigý, cut, cut, cut (fixed stress), mogý, can, mógat, mógut (movable). A clitic is a word (for example, a pronoun or particle), grammatically independent, but phonologically dependent. By definition, clitics are, in particular, all words that do not form a syllable (for example, the prepositions in, to, with). Clitics can be attached to the stressed word form of any one part of speech (for example, Roman pronominal forms in indirect cases - only to the verb) or to word forms of any part of speech (these are Russian particles); the latter are called transcategorial.

Question No. 13: Phrase, tact and logical stress.

Phrase stress - Emphasizing one word in a phrase by increasing word stress, combining different words into one phrase. Phrasal stress usually falls on the stressed vowel of the last word in the final speech beat (syntagm): There is a short, / but wondrous time in the initial autumn //. Beat stress - Isolating one of the words in a speech beat (syntagm) by strengthening the verbal stress that unites different words into one syntagma. Syntagmatic stress usually falls on the stressed vowel of the last word in a speech beat: There is a short, / but wonderful time in the initial autumn //. The speech beat usually coincides with the respiratory group, i.e. a segment of speech pronounced with one blast of exhaled air, without pauses. The integrity of a speech beat as a rhythmic unit is created by its intonation design. The intonation center is concentrated on the stressed syllable of a word as part of a speech beat - the beat stress: On a dry aspen / hoodie /... Each speech beat is formed by one of the intonation structures. A speech beat is sometimes called syntagma. The main means of dividing into syntagmas is a pause, which usually appears in combination with the melody of speech, the intensity and tempo of speech and can be replaced by sudden changes in the meanings of these prosodic features. One of the words of the syntagma (usually the last) is characterized by the strongest stress (With logical stress, the main stress can fall on any word of the syntagma). The phrase usually stands out and contains several speech bars, but the boundaries of the phrase and the bar can coincide: Night. // Street. // Flashlight. // Pharmacy // (Block). The selection of speech beats can be characterized by variability: cf. Field behind the ravine and Field/behind the ravine. Word stress - A type of stress defined within a word and consisting of highlighting one of its syllables, in contrast to phrasal, rhythmic (beat), syllabic stress. S. u. can be free, as in Russian, or fixed, as in Czech, Hungarian, Polish. Within a bar (less often a phrase), two types of bar (phrase) stress are distinguished, depending on the functions - logical and emphatic.

Question№ 14: Intonation. Intonation structures, their types. Functions of intonation: rhythm-forming, phrase-forming, meaning-distinguishing, emotional. Intonation (Latin intonō “pronounce loudly”) is a set of prosodic characteristics of a sentence: tone (melody of speech), volume, tempo of speech and its individual segments, rhythm, phonation features. Together with stress, it forms the prosodic system of the language. Intonation construction (IC), intonation, phoneme of tone is a set of intonation features sufficient to differentiate the meanings of statements and convey such parameters of the statement as communicative type, semantic importance of its constituent syntagmas, actual division. Being a type of linguistic sign (namely a suprasegmental unit), it has a plane of expression and a plane of content. Differential features for distinguishing intonation structures are the direction of tone on the vowel center and the ratio of tone levels of the component parts of the IC, as well as the duration of the vowel center, increased verbal stress on it and the presence or absence of a vocal cord stop at the end of the pronunciation of a vowel in the center of the IC, perceived as a sharp break sound. An intonation structure is realized on a speech segment, which can be a simple or complex sentence, the main or subordinate part of a complex sentence, a phrase, a separate word form of an independent word or a function word. In practice, intonation structures are types to which the whole variety of melodic patterns of utterances is reduced .Types of intonation structures In the Russian language, there are seven types of intonation structures (IC): IC-1 (lower tone on the center vowel): After the conversation, he became thoughtful. IK-2 (on the vowel of the center the tone movement is smooth or downward, the verbal stress is increased): Where should I go? IK-3 (a sharp increase in tone on the vowel of the center): How can I forget? IR-4 (on the vowel of the center, the tone decreases, then increases; the high tone level is maintained until the end of the structure): What about dinner? IK-5 (two centers; on the vowel of the first center there is an increase in tone, on the vowel of the second center there is a decrease): I haven’t seen her for two years! IK-6 (increasing tone on the vowel of the center, the high level of tone is maintained until the end of the structure; IK-6 differs from IK-4 by a higher tone level on the center vowel, for example, when expressing bewilderment or evaluation): What an interesting film! IR-7 (raising the tone on the center vowel, for example, when expressing expressive negation): Did you complete the task? – Completed! Intonation plays a phrase-forming role: the tone movement characteristic of a specific intonation structure is completed - the phrase is completed. Intonation is one of the most important phonetic means of language, performing the following functions in speech.1. Provides phonetic integrity of the utterance or its part.2. Serves to divide a whole coherent text into parts that have signs of semantic and phonetic integrity.3. Conveys the most important communicative meanings - such as narration, question, motivation, etc.4. Indicates certain semantic relationships between the units forming a statement and between statements.5. Conveys the speaker’s attitude to the content of his statement or the statement of his interlocutor.6. Carries information about the emotional state of the speaker.

Question№ 15: Phonology. Sounds of speech and sounds of language. The concept of phoneme. The concept of alternation. Phonology (from the Greek φωνή - “sound” and λόγος - “teaching”) is a branch of linguistics that studies the structure of the sound structure of a language and the functioning of sounds in the language system. The basic unit of phonology is the phoneme, the main object of study is the oppositions (oppositions) of phonemes that together form the phonological system of the language. A phoneme is a unit of the sound structure of a language, represented by a number of positionally alternating sounds, which serves to identify and distinguish significant units of language (words, morphemes). Therefore, a phoneme is sometimes defined as a series of positionally alternating sounds. Phonemes are able to distinguish significant units of language due to the fact that they are material expressed, have known acoustic and articulatory properties, and are perceived by the human hearing organs. In speech, the implementation of phonemes occurs through sounds. Position is the condition for the implementation of a phoneme in speech, its position in a word in relation to stress, another phoneme, the structure of the word as a whole. A strong position is the position of distinguishing phonemes, i.e. the position in which the largest number of units differs. The phoneme appears here in its basic form, which allows it to best perform its functions. For Russian vowels, this is the stressed position. For voiceless, voiced consonants the position is before all vowels. For hard and soft, this is the position of the end of the word. Weak position is the position of non-discrimination of phonemes, i.e. a position in which a smaller number of units are distinguished than in a strong position, since phonemes have limited opportunities to perform their distinctive function. In this position, two or more phonemes coincide in one sound, i.e. their phonological opposition is neutralized. Neutralization is the elimination of differences between phonemes under certain positional conditions. Phonemes, like other linguistic units (sign and non-sign), perform certain functions in the language. Usually, two main functions of phonemes are distinguished: the function of forming other (more complex) units of language, or structure function, and the function of distinguishing significant units of language (morphemes, words), or distinctive function. In speech, phonemes can change, i.e. used in the form of different sounds. A modification of a phoneme in speech is called its variation, and specific sounds representing one or another phoneme in the speech stream are called phoneme variants. Sound is the most important unit of the phonetic level of a language. The concept of speech sound can be explained based on the closest generic concept - sound as an acoustic phenomenon. The sound of speech is an element of spoken speech formed by the speech organs. With the phonetic division of speech, a sound is a part of a syllable, the shortest, further indivisible sound unit pronounced in one articulation. Vowel. Consonant sound. The sound of speech can be defined as a sound created with the help of the human speech organs, serving as a means of communication between people, devoid of linguistic meaning. Every phoneme is a sound of speech, but not every sound of speech is a phoneme. Phonemes are those speech sounds that not only form more complex units of language, but are also capable of distinguishing these units and contrasting them with each other. Speech sounds, like all other sounds, are characterized by a number of acoustic features: 1) the presence of tone or noise 2) strength , volume 3) pitch 4) longitude, duration 5) timbre The presence of tone or noise depends on the nature of the vibration of the elastic body that produces the sound (for example, the vocal cords). On this basis, sounds differ between tones and noises. Tone is formed when the vibration is of an ordered, rhythmic nature, i.e. is uniformly periodic. Tones include, for example, sounds produced by a musical instrument. Noise occurs when there is no rhythm or periodicity in the vibrations. Noises are the sounds that occur when a car wheel moves. The strength of the sound varies depending on the scope and amplitude of vibrations of elastic bodies, including the human vocal cords. The amplitude of body oscillations, in turn, depends on the size of the oscillating body and the force of influence on it.

The pitch of the sound is determined by the frequency of vibration.

Question№ 19: Phonetic alternations of consonant sounds, differing in deafness and voicedness, hardness and softness, place and method of formation. Voicelessness/voicing of consonants remains an independent, independent feature in the following positions: 1) before vowels: [su]d court - [zu]d itch, [ta]m there - [da]m dam; 2) before sonorants : [layer] layer - [evil] oh evil, [tl']i aphid - [dl']i for; 3) before [v], [v']: [sv']ver veri - [zv'] er beast. In the indicated positions, both voiceless and voiced consonants are found, and these sounds are used to distinguish words (morphemes). The listed positions are called strong in deafness/voicedness. In other cases, the appearance of a dull/voiced sound is predetermined by its position in the word or the proximity of a specific sound. Such deafness/voiceness turns out to be dependent, “forced”. Positions in which this occurs are considered weak according to the indicated criterion. In the Russian language, there is a law according to which voiced noisy ones are deafened at the end of the word, cf.: du[b]a oak - du[p] oak, má[z']i ointments – ma[s'] ointment. In the given examples, the phonetic alternation of consonants in deafness / voicedness is recorded: [b] // [p] and [z’] // [s’]. In addition, positional changes concern situations when voiceless and voiced consonants are nearby. In this case, the subsequent sound affects the previous one. Voiced consonants in front of deaf people are necessarily likened to them in terms of deafness, as a result a sequence of voiceless sounds arises, cf.: ló[d]ochka boat - ló[tk]a boat (i.e. [d] // [t] before the deaf), prepared c']), change to voiced ones, assimilation occurs in terms of voicing, cf.: molo[t']i´t to thresh – molo[d'b]á threshing ([t'] // [d'] before the voiced), pro[s']i´t to ask - pro[z'b]a request (i.e. [s'] // [z'] before a voiced one). Articulatory likening of sounds of the same nature, that is, two consonants (or two vowels), is called assimilation (from Latin assimilatio 'likening'). Thus, assimilation in deafness and assimilation in voicedness were described above. The hardness / softness of consonants as an independent feature, and not one arising due to positional changes, is fixed in the following strong positions: 1) before vowels, including [e]: [lu]k bow - [l'u]k hatch, [but]s nose - [n'o]s carried, past [t'e']l pastel - after [t'e']l bed; Paired soft consonants before [e] are pronounced in native Russian words, paired solid ones - in borrowed ones. However, many of these borrowings have ceased to be recognized as rare: antenna, cafe, sausage, stress, mashed potatoes, prosthesis, etc. As a result, in common words it has become possible to pronounce both hard and soft consonants before [e]. 2) at the end words: ko[n] kon - ko[n'] horse, zha[r] heat - zha[r'] fry; 3) for sounds [l], [l'] regardless of their position: vo[l]ná wave - vo[l']ná is free; 4) for consonants [c], [s'], [z], [z'], [t], [t'], [d], [d'], [n], [n'], [p], [p'] (for front-lingual speakers) – in the position before [k], [k'], [g], [g'], [x], [x' ] (before back-linguals): gó[r]ka gorka - gó[r']ko bitterly, bá[n]ka bank - bá[n']ka bathhouse; – in position before [b], [b'], [ p], [p'], [m], [m'] (before labials): i[z]bá izba - re[z']bá carving; In other cases, the hardness or softness of the consonant will not be independent, but caused by the influence sounds at each other. Similarity in hardness is observed, for example, in the case of connecting soft [n'] with hard [s], cf.: kó[n'] horse - kó[ns] horse, Spain [n']ia Spain - spain [ns] cue (i.e. [n'] // [n] before hard). The pair ju[n’] June – ju’[n’s]ky June does not obey the indicated pattern. But this exception is the only one. Assimilation in softness is carried out inconsistently in relation to different groups of consonants and is not observed by all speakers. The only thing that does not know the indentation of deviations is the replacement of [n] with [n'] before [h'] and [w:'], cf: drum [n] drum - drum [n'ch']ik drum, go[n]ok races – gó[n' sh:']ik racer (i.e. [n] // [n'] before soft). The place and method of formation of consonants can only change as a result of the influence of sounds on each other. Before anteropalatal noisy ones, dental ones are replaced to the anterior palatines.

Question№ 22: The subject of orthoepy. The meaning of spelling norms. “Senior” and “junior” norms. Pronunciation styles. Reasons for deviations from literary pronunciation. The term orthoepy (from the gr. orthos - correct, epos - speech) is used to designate: 1) a set of rules of normative literary pronunciation; 2) a section of linguistics that studies the functioning of literary norms and develops pronunciation recommendations - orthoepic rules. The subject of orthoepy is the composition of the basic sounds of a language, phonemes, their quality and changes in certain phonetic conditions, i.e. the same as phonetics. But phonetics considers these issues in terms of describing the sound structure of a language; for orthoepy, it is important to establish norms of literary pronunciation. The need to establish such norms is determined by the fact that when listening to oral speech, we do not think about its sound, but directly perceive the meaning. Every deviation from the usual pronunciation distracts the listener from the meaning of the statement. Orthoepy is a branch of linguistics that has an applied nature. Orthoepic norms are very important in speech activity, since incorrect pronunciation or stress distracts attention from the meaning of the statement, complicates understanding, and often simply makes an unpleasant impression on the listener. In Russian orthoepy, it is customary to distinguish between “senior” and “ junior" norm. The “senior” norm preserves the features of the Old Moscow pronunciation of individual sounds, sound combinations, words and their forms. The “younger” norm reflects the features of modern literary pronunciation. There are high, neutral and colloquial styles outside the literary norms of the colloquial style. High is a slow and careful pronunciation (theater). Neutral is our everyday speech in compliance with all orthoepic norms at a faster pace of pronunciation .Colloquial is characterized by great emotionality, an even faster pace and less strict adherence to the rules of literary pronunciation.1.The main source of deviations from the norms of literary pronunciation is the native dialect of the speaker. For example, speakers of southern Russian dialects often violate the literary norm by pronouncing fricative [Ɣ] instead of the plosive [g]. ]. 2. The second reason for deviation from literary pronunciation is writing, since we become familiar with the literary language through writing, through reading literature, which leads to the emergence of pronunciation in accordance with what is written. For example, as a result of letter-by-letter pronunciation, you can hear [ch"] in words: what, so, boring, of course. But on the other hand, deviations can win the right to exist and then become the source of the development of variants of norms: I dare [s] and I dare [s "]. 3. Deviations from literary pronunciation are also caused by the influence of the phonetic system of another language: Ukrainian people [dm]i .

Question№ 24: The importance of writing in the history of Russian society. Origin and main stages of development of Russian writing. The invention of writing by man, as a system for recording speech for transmitting it in space and time, was one of the most important discoveries that largely determined the progress of modern society. The main advantage of writing is that it allows one to overcome the barrier of time, makes it possible to communicate between different generations, pass on their knowledge about the world to their descendants. With the help of writing, people created various business papers (documents), recorded their knowledge and experiences in books. Despite the enormous achievements, scientific and technological progress in the field of accumulation, storage and transmission of information, humanity has so far and has not come up with another system equal to writing and capable of performing these functions to the same extent. Writing is an additional means of communication. It arose out of the need to convey ideas to another tribe and descendants. Writing is one of the greatest inventions of mankind. Writing helps people communicate in cases where communication in audible language is either impossible or difficult. 1) The first historical type of writing was pictography, i.e. picture letter. Pictograms - units of such writing were scratched out and then drawn on the walls of caves, stones, rocks, animal bones, and on birch bark. In pictography, the symbol is a schematic drawing of a person, a boat, animals, etc. 2) Ideogram. Ideography is a writing in which graphic signs convey not words in their grammatical and phonetic design, but the meanings that stand behind these words. The transition from pictography to ideography is associated with the need to graphically convey something that is not visual and cannot be depicted in pictures. So, for example, the concept of “wakefulness” cannot be drawn, but one can draw the organ through which it manifests itself. i.e. through the image of an eye. In the same way, “friendship” can be conveyed by the image of two hands shaking one another, “enmity” by the image of crossed weapons, etc. The drawing in these cases appears figurative, and thereby in the conventional meaning. Hieroglyphs – “sacred writings” – were carved on bones and other materials. 3) phonography - a type of writing that reflects the pronunciation of words. Sound alphabet for writing; phonetic writing system. A) syllabic (each written sign denotes a specific syllable) b) vocal-sound (letters mainly designate the sounds of speech) Stages of development of writing: As a result of the evolution of the pictogram, ideogram and syllabogram, a letter appears - a sign of vocal-sound writing. (example: ancient Greek. The letter A was called “alpha” and denoted the vowel [a]). But the history of writing is not only the history of writing letters, at the same time it is also the history of the formation of modern alphabets and graphics.

Question№ 26: Composition of the modern Russian alphabet. Letter names. Phonetic and positional principles of Russian graphics. Designation on the letter of the phoneme [j]. Russian alphabet - (alphabet) - a set of graphic signs - letters in a prescribed sequence, which create the written and printed form of the national Russian language. Includes 33 letters: a, b, c, d, d, f, e, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, p, r, s, t, u, f, x, ts, ch, sh, sch, ъ, s, ь, e, yu, i. Most letters in written form are graphically different from printed ones. Except ъ, ы, ь, all letters are used in two versions: uppercase and lowercase. In printed form, the variants of most letters are graphically identical (they differ only in size; cf., however, B and b); in written form, in many cases, the spelling of uppercase and lowercase letters differs from each other (A and a, T, etc.). The Russian alphabet conveys the phonemic and sound composition of Russian speech: 20 letters convey consonant sounds (b, p, v, f, d, t, z, s, zh, sh, ch, ts, shch, g, k, x, m, n, l, p), 10 letters - vowels, of which a, e, o, s, i, u - only vowels, i, e, e, yu - softness of the preceding consonant + a, e, o, u or combinations j + vowel (“five”, “forest”, “ice”, “hatch”; “pit”, “ride”, “tree”, “young”); the letter "y" conveys "and non-syllabic" ("fight") and in some cases the consonant j ("yog"). Two letters: “ъ” (hard sign) and “ь” (soft sign) do not denote separate independent sounds. The letter “b” serves to indicate the softness of the preceding consonants, paired in hardness - softness (“mol” - “mol”), after the hissing letters “b” it is an indicator in writing of some grammatical forms (3rd declension nouns - “daughter”, but “brick”, imperative mood - “cut”, etc.). The letters “ь” and “ъ” also act as a dividing sign (“rise”, “beat”). Russian graphics are based on two basic principles - phonemic and positional. The essence of the phonemic principle of Russian graphics comes down to the fact that a letter denotes not a sound, but a phoneme. But there are more phonemes in the Russian language than letters. Another principle helps to smooth out such a discrepancy - positional (syllabic, letter combination), which allows you to clarify the sound meaning of a letter by means of another letter following it. The positional principle of Russian graphics is its great advantage, since thanks to it the transmission of hard and soft consonants in writing is halved (for example, in the Serbo-Croatian language there are special letters to indicate soft consonants: zh - soft l, sh - soft n). The positional principle is used to convey the hardness/softness of consonant phonemes and to indicate lt;jgt. The positional principle for conveying hardness/softness of consonant phonemes is implemented in the following way:

at the end of a word, the softness of a consonant is indicated by a soft consonant, and hardness by a space: coal_- angle_softness of a consonant before a hard consonant is conveyed by a soft sign: free - wave; the softness and hardness of a consonant before vowels differs using these vowels: single-digit letters indicate the hardness of the consonant phoneme, and multi-valued vowels - for softness: mayor, mor, bow, varnish, bast, but chalk, chalk, mil, crumpled. Designation on the phoneme letter [j]

In modern Russian there are two variants of pronunciation of the sound [j]. The first (and main) meaning of the sound [j] appears in the position before the vowel: fir-tree - lka, understand - understand. But at the end of a word or at the end of a syllable, the sound [j] is reduced, becomes short, approaching in sound the vowel sound [i]. It must be remembered that [j] does not coincide with e [i]: loaf, wait. In writing, the letter y denotes only the second variant of pronunciation of the sound [j]. In some borrowed words, the initial syllable [j] is denoted by this letter y: iod, yogi, etc. The phoneme [j] is not denoted by an independent letter when it is located before a vowel. Since in this position (at the beginning of a word between vowels, before a vowel) in writing, the combination of the sound [j] and a vowel is conveyed by one letter ya-ma; spruce; Christmas tree; yu--la. When the phoneme [j] comes after a consonant sound before a vowel, then the letters ъ and ь are written before the letters e, e, yu, i: six, drinks, otzd. You should not think that in this case the letters ъ and ь indicate the sound [j]. The letters ъ and ь are only indicators that the following letters e, ё, yu, i should be read not as [e, o, y, a], but as .

Question№ 27: Designation in writing of the hardness and softness of consonants. Vowels after sibilants and Ts. Meanings of vowel letters. Meanings of the letters b and b. The softness of consonants is indicated as follows. For paired consonants in terms of hardness / softness, softness is indicated: 1) by the letters i, e, e, yu, and: small - crumpled, mole - chalk, per - pen, storm - bureau, soap - milo (before e in borrowing, a consonant can be hard: mashed potatoes); 2) a soft sign - at the end of a word (horse), in the middle of a word at [l'] before any consonant (polka), after a soft consonant standing before a hard one (very, before) , and in a soft consonant standing before soft [g'], [k'], [b'], [m'], which are the result of changes in the corresponding hard ones (earrings - cf. earring) - see positions strong in hardness / softness .In other cases, a soft sign in the middle of a word to indicate the softness of paired consonants is not written (bridge, song, perhaps), because positional softness, like other positional changes in sounds, is not reflected in the letter. For unpaired consonants there is no need for additional designation of softness , therefore, graphic rules “cha, sha write with a” are possible. The hardness of paired consonants is indicated by the absence of a soft sign in strong positions (kon, bank), writing after the consonant the letters a, o, y, y, e (small, they say, mule, soap, peer); in some borrowings, a hard consonant is pronounced before e (phonetics). The hardness of unpaired hard consonants, as well as unpaired soft consonants, does not require additional designation, therefore it is possible that there may be a graphic rule about writing zhi and shi, orthographic rules about writing i and ы after c (circus and gypsies), o and e after zh and sh (rustle and whisper). Spelling of vowels after hissing and Ts. After the hissing consonants zh, ch, sh, shch the vowels a, u, i are written, and the vowels i, yu are never written , ы (thicket, bold). This rule does not apply to words of foreign origin (parachute) and complex abbreviated words in which any combination of letters is possible (Interjury Bureau). Under stress after sibilants it is written in, if you can find related words or another form of this word where e is written (yellow - yellowness); if this condition is not met, then o (clink glasses, rustle) is written. It is necessary to distinguish the noun burn and its related words from the past tense verb burn and its related words. The fluent vowel sound under stress after hissing ones is indicated by the letter o (sheath - nozho "n). Spelling of vowels after c. At the root after c is written and (civilization, mat); exceptions: gypsy, on tiptoe, tsyts, chicks are their cognate words. The letters i, yu are written after ts only in proper names of non-Russian origin (Zurich). Under stress, after ц it is written o (tso "kot). The choice of vowels; and or e. In foreign words it is usually written e (adequate); exceptions: mayor, peer, sir and their derivatives. If the root begins with the letter e, then it is retained and after prefixes or a cut with the first part of a complex word (save, three-story). After the vowel and is written e (requiem), after the remaining vowels - e (maestro). The letter and is written at the beginning of foreign words (yod, yoga). MEANINGS OF VOWEL LETTERS. VOWELS - these are sounds that consist only of the voice, in the formation of vowels the participation of the vocal cords and the absence of an obstacle in the oral cavity are required. Exhaled air passes through the mouth without encountering any obstacles. 10 letters are intended to indicate vowel sounds and are conventionally called vowels (a, y , o, ы, e, i, yu, e, i, e). There are 6 vowel sounds - [A] [O] [U] [Y] [I] [E]. In the Russian language there are more vowels than vowels sounds, which is associated with the peculiarities of the use of the letters i, yu, e, e (iotated). They perform the following functions: 1) indicate 2 sounds ([y"a], [y"y], [y"o], [th "e]) in the position after vowels, separating marks and at the beginning of a phonetic word: pit [y"aìma], my [may"aì], embrace [aby"at"]; 2) indicate the vowel and the softness of the preceding paired consonant sound in terms of hardness/softness: chalk [m"ol] - cf.: mole [mol] (an exception may be the letter e in borrowed words, which does not indicate the softness of the preceding consonant - puree [p"ureì ]; since a whole series of words of this kind borrowed by origin have become commonly used in the modern Russian language, we can say that the letter e in the Russian language has ceased to denote the softness of the preceding consonant sound, cf.: pos [t "e] l - pas [te] l ) ; 3) the letters e, e, yu after a consonant unpaired in hardness/softness indicate the vowel sound [e], [o], [u]: six [shes "t"], silk [silk], parachute [parachute]. In modern Russian, the letters b and b do not denote sounds, but perform only service functions. b performs three functions in the language: Indicates the softness of consonants, except for the hissing ones at the end of the word: mol, dal, free; and in the middle: take, coat. in such words it is also preserved before soft consonants: take, spit. A soft sign always denotes the softness of L before other consonants: ring, soap dish. Before soft consonants in the middle of a word, the softness of the consonants is not always indicated in writing. b is not written: chk barrel; chn nightlight; nch strum; nsch mason; rsch welder; shn assistant; st bones; nt cog. Used as a sign of a number of forms: nouns (3 cl. female form singular): night, mouse. verbs (2nd person, singular) look, say, verbs in the forms of the imperative mood: cry, hide .Together with Kommersant acts as a separator. They separate the vowel and the consonant preceding it: beat, enter, eat. Ъ as a separator is written before the letters i, ё, yu, e after the prefixes ab-, ad-, diz-, in-, inter-, con-, counter-, ob-, sub-, super-, trans-: trans-European.

Question№ 28: Sections of Russian spelling. Spellings. Types of spellings. Spelling is a branch of linguistics that studies the system of rules for the uniform spelling of words and their forms, as well as these rules themselves. The central concept of spelling is spelling. Spelling is a spelling regulated by a spelling rule or established in a dictionary order, that is, a spelling of a word that is selected from a number of possible ones from the point of view of the laws of graphics. Spelling is a case of choice where 1, 2 or more different spellings are possible. It is also a spelling that follows the rules of spelling. A spelling rule is a rule for spelling the Russian language, which spelling should be chosen depending on language conditions. Spelling consists of several sections: 1) writing significant parts of a word (morphemes) - roots, prefixes, suffixes, endings, that is, designating with letters the sound composition of words where this is not determined by graphics 2) continuous, separate and hyphenated writing; 3) the use of upper and lowercase letters; 4) hyphenation rules; 5) rules for graphic abbreviations of words. Principles of Russian spelling: 1. The leading principle of Russian orthography is the morphological principle, the essence of which is that morphemes common to related words retain a single outline in writing, and in speech they can change depending on phonetic conditions. Its essence is that phonetically positional changes - reduction of vowels, deafening, voicing, softening of consonants - are not reflected in writing. In this case, vowels are written as if under stress, and consonants as in a strong position, for example, a position before a vowel. Also, based on the morphological principle, a uniform spelling of words related to a specific grammatical form is drawn up. For example, ь (soft sign) is a formal sign of the infinitive. This principle applies to all morphemes: roots, prefixes, suffixes and endings.2. The second principle of Russian orthography is phonetic spelling, i.e. words are written the same way they are heard. This principle is implemented in three spelling rules - the spelling of prefixes ending in s/s (mediocre - restless, break - crucify), the spelling of the vowel in the prefix roz / raz / ros / ras (schedule - painting,) and the spelling of roots starting with and , after prefixes ending in a consonant (history - background).3. There is also a differentiating spelling (cf.: burn (noun) - burn (verb)) of the roots with alternations (add - fold) traditional spelling ().4. The traditional principle regulates the writing of unverifiable vowels and consonants (dog, pharmacy or letter and I after the letters Zh, Sh, Ts - live, sew), i.e. involves memorizing words. As a rule, these are foreign words and exception words. Let's look at other types of spellings: 1. Integrated, separate and hyphenated spelling Integrated, separate and hyphenated spelling is regulated by the traditional principle, taking into account the morphological independence of units. Individual words are written mostly separately, except for negative and indefinite pronouns with prepositions (not with anyone) and some adverbs (in an embrace), parts of words are written together or with a hyphen (cf.: in my opinion and in my opinion). 2. Use of capitals and lowercase letters The use of uppercase and lowercase letters is regulated by a lexical-syntactic rule: proper names and denominations (MSU, Moscow State University), as well as the first word at the beginning of each sentence, are written with a capital letter. The rest of the words are written with a lowercase letter. Transfer rules: The rules for transferring words from one line to another are based on the following rules: when transferring, first of all, the syllabic division of the word is taken into account, and then its morphemic structure: war, raz-bit, and not *vo-yn, *ra-zvit. One letter of the word is not carried over or left on the line. Identical consonants at the root of words are separated when transferred: kas-sa. Rules for graphic abbreviations of words: Abbreviation of words in writing is also based on the following rules: 1) only an integral, undivided part of a word can be omitted (lit-ra - literature, v/o - higher education); 2) when abbreviating a word, at least two letters are omitted; 3) you cannot shorten a word by throwing out its initial part; 4) the shortening should not fall on a vowel or the letters й, ъ, ь. Spelling analysis involves oral or written analysis of spelling patterns in a word. When performing a spelling analysis, you need to correctly write down a word given with a letter missing, or open the brackets, highlight the place of the spelling in the word, name the spelling and determine the conditions for its selection. If necessary, indicate a test word and give examples of this spelling.

Question№ 29: Representation by letters of the phonemic composition of words and morphemes. The principles of this section: phonemic, traditional, phonetic, morphological. Differentiating writing. The basic principle of spelling. The area of ​​orthography is significatively weak positions of phonemes. In the process of transmitting phonemic composition by letters, several principles of Russian orthography operate: 1) the phonemic principle, implemented in the case when the weak position of a phoneme can be verified by a strong position in the same morpheme; is based on the fact that the same letter denotes a phoneme in significatively strong and weak positions; 2) the morphematic (or morphological) principle of orthography is based on the requirement of uniform spelling of the same morphemes; covers those cases when the same morpheme in different words or forms of the same word has a different phonemic composition; 3) the traditional principle of Russian orthography is that a spelling is used that is fixed by tradition, which must be remembered; in school practice, such words with a hyperphoneme are fundamentally called dictionary words; 4) the phonetic principle, which lies in the fact that the letter does not denote a phoneme, but a sound appearing in a perceptually weak position: scatter - scatter. In the process of applying different principles, differentiating spellings arise, delimiting word forms in writing that coincide in phonemic composition: burn - burn, ink - ink, etc. Differentiating spellings (from the Latin differens - different) - different spellings that serve to distinguish homonyms in writing. Arson (noun) - set fire (past tense of the verb). Burn - burned. Overburned - overburned. Ball - point. Campaign - company (the origin of the words affects).

UNStressed words

Some words in speech are not stressed. They are adjacent to other words, forming one phonetic word with them. An unstressed word that comes before a stressed word is called, as we have already said, a proclitic. Proclitics are usually monosyllabic prepositions, conjunctions and some particles: on the mountain, to me; sister and brother; said / to come; Don't know.
An unstressed word that comes after the stressed word to which it is adjacent is called an enclitic; Enclitics are usually monosyllabic particles: tell me, he will come. Some monosyllabic prepositions and particles can take on stress, and then the independent word following them turns out to be an enclitic: on the back, under the arms.
Absolute proclitics and enclitics, adjacent to the main word, merge with it into one phonetic word, where vowels and consonants are pronounced as in one lexical word: to the garden (cf. annoyance), to force (cf. forcefully), with freedom (cf. free).
Relative proclitics and enclitics, without having their own stress and adjacent to the stressed word, do not completely lose some phonetic features of an independent word, which consist in the peculiarities of the pronunciation of certain sounds. For example, the unstressed conjunction but retains the sound [o] in pronunciation: frost, but the sun [no-sonts] (cf. in the sun [na-sonts]). Some unstressed pronouns have vowels pronounced that are not typical for unstressed syllables: those forests [t "e-l"isa] (cf. telesa [t "l" iesa]); deacon he [d)ak-on] (cf. deacon [d)ak'n\), etc. Individual clitics can retain the characteristics of an independent word, characterized by side stress. Such clitics are called relative, for example: in the phrase A searchlight beam stretched across the entire bay, the relative proclitic through - all, which is characterized by a weak stress, stands out in the first word.

If a phrase or bar contains several phonetic words, then one of them stands out with greater force and duration. The highlighting of one of the speech beats in a phrase is called phrasal stress (""), the highlighting of one of the words in a speech beat is bar stress ("). Phrase and bar stress are not directly related to the meaning; words highlighted by phrasal and bar stress are not important in semantically. Their function is to organize (unite) phonetic words and speech beats as part of a phrase. Words highlighted by phrasal and beat stress are usually found at the end, they serve as the boundaries of phrases and beats.
Logical stress should be distinguished from phrasal stress, which specifically highlights semantically important words. “Logical stress is the index finger, highlighting the most important word in a phrase or measure” (K.S. Stanislavsky).
Logical stress is stronger than phrasal stress and can fall on any word in a phrase or measure. Logical stress conveys various semantic relationships, value judgments, and expresses subjective assessment: Today is my birthday; Today is my birthday; Today is my birthday.