Social reforms of Catherine 2 table. Reforms of Catherine II and their results - Abstract

Catherine the Second, the Great Empress, ruled our country for exactly 34 years. This is a huge period of history, during which many different events took place.

In the mass consciousness, this ruler is associated with a lady insatiable in love. Well, Catherine II is known for her love affairs; in many historical novels you can read that the empress constantly changed favorites. But let's face the truth: has she really been busy exclusively with this for all 34 years? Surely not: all Russian historians consider the period of her reign to be the heyday of Russian literature, science and painting; It was then that Russian opera appeared and theatrical art developed at an unprecedented pace.

It was Catherine 2, whose reforms were thought out, balanced, and therefore cautious, who left a deep mark on the history of Russian diplomacy and legislation.

We should not forget about the brilliant military victories. While this autocrat occupied the throne, Russia did not suffer a single military defeat, unlike in previous periods. For example, in 1812 we defeated the French, although before that the victories on the battlefield belonged to them. Catherine's time is characterized by the annexation of Crimea, as well as harsh “lessons” for the Polish gentry. Finally, let us remember the famous reforms of Catherine 2.

Domestic policy

What was happening at this time inside the country? There were many events, since Catherine, unlike many of her predecessors, came to power with a ready-made program of action, which allowed her to pursue a truly effective policy. She positioned herself as “a faithful follower of the thinkers of the Enlightenment.” To her credit, Catherine knew how to understand which of their theories was suitable for real life and which was not so good.

So, in 1773, the famous Denis Diderot arrived in Russia on a visit, who was very interested in the management reforms of Catherine 2. He was surprised to find that the Empress listened to him attentively, listening to all his proposals, but... was in no hurry to implement any of them into life. When the somewhat stung philosopher asked why this was happening, Catherine said: “Paper can withstand anything, but I have to deal with people whose skin is much thinner than the paper web.”

Her second important thought concerned the fact that any initiative and reform should be carried out gradually, gradually preparing society for their acceptance. This distinguished Catherine favorably from both domestic rulers and European monarchs, who almost never took into account the interests of their subjects in such a matter.

So, what exactly did Empress Catherine 2 do? Reforms should begin to be described from the provincial level.

Provincial reform

She began to carry it out shortly after the Pugachev riot, which shook the very pillars of the Empire and was a kind of harbinger of future tragic events. Unlike Nicholas II, Catherine knew how to draw conclusions.

Firstly, the very name of this transformation is completely incorrect. The thing is that the essence of the reform was much deeper, representing the creation of an almost new management system “on the ground”.

A new division of the country was proposed. There were 50 provinces in total, and this division remained virtually unchanged until the collapse of the Empire in 1917. What does this mean? Simply put, several times more cities of “federal” significance were formed in the country than there were before. An appointed governor arrives in a specific locality, and a mass of energetic, educated people are sent there. As a result, the quiet and “musty” county town soon turned into a local center of social and political life.

Response to Pugachev's rebellion

Here an attentive reader may well ask the question: “And where is the influence of Pugachev’s rebellion?” It's simple: after these events, Catherine wanted most of the local authorities to be recruited from natives of the same area. Simply put, for the first time in the history of the House of Romanov, the people had the opportunity to independently choose those who would rule them. An unprecedented breakthrough for those times! This is what Catherine 2 became famous for. Her reforms made it possible to move away from the mossy social system of the early 16th century and finally forced many industries to really develop.

Bodies of self-government arose that are familiar to our time, but were a curiosity for that era. Let’s make a reservation right away: all this theoretically existed before Catherine. But this was not done purposefully, but only because of the lack of capital officials who could be sent to all the cities and villages of the vast empire. All these bodies had no real powers, limited only to the right to collect taxes and other mechanical operations. If we draw parallels with modern times, then the internal reforms of Catherine 2 were aimed at redistributing power.

All these transformations were a consequence of the empress’s conviction that all riots arise from the inability of appointed officials to quickly “get into” problems on the ground and solve them. In principle, such governors had no desire to do so: it was important for them to report on the achievements of the “people's five-year plan” and collect taxes. Nothing else was required of them, and initiative was always punishable.

It is important to note that after 1775, when this reform was carried out, there was not a single (!) repetition of the Pugachev rebellion. Local authorities, although sometimes distinguished by the same desire for bribery, were still much more interested in improving the life of their native land. Simply put, the government reforms of Catherine 2 were truly aimed at the benefit of the country.

The emergence of civic consciousness

Many historians agree that from then on, faint but still noticeable features of civil society and identity began to emerge. So, it was precisely in those days that it constantly happened that residents of small county towns held meetings, collected voluntary donations and used these funds to build gymnasiums, libraries, churches and other objects of the social and spiritual sphere.

Until then, such coherence and unanimity could not even be imagined. How far was the mentioned Diderot from a real solution to social problems!

Senate reform

Of course, Catherine 2 (whose reforms we describe here) was far from being a “herald of democracy.” She could not even imagine limiting her power in any way and weakening the institution of state absolutism. So, seeing the increasing independence of the Senate, the empress decided to take it “under the strong government wing,” limiting in every possible way any real power of this important body.

At the end of 1763, the structure of the Senate was recognized as “not corresponding to reality.” The role of the prosecutor general, who was appointed by the empress herself, was extremely elevated.

A. A. Vyazemsky was nominated to this place. In general, he was a famous man: even his enemies respected him for his incorruptibility, honesty and zeal in serving the Fatherland. He reported daily to Catherine on the work of the Senate, subordinated all the provincial prosecutors to himself, and also single-handedly performed many functions that until then had been distributed in the Senate. Of course, the role of this body was constantly declining, although formally this was not the case.

All functions of the Senate were soon distributed among completely autonomous departments, which in fact were only puppets and could no longer pursue a coherent general policy.

Changing the structure of public administration

At the same time, the complete inconsistency of the old system of urban management with the new aspirations of the state began to become more and more apparent. The provincial reform of Catherine II, which we have already described, made each city an absolutely independent administrative unit. The mayor was responsible for managing it, whose status immediately grew disproportionately.

He was appointed from among the nobles who had served in military service and had enormous power. This same official was responsible for police duties, and not just managerial functions, and therefore a person in this position had to be distinguished by enviable hard work. This reform of local government by Catherine II immediately contributed to the restoration of order locally.

On the contrary, town halls and magistrates immediately practically lost all their administrative significance, turning into judicial bodies for merchants and industrialists. A new magistrate was created, people were recruited on the recommendations of merchants and industrialists. This body was managed by the mayor. In addition, public and orphan courts operated in cities. From all this, city self-government was formed, the creation of which was aimed at the creation of many of the reforms of Catherine 2. Of course, it was under constant supervision by the central government, but still it was also a breakthrough in the field of social and managerial spheres. However, the authorities had no other choice: cities grew rapidly, many enterprises, communities, educational and other institutions appeared. All this had to be “brought to a common denominator”; everything required adequate urban management, which only the provincial reform of Catherine II could implement in practice.

Catherine's judicial reform

All of the above leads to a very simple conclusion: such a rapid development of the social sphere would be impossible without normal judicial bodies that could correctly resolve the inevitably arising contradictions and disputes, both between individual members of society and between their entire groups.

It should also be emphasized that the judicial reform of Catherine 2 was based on a similar initiative of Peter I, only the empress was able to find a much more elegant solution, and therefore the program was not only implemented, but also gave very good results.

In 1775, the first set of official regulations was published. Many administrative courts were abolished and completely disbanded. Finally, two branches of government were clearly delineated: judicial and administrative, which had previously been merged together. Moreover, the administrative power retained its unity of command, while the judicial authorities were governed collectively.

Of course, this is not what made the reforms of Catherine 2 famous. Their main significance for the judicial system is briefly revealed below.

Important Note

Most importantly, civil and criminal lawsuits were finally separated. At one time, it was this “atavism” that interfered with the administration of normal justice, since it was difficult to adequately distinguish between guilt for administrative violations and truly serious acts. The lower authority was the district court. Small and insignificant matters were sorted out in him. This significantly reduced the load on judges who were doing something really important.

In general, the results of Catherine 2’s reforms in all areas are the same - a sharp increase in the efficiency of many industries. This still makes us respect the empress for her remarkable managerial talent. But let's get back to the courts.

The county authority was considering more serious applications. Unlike the zemstvo described above, in this court the assessors were recruited from landowners. Meetings were held exactly three times a year, and the work of this body was already supervised by the prosecutor, whose duties included the function of “internal police,” since he recorded all cases of violation of the laws by the judges themselves and reported them “to the top.”

At the provincial level, the main body in the hierarchy became the Higher Zemstvo Court, which could be located not only in the provincial, but also in the district city. From now on, each administrative center could have several such bodies at once. Each of them already had ten assessors. The chairmen were chosen exclusively by the Senate, and their approval was often carried out personally by the head of state.

But this was not the only thing that marked the reforms of Catherine II: in short, the courts became more specialized.

Structural division of courts

The Upper Zemsky Court was divided into criminal and purely administrative departments. This was an important authority for the “junior” authorities. In addition, its judges had the right to hear more complex cases. The fact is that even then a list of offenses was established by law, which representatives of the lower zemstvo and district courts, as well as members of the magistrate, could not consider. All this hindered the development of nepotism in the localities.

The Provincial Court also had a public and criminal chamber. Each had its own chairman, as well as a couple of advisers and assessors. They could also be elected exclusively by the Senate and confirmed by the Supreme Power. It was the highest court of those times, in which the most complex cases were considered, and all the most serious and dangerous crimes were dealt with.

In a word, the judicial reform of Catherine 2 was very, very complex.

Secularization reform

Catherine began her work in 1764. All monastery lands were now officially transferred to the management of the Economic Board. During this reform, Catherine followed in the footsteps of Peter I, who did not favor the clergy too much. On the one hand, from now on the state was obliged to support the Church... but at the same time, the secular authorities themselves determined how many monasteries and clergy the country needed. The Collegium also had the right to alienate “excess” lands to the state fund.

Transformations in the educational sector

The education reform of Catherine II is also known. Its main task was the creation of educational homes, the pupils of which received monetary allowance, full maintenance and education. As a result, the country replenished the ranks of its citizens with a large number of educated and intelligent young people who were devoted to the state and brought up in the necessary moral and ethical spirit.

Police reform

In 1782, the “Charter of the Deanery” was approved. The council began to officially manage the city police department. It included: bailiffs, a police chief and a mayor, as well as a commission of citizens, the composition of which was determined by voting. This body could impose a fine or censure, and also had the right to prohibit certain types of activities.

What other important reforms of Catherine 2 were there? The table will give us the answer to this question, and will also somewhat complement the goals of the activities that have already been discussed in this article.

Here are the other reforms of Catherine 2. The table reveals their essence in sufficient detail.

results

Without exaggeration, we can say that all the events carried out were truly fateful. What did the reforms of Catherine 2 contribute to? Briefly (the table reveals this point), they were aimed at achieving dual goals:

Strengthening autocracy.

Economic freedom of the population, the opportunity for capable people to rise from the lower classes.

During her reign, the threat of disobedience from the Cossack freemen was almost completely eliminated. What other consequences can be named of the reforms of Catherine 2? The church was finally subordinated to the will of the state, the judicial branch became more flexible. Citizens, one way or another, got the opportunity to participate in the fate of their own city or even province.

This is what marked the reforms of Catherine 2. Briefly (the table will help you see this), society has become more conscious, free and socially protected.

Katerina Druga, the great empress, ruled our land for exactly 34 years. This is a great period of history, during which a lot of interesting events have arisen.

The masses know that this ruler is associated with a lady who is insatiable in love. Well, Catherine II is known for her love interests; in many historical novels you can read that the empress changed favorites gradually. But let us marvel at the truth in our eyes: is it really possible that all 34 years of life have been occupied with this? The melodious tone is silent: the period of her reign, all Russian historians revere the development of modern literature, science and painting - this is the Russian opera and the development of theatrical art at a slow pace.

Catherine 2 itself, the reforms of which were thought out, important, and therefore careful, lost a deep trace in the history of Vietnamese diplomacy and legislation.

Don’t forget about the brilliant military victories. While this autocracy occupied the throne, Russia did not recognize the constant military defeat that had taken place in the previous periods. For example, in 1812, our troops defeated the French, although before that they had victories on the battlefield. The Hour of Catherine is characterized by the acquisition of Crimea, as well as harsh “lessons” for the Polish gentry. The answer is, guess what, the reforms of Catherine II.

Domestic policy

What was happening at this hour in the middle of the country? It was supposed that Katerina, under the leadership of her rich predecessors, came to possess a ready-made program of action, which allowed her to conduct an effectively effective policy. She positioned herself as “a true follower of the thinkers of the Enlightenment era.” To her credit, Katerina was able to understand what of their theories was suitable for real life, and what was not.

Thus, in 1773, the famous Denis Diderot arrived in Russia with a visit, who was already affected by the reforms of Catherine II’s government. He was surprised to discover that the Empress respectfully listened to him, listening to all his propositions, aka... there is no hurry to let them into life . When the philosopher had asked a number of enemies why he was so excited, Katerina said: “Paper can endure everything, otherwise I have to deal with people whose skin is much thinner than paper linen.”

Another important idea was that the reform would be carried out step by step, with marriage being prepared before their acceptance. This obviously shocked Catherine both from the ancient rulers and from the European monarchs, who, in the interests of their subjects, practically did not care about such nutrition

Well, what exactly did Empress Katerina 2 do? Reforms have begun to be described in the provincial government.

provincial reform

She began to spend some time after the Pugachev rebellion, which shook the very foundations of the Empire and appeared as a kind of harbinger of the tragic events to come. Under the reign of Mikoli II, Katerina began to work again.

First of all, the very name of the re-creation is absolutely incorrect. The whole point is that the essence of the reform was much deeper, being the creation of a practically new management system “in the localities”.

A new hem of the edge was created. There were 50 provinces in total, and the group remained virtually unchanged until the collapse of the Empire in 1917. What does this mean? To put it simply, there have been many more places of “federal” significance in the region than ever before. For specific populations, the point of appointment is the governor, and there is a direct mass of energetic, enlightened people there. As a result, the quiet and “musty” village town was soon transformed into a local center of married and political life.

Reply to Pugachov's riot

Here the respected reader can ask the question: “And where does Pugachov’s rebellion come from?” It's simple: after these proposals, Katerina wanted most of the local power to be recruited from natives of this same locality. To put it simply, for the first time in the history of the House of Romanov, the people denied the ability to independently choose those who would rule over them. A great rush for these quiet times! This is what Katerina 2 became famous for. The reforms allowed her to come out of the mossy festivities of the beginning of the 16th century and decided to really develop a lot of problems.

Vinyls are self-propelled organs, which are essential for our time, but were a marvel for this era. Let’s get it straight: everything was theoretical before Katerina. But it did not work directly, but only through the marriage of capital officials, who could be sent to all the towns and villages of the untouchable empire. Of real importance, all these bodies are not small, between the right to collect taxes and other mechanical operations. If we draw parallels with modern times, then the internal reforms of Catherine II were aimed at redistributing the rulers.

All this transformation was the result of the empress’s succession in the fact that all the riots stemmed from the lack of authority of officials to quickly “get into” the problems in the localities and overcome them. In principle, such misters and bosses did not have such a thing: they were important to inform about the achievements of the “people's five-year-old party” and the collection of taxes. There was no other type of them needed, but the initiative was punished.

It is important to remember that after 1775, when the reform was carried out, there was no repetition of the Pugachovsky rebellion. The local authorities, although they were constantly engaged in the same struggles before the riot, were still much more focused on improving the life of their native land. Simply put, the sovereign reforms of Catherine II were effectively aimed at the benefit of the country.

The guilt of the giants' self-consciousness

There are many historians who agree on the Duma that from these times the weak began to appear, but there are still visible risks of colossal supremacy and self-indulgence. So, in those very hours it was steadily being crushed so that the inhabitants of small districts their localities held meetings, collected voluntary donations and attended These include gymnasiums, libraries, churches and other social and spiritual objects.

Until now, it was impossible to recognize such convenience and unity. How is the distant reality of Didro’s fortune-telling in the face of the real rise of serious problems!

Senate reform

Of course, Katerina 2 (the kind of reforms we describe here) was far from being the “spring of democracy.” She couldn’t allow anything nasty about those who wanted to limit their power and weaken the institution of sovereign absolutism. So, bachachi, in order to strengthen the independence of the Senate, the lady decided to take it “under the power of the state,” in any way limiting the real power of this important body.

At the end of 1763, the structure of the Senate was declared to be “not consistent with reality.” The role of the Prosecutor General, appointed by the Empress herself, was emphasized.

A. A. Vyazemsky was hanging on the spot. In general, people here know: he was respected by enemies for his integrity, honesty and jealousy in the service of the Fatherland. Having now informed Katerina about the work of the Senate, ordering all the provincial prosecutors, and also simultaneously ending many of the functions that had previously been divided in the Senate. Obviously, the role of this body was gradually declining, although formally everything was not so.

All the functions of the Senate were inevitably divided between absolutely autonomous departments, which in fact were no longer puppets and could no longer pursue a beneficial policy.

Change in the structure of municipal government

At the same time, the incompatibility of the old system of government with the new powers of the state is becoming increasingly apparent. We have already described the provincial reform of Catherine II, which created the locality as an absolutely independent administrative unit. The mayor, whose status was immediately up-to-date, was responsible for their ceremonies.

They were recognized as having served the military service of the nobles and the power of greatness. What kind of person in the village was responsible for the police, and not just administrative functions, and the person in this village was obliged to show enviable practicality. This reform of local government by Katerina 2 immediately brought order to the localities.

As a result, town halls and magistrates practically spent all their administrative significance by turning into judicial authorities for traders and tradesmen. Once a new magistrate was created, people were recruited based on the recommendations of merchants and traders. This organ is controlled by the small head. In addition, there were huge and orphan courts in the area. From this point of view, a kind of self-government was formed, which resulted from the direct reforms of Catherine II. First of all, she was under constant surveillance from the side of the central government, and yet there was also a breakthrough in the field of social and management this sphere. However, the authorities had no other way out: the place was growing intensively, resulting in a lack of businesses, communities, lighting and other installations. management, which only the provincial government could implement in practice Catherine's reform 2.

Katerini's court reform

All that has been said can be reduced to a completely simple conclusion: such a tumultuous development of the social sphere would have been impossible without normal judicial bodies, which could correctly correct the inevitable leaks of friction and superstitions, both between the neighboring members of the marriage and as well as entire groups.

It is also necessary to point out that the court reform of Catherine II was based on a similar initiative of Peter I, but only the empress was able to find a much more sophisticated solution, and the program was not only put into practice, but also gave even more garni results.

In 1775 the first edition of official regulations was published. A lot of administrative courts were limited and completely reorganized. In the end, two branches of power were clearly demarcated: the judicial and the administrative, which had previously been united. Moreover, the administrative authorities retained their unity of authority, while the judicial authorities were governed collectively.

Obviously, this is not what the reforms of Catherine II became famous for. Briefly, their main significance for the judicial system is revealed below.

respectful

The most important thing is to establish a separation between civil and criminal calls. At the same time, this “atavism” itself affected the administration of normal justice, since it was difficult to adequately distinguish between the guilt of administrative violations and truly serious actions. The lower authority became the district court. We sorted out the details of the various and insignificant things. Tim himself was significantly less interested in the courts, who were doing something really important.

The results of the reforms of Katerina 2 in all areas, however, have increased - there has been a sharp increase in the efficiency of the work of rich people. This makes it difficult to respect the empress for her extraordinary managerial talent. Let's go back to the courts.

The district authority examined the serious statements. To replace the well-described zemstvo, in whose court assessors were recruited from landowners. The meetings were held exactly three times in the river, and the work of this body was already supervised by the prosecutor, which generally included the function of “internal police”, as they recorded frequent episodes of violation of the laws by the judges themselves and having informed about those “upstairs”.

At the level of the province, the Supreme Zemsky Court became the head body of the hierarchy, which can be located not only in the province, but also in the district. Now there could be a number of such organs in the skin administrative center. Each of them already had ten witnesses. The heads were chosen inclusively by the Senate, and the head of the state took special care of their strongholds.

Not only were these marked by the reforms of Catherine II: seemingly briefly, the courts became more specialized.

Structural division of courts

The Upper Zemsky Court was divided into criminal and administrative branches. This was an important authority for “young” bodies. In addition, his judges were denied the right to review the completed certificates. On the right, the list of offenses had already been enshrined in law, but representatives of the lower zemstvo and district courts, as well as members of the magistrate, could not see. All this interfered with the development of nepotism in the localities.

The Provincial Court also had a large criminal chamber. The skin has a powerful head, as well as a pair of radiators and an assessor. They could also be elected by the Senate and confirmed by the Supreme Power. This was the main court of law during these hours, in which the most complicated cases were seen, and all the most serious and dangerous crimes were examined.

In a word, the court reform of Catherine II was great and great.

secularization reform

Before her, Katerina arrived in 1764. All lands of the monasteries were now officially transferred to the governing Economic Board. During this reform, Katerina followed in the footsteps of Peter I, who did not even favor the clergy. On the one hand, from now on the power of the Zobs was determined to take over the Church... and at the same time, the secular power itself already determined how many monasteries and clergy were needed in the country. and to the state fund.

Reinvention in the lighting sphere

There is also a reform of the illumination of Catherine 2. The head of this department is the creation of high-ranking houses, which were used to recover penny security, new replacement and illumination. As a result, the country replenished the ranks of its citizens with a great number of enlightened and intelligent young people, who were given to the state and trained in the required moral and ethical spirit.

Police reform

In 1782, the “Statute of Deanery” was confirmed. The department began to officially manage the local police department. At the warehouse there were: bailiffs, a police chief and a mayor, as well as a committee of citizens, the warehouse of which was designated as a voting route. This body could impose a fine or conviction, as well as the right to prohibit certain types of activity.

What were the other important reforms of Catherine 2? The table will give us a summary of the food, as well as complement the notes of these entries, which have already been seen in this article.

The axis of Katerina’s other reforms 2. The table clearly reveals their essence.

results

Without exaggeration, we can say that all the visits were successful. Why were the reforms of Katerini 2 hidden? Briefly (the table reveals this point) seemingly, the stench was aimed at achieving two goals:

The value of autocracy.

Economic freedom of the population, the ability for established people to rise from lower levels.

During her reign, the threat of rebellion from the side of the Cossack freemen was practically completely eliminated. What else can be called the legacy of the reforms of Catherine II? The Church was still subordinated to the will of the state, and the ship's galouze became more of a galloon. The people, no matter how they did, rejected the possibility of participating in the share of the powerful place and in the province.

This is what the reforms of Catherine II meant. Briefly (the table will help you figure it out), it seems that marriage has become more familiar, free and socially protected.

Reforms of Catherine 2 (briefly)

Provincial reform:

Judicial reform:

Secularization reform:

Senate Reform:

Urban reform:

Police reform:

Education reform

Currency reform

1. Brief biography of Catherine II………………………………………………………4

2. Beginning of the reign……………………………………………………6

3. Reforms of Catherine II……………………………………………………….…….7

Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………..17

References………………………………………………………......19

Introduction

Among the autocrats of the Russian Empire there are many strong, strong-willed individuals, whose political and legislative activities had a huge impact on the growth of not only Russia as a whole, but also individual social strata, the life and culture of society. The gradual modernization of life in Russia, the main impetus of which was given by the European policy of Peter I, was continued by other monarchs, whose era played an equally important role in the formation of the powerful Russian Empire. The Russian Empress Catherine II was a powerful legislator; In her government, she sought reforms and made an invaluable contribution to the development and strengthening of Russia. The era of her reign is highlighted by historians as a separate stage in the development of the empire, since it was Catherine II who carried out a course of reforms in the socio-political life of Russia, aimed at its modernization and strengthening state power in the country. This legislative activity of the empress responded to the spirit of the times, new European trends and ideas that the Enlightenment brought with it in the 18th century. The policy of enlightened absolutism of Catherine II, as the main reflection of the principles of the Enlightenment in Russia, is interesting not only for its innovations, but also for the combination of Western trends with the originality of Russia.

1. Brief biography of Catherine II

Catherine was born in 1729 in the German seaside town of Stettin. Born Sophia Frederica Augusta of Anhalt-Zerbst, she came from a poor German princely family.

Ekaterina Alekseevna was a rather complex and, of course, extraordinary person. On the one hand, she is a pleasant and loving woman, on the other, she is a major statesman.

In 1745, Catherine II converted to the Orthodox faith and was married to the heir to the Russian throne, the future Peter III. Having arrived in Russia as a fifteen-year-old girl, she quickly mastered the Russian language and customs. But with all her abilities, the Grand Duchess had a hard time adapting: there were attacks from the Empress (Elizabeth Petrovna) and neglect from her husband (Peter Fedorovich). Her pride suffered. Then Catherine turned to literature. Possessing remarkable abilities, will and hard work, she acquired extensive knowledge. She read a lot of books: French enlighteners, ancient authors, special works on history and philosophy, works of Russian writers. As a result, Catherine adopted the ideas of the enlighteners about the public good as the highest goal of a statesman, about the need to educate and educate subjects, about the primacy of laws in society.

In 1754, Catherine gave birth to a son (Pavel Petrovich), the future heir to the Russian throne. But the child was taken from his mother to the apartments of Empress Elizabeth Petrovna.

In December 1761, Empress Elizaveta Petrovna died. Peter III ascended the throne.

Catherine II was distinguished by her enormous capacity for work, willpower, determination, courage, cunning, hypocrisy, unlimited ambition and vanity, in general, all the traits that characterize a strong woman. She could suppress her emotions for the sake of developed rationalism. She had a special talent for winning general sympathy.

Catherine slowly but surely moved towards the Russian throne, and eventually took power from her husband. Soon after the accession of Peter III, unpopular among the clan nobility, she overthrew him, relying on the guards regiments.

From the first days of her reign, Catherine wanted to be popular among the broadest masses of the people; she demonstratively attended pilgrimages and went to worship holy places.

In the first years of her reign, Catherine II intensely searched for ways to establish herself on the throne, while showing extreme caution. When deciding the fate of the favorites and mistresses of the previous reign, she showed generosity and condescension, being careful not to cut from the shoulder. As a result, many truly talented and useful people remained in their previous positions. Catherine loved and knew how to appreciate the merits of people. She understood that her praise and rewards would make people work even harder.

2. Beginning of the reign

At the beginning of her reign, Catherine had not yet become accustomed to her new role and either continued to implement the policy outlined in the previous time, or completed it. Some of the empress's innovations were of a private nature and did not give grounds to classify Catherine's reign as an outstanding phenomenon in Russian history.

Catherine, not without reason, pointed out the rather difficult circumstances under which she began to reign. Finances were depleted. The army did not receive pay for three months. Trade was in decline, because many of its branches were given over to monopoly. There was no correct system in the state economy. The War Department was plunged into debt; the sea barely held on, being in extreme neglect. The clergy was dissatisfied with the taking of lands from him. Justice was sold at auction, and laws were followed only in cases where they favored the powerful.

Immediately after Catherine's accession, vigorous activity was noticeable in the state body. At the same time, the empress’s personal participation in resolving all sorts of issues was demonstrated in all respects.

From the moment of her accession to the throne until her coronation, Catherine participated in 15 meetings of the Senate, and not without success. In 1963, the Senate was reformed: it was divided into six departments with strictly defined functions and, under the leadership of the Attorney General, appointed by the monarch, it became a body of control over the activities of the state apparatus and the highest judicial authority. The Senate lost its main function - legislative initiative; it actually passed to the empress. The death of Ivan Antonovich freed Catherine from fear for the future of her throne. Now her ambition could be satisfied by the implementation of her own plans. She has accumulated some management experience and plans to implement innovations have emerged.

3. Catherine's reforms II

"Mandate" and the Commission of 1767 - 1768

In January 1765, Catherine began direct work on the legislative project.

In July 1767, over 500 locally elected deputies gathered in Moscow to form the “Commission on the Drafting of a New Code,” which worked for seven years. On June 30, the Commission began its work, the “Order” was officially promulgated, and all deputies received the texts of the Code of Legal Principles.

The official text of the “Order of the Commission on the drafting of a new code” consisted of 20 thematic chapters and 526 articles. Most of the text was apparently borrowed. However, in the end, Catherine came up with a creation that was independent in design and political principles. The postulates of the laws she developed were aimed at strengthening the unlimited power of the monarch, legality based on “reasonable leniency,” guaranteeing civil rights in the form of privileges for classes, and general reform of the legal system in the spirit of these principles.

The first five chapters recorded the most important principles of the power of government in Russia as indisputable, “fundamental” principles of the life of society in general. One of the very first articles of the Order proclaimed Russia a European power. This provision had an important political connotation: following Montesquieu’s criteria, all the laws of European statehood are inherent in Russia, despite its particular vastness. The main one of these laws is “The sovereign in Russia is autocratic; for no other power, as soon as the power united in his person, can act similarly to the space of such a great state.” And “any other rule would not only be harmful to Russia, but also ultimately ruinous.” However, the new, legal monarchy has a new goal: to direct all people’s actions to receive the greatest good from everyone, to promote the prosperity of society, and to guarantee the rights of citizen-subjects. The sovereign cannot and should not rule everywhere himself, although it was he who was supposed to be the legal source of all power in the state. This shows that the “Nakaz” fully preserved the absolutism of the monarchy.

Chapters 9 and 10 established the principles of legislation in the field of criminal law. A properly constructed criminal law was proclaimed to be the most important guarantee of civil “liberty.” The “mandate” categorically prohibited any form of cruel punishment and reduced possible cases of the death penalty. The court is also not so much a punitive institution as a body for protecting society and citizens. And since the court operates in a real estate society, guarantees of judicial justice in it should consist in the participation of elected representatives from estates in the consideration of cases.

Chapters 11-18 were devoted to legislation in the social and legal sphere and civil law. Society is divided into three classes, based on natural and historical differences in occupations. The more honorable place of the nobles guaranteed them special privileges in the service and in property. But it is also important for the peasantry to “establish something useful.” The law must protect everyone, but civil rights are granted according to class.

The last, 19th and 20th chapters of the “Order” established some rules in certain matters of legislation. Freedom of religion was declared, and courts not provided for by law were prohibited.

Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………..……..3

1. Brief biography of Catherine II………………………………………………………4

2. Beginning of the reign……………………………………………………6

3. Reforms of Catherine II……………………………………………………….…….7

Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………..17

References………………………………………………………......19

Introduction

Among the autocrats of the Russian Empire there are many strong, strong-willed individuals, whose political and legislative activities had a huge impact on the growth of not only Russia as a whole, but also individual social strata, the life and culture of society. The gradual modernization of life in Russia, the main impetus of which was given by the European policy of Peter I, was continued by other monarchs, whose era played an equally important role in the formation of the powerful Russian Empire. The Russian Empress Catherine II was a powerful legislator; In her government, she sought reforms and made an invaluable contribution to the development and strengthening of Russia. The era of her reign is highlighted by historians as a separate stage in the development of the empire, since it was Catherine II who carried out a course of reforms in the socio-political life of Russia, aimed at its modernization and strengthening state power in the country. This legislative activity of the empress responded to the spirit of the times, new European trends and ideas that the Enlightenment brought with it in the 18th century. The policy of enlightened absolutism of Catherine II, as the main reflection of the principles of the Enlightenment in Russia, is interesting not only for its innovations, but also for the combination of Western trends with the originality of Russia.

1. Brief biography of Catherine II

Catherine was born in 1729 in the German seaside town of Stettin. Born Sophia Frederica Augusta of Anhalt-Zerbst, she came from a poor German princely family.

Ekaterina Alekseevna was a rather complex and, of course, extraordinary person. On the one hand, she is a pleasant and loving woman, on the other, she is a major statesman.

In 1745, Catherine II converted to the Orthodox faith and was married to the heir to the Russian throne, the future Peter III. Having arrived in Russia as a fifteen-year-old girl, she quickly mastered the Russian language and customs. But with all her abilities, the Grand Duchess had a hard time adapting: there were attacks from the Empress (Elizabeth Petrovna) and neglect from her husband (Peter Fedorovich). Her pride suffered. Then Catherine turned to literature. Possessing remarkable abilities, will and hard work, she acquired extensive knowledge. She read a lot of books: French enlighteners, ancient authors, special works on history and philosophy, works of Russian writers. As a result, Catherine adopted the ideas of the enlighteners about the public good as the highest goal of a statesman, about the need to educate and educate subjects, about the primacy of laws in society.

In 1754, Catherine gave birth to a son (Pavel Petrovich), the future heir to the Russian throne. But the child was taken from his mother to the apartments of Empress Elizabeth Petrovna.

In December 1761, Empress Elizaveta Petrovna died. Peter III ascended the throne.

Catherine II was distinguished by her enormous capacity for work, willpower, determination, courage, cunning, hypocrisy, unlimited ambition and vanity, in general, all the traits that characterize a strong woman. She could suppress her emotions for the sake of developed rationalism. She had a special talent for winning general sympathy.

Catherine slowly but surely moved towards the Russian throne, and eventually took power from her husband. Soon after the accession of Peter III, unpopular among the clan nobility, she overthrew him, relying on the guards regiments.

From the first days of her reign, Catherine wanted to be popular among the broadest masses of the people; she demonstratively attended pilgrimages and went to worship holy places.

In the first years of her reign, Catherine II intensely searched for ways to establish herself on the throne, while showing extreme caution. When deciding the fate of the favorites and mistresses of the previous reign, she showed generosity and condescension, being careful not to cut from the shoulder. As a result, many truly talented and useful people remained in their previous positions. Catherine loved and knew how to appreciate the merits of people. She understood that her praise and rewards would make people work even harder.

2. Beginning of the reign

At the beginning of her reign, Catherine had not yet become accustomed to her new role and either continued to implement the policy outlined in the previous time, or completed it. Some of the empress's innovations were of a private nature and did not give grounds to classify Catherine's reign as an outstanding phenomenon in Russian history.

Catherine, not without reason, pointed out the rather difficult circumstances under which she began to reign. Finances were depleted. The army did not receive pay for three months. Trade was in decline, because many of its branches were given over to monopoly. There was no correct system in the state economy. The War Department was plunged into debt; the sea barely held on, being in extreme neglect. The clergy was dissatisfied with the taking of lands from him. Justice was sold at auction, and laws were followed only in cases where they favored the powerful.

Immediately after Catherine's accession, vigorous activity was noticeable in the state body. At the same time, the empress’s personal participation in resolving all sorts of issues was demonstrated in all respects.

From the moment of her accession to the throne until her coronation, Catherine participated in 15 meetings of the Senate, and not without success. In 1963, the Senate was reformed: it was divided into six departments with strictly defined functions and, under the leadership of the Attorney General, appointed by the monarch, it became a body of control over the activities of the state apparatus and the highest judicial authority. The Senate lost its main function - legislative initiative; it actually passed to the empress. The death of Ivan Antonovich freed Catherine from fear for the future of her throne. Now her ambition could be satisfied by the implementation of her own plans. She has accumulated some management experience and plans to implement innovations have emerged.

3. Catherine's reforms II

"Mandate" and the Commission of 1767 - 1768

In January 1765, Catherine began direct work on the legislative project.

In July 1767, over 500 locally elected deputies gathered in Moscow to form the “Commission on the Drafting of a New Code,” which worked for seven years. On June 30, the Commission began its work, the “Order” was officially promulgated, and all deputies received the texts of the Code of Legal Principles.

The official text of the “Order of the Commission on the drafting of a new code” consisted of 20 thematic chapters and 526 articles. Most of the text was apparently borrowed. However, in the end, Catherine came up with a creation that was independent in design and political principles. The postulates of the laws she developed were aimed at strengthening the unlimited power of the monarch, legality based on “reasonable leniency,” guaranteeing civil rights in the form of privileges for classes, and general reform of the legal system in the spirit of these principles.

The first five chapters recorded the most important principles of the power of government in Russia as indisputable, “fundamental” principles of the life of society in general. One of the very first articles of the “Nakaz” proclaimed Russia a European power. This provision had an important political connotation: following Montesquieu’s criteria, all the laws of European statehood are inherent in Russia, despite its particular vastness. The main one of these patterns is “The sovereign in Russia is autocratic; for no other power than the power united in his person can act in a manner similar to the space of such a great state.” And “any other rule would not only be harmful to Russia, but also ultimately ruinous.” However, the new, legal monarchy has a new goal: to direct all people’s actions to receive the greatest good from everyone, to promote the prosperity of society, and to guarantee the rights of citizen-subjects. The sovereign cannot and should not rule everywhere himself, although it was he who was supposed to be the legal source of all power in the state. This shows that the “Nakaz” fully preserved the absolutism of the monarchy.

Chapters 9 and 10 established the principles of legislation in the field of criminal law. A properly constructed criminal law was proclaimed to be the most important guarantee of civil “liberty.” The “mandate” categorically prohibited any form of cruel punishment and reduced possible cases of the death penalty. The court is also not so much a punitive institution as a body for protecting society and citizens. And since the court operates in a real estate society, guarantees of judicial justice in it should consist in the participation of elected representatives from estates in the consideration of cases.

Chapters 11-18 were devoted to legislation in the social and legal sphere and civil law. Society is divided into three classes, based on natural and historical differences in occupations. The more honorable place of the nobles guaranteed them special privileges in the service and in property. But it is also important for the peasantry to “establish something useful.” The law must protect everyone, but civil rights are granted according to class.

The last, 19th and 20th chapters of the “Order” established some rules in certain matters of legislation. Freedom of religion was declared, and courts not provided for by law were prohibited.

Despite the complete failure of the Commission, it still had important consequences for the subsequent activities of Catherine II. In this regard, the meeting of deputies of 1767-1768 played a major role. The deputies brought a lot of instructions, their speeches were left in the archives of the Commission, thus the opinions of both the estates and the individuals they separately elected on subjects that interested the Empress were expressed. A huge amount of factual material was collected, reflecting a picture of the views, moods and interests of the society of that time. In addition, Catherine managed to make Russians think about state freedom, political rights, religious tolerance, and the equality of all subjects in the face of the Law. The commission showed exactly what needs to be corrected and what these principles need to be applied to. After the dissolution of the Commission of the Code, Catherine II began her own development of a series of legislative acts that constituted the reform of “enlightened absolutism”, the basis for which were the principles and rules of the previously published “Nakaz”. The reform of local self-government was especially important.

Provincial reform

The provincial institutions of Empress Catherine II constituted an entire era in the history of local government in Russia. In 1775, an extensive legislative document “Establishment for the Administration of Provinces” was published. In accordance with this document, a new administrative-territorial division came into force, and major changes were made to local government. This system lasted for almost a century.

All newly formed provinces and districts received a uniform structure based on a strict separation of administrative, financial and judicial affairs. The province was headed by a government-appointed governor with his deputy, the vice-governor. Sometimes two or three provinces were united under the control of a governor-general. The country was divided into 50 provinces; the provinces were abolished, each province was divided into 10-12 districts. This division was based on the principle of the size of the tax-paying population. A certain number of inhabitants was established for provinces and districts: 300-400 thousand and 20-30 thousand people, respectively.

With the change in the boundaries of the former administrative territories, new district and provincial centers arose. The local government system was reorganized. The weakness of the previous local government was manifested in its inability to suppress anti-government protests on its own. This was convincingly proven by the events of the Moscow “plague riot” of 1771 (a widespread uprising caused by the strictness of quarantine), and especially the Pugachev uprising. Now the central government had numerous administrative institutions at its disposal; any armed uprising would have met with quick and brutal rebuff.

Catherine II developed her provisions on the provinces, striving, first of all, to increase the strength of the administration, delineate departments and attract zemstvo elements to management. In each provincial city, the following were established: provincial boards headed by the governor (had an administrative nature, represented government power and was the auditor of the entire administration), criminal and civil chambers (the highest court bodies in the province), the treasury chamber (financial management body), the upper zemstvo court (judicial place for noble litigation and for the trial of nobles), provincial magistrate (judicial place for persons of the urban class for claims and litigation against them), upper justice (judicial place for fellow believers and state peasants), order of public charity for the establishment of schools, almshouses, etc. All these institutions were collegial in nature and were considered class-based, but in reality all power belonged to the governor.

In each district city there were: a lower zemstvo court (in charge of the affairs of the district police and administration, consisting of a police officer and assessors), a district court (for nobles, subordinate to the Upper Zemstvo Court), a city magistrate (a judicial seat for citizens, subordinate to the provincial magistrate), a lower reprisal (court for state peasants, subordinated to the upper reprisal).

Judicial reform

For the first time in Russia, a court appeared, separated from the executive branch, although dependent on it. The activities of the new bodies acquired the features of self-government, since local residents took part in it. The new courts were elected. Separately, courts were elected for the nobles, the urban population and for those peasants who were not in serfdom.

As a result of the regional reform, police and noble supervision over the population was strengthened, and the number of officials was increased. 216 new cities appeared due to the abolition of the autonomy of the outskirts (in 1775 the Zaporozhye Sich was destroyed, Cossack self-government on the Don was abolished, and the autonomy of Estland and Livonia was abolished).

These were the main measures taken by Catherine II regarding government. As a result, the empress strengthened the composition of the administration, correctly distributed departments between governing bodies and gave broad participation to the zemstvo in new institutions. But the disadvantage of the local institution of 1775 was the previous system in the central administration, the responsibility for leadership and general supervision. With the exception of two institutions (the court of conscience and the order of public charity), all the rest were bodies of one class. Self-government acquired a strictly class character: it was not an innovation for the townspeople, but was a major reform for the nobility.

“Charter of Complaint to the Nobility”

In 1785, Catherine II published the Charter of the Nobility and in it confirmed all their rights received from previous sovereigns, giving them new ones.

Under Catherine II, the nobleman became a member of the provincial noble corporation, which was privileged and held local self-government in its hands. The charter of 1785 established that a nobleman cannot, except by court, lose his title and transfer it to his wife and children. He was freed from taxes and corporal punishment, owned as inalienable property everything that was on his estate, was finally freed from the formerly obligatory public service, but could not take part in elections to noble positions if he did not have an officer rank. Deprivation of noble dignity could be carried out only by decision of the Senate with the highest approval. The estates of convicted nobles were not subject to confiscation. The nobility was now called "noble".

Peasant reforms

She forbade free people and freed peasants from re-entering serfdom. By her order, for the newly established cities, the government bought out serfs and turned them into townspeople. Children of serfs, taken into state care in orphanages, became free. Catherine was preparing a decree according to which children of serfs born after 1785 were considered free. She also dreamed of implementing another project - it would lead to the gradual liberation of peasants during the transfer of estates from one hand to another. But this project was not published, as the empress was afraid of noble discontent.

“Charter of Complaint to Cities”

Simultaneously with the Charter, a Charter was issued to the nobility on the rights and benefits of the cities of the Russian Empire. Like the nobility, urban society was viewed as a legal entity enjoying corporate rights, the main of which was the right of self-government. Its primary body was the city assembly, which elected the city mayor and representatives of the judiciary. The administrative body of class self-government was the general city duma, which met once every three years. It represented the mayor and the so-called vowels (deputies) from six categories of the city population (“real city inhabitants,” that is, owners of real estate within the city); merchants of three guilds; guild artisans; Russian and foreign specialists; “famous citizens” - a large group of people who served in elections, businessmen, intellectuals, townspeople. In the interval between meetings of the city duma, its functions were transferred to the executive body - the six-vote duma, which included one vowel from each category of the population. Compared to the self-government of the nobility, elected city bodies had much fewer rights and were subject to petty state-bureaucratic supervision.

A comparison of all three documents (the Charter to the nobility, the Charter to the cities and the unpublished Charter to the state peasants) allows us to believe that the empress did not so much strive to support one or another class, but rather cared about strengthening the state, the basis of which was, in her opinion, the strong classes of Western European type. It was under Catherine II that a civil society based on the strengthening of classes began to take shape.

Other works on legislation and law, developed by Catherine II in 1770-1780, also played an important role in the formation of the civil society of the Russian Empire. Catherine II was engaged in other projects: about the reconstruction of prisons, about changing the search procedure. From the Code arose a small decree of 1781 changing the responsibility for various types of theft. At the same time, Catherine drew up an extensive charter for the deanery, promulgated in 1782. The Charter defined the principles of reforming police institutions in the country, new tasks of police institutions - not only to search for criminals and maintain order, but also to regulate social life in cities in general. The Charter also included the Criminal Code (since the powers included the right not only to put on trial, but also to determine punishments for minor crimes).

Development of trade and industry

Among the individual events of the enlightened government of Catherine II, the Empress’s patronage of Russian trade also stands out, evidence of which is the Charter of the Cities of 1785. Catherine’s attitude towards Russian trade and industry was affected by the empress’s dependence on Western European ideas. Since Peter I in Russia, a system of old government control was established over trade and industry, and the activities of the commercial and industrial class were constrained by regulation. Catherine II removed these restrictions and destroyed the control bodies - the Berg Manufactory Collegium. She promoted the development of industry and trade. Under her, banknotes, or paper money, were issued for the first time, which greatly helped trade. Wanting to better organize credit, Catherine II established a state loan bank with large capital.

In November 1775, for the development of trade and industry, a Manifesto was issued on the freedom to establish industrial enterprises (“stans”), and freedom of entrepreneurship was declared. Merchants who owned capital over 500 rubles were exempt from the poll tax and paid a tax of one percent on capital; A representative of the merchant class could be freed from conscription duty by paying 360 rubles. Also in 1775, the empress adopted a preferential customs tariff for the Black Sea ports and abolished industrial and trade monopolies. The development of southern Russia made grain trade on the Black Sea possible; New cities were founded in Russia, a naval base was built in Sevastopol. These measures, carried out by Catherine in Russia's economic policy, contributed to the expansion of exports and the improvement of various industries.

Expansion of public education

Important results of the government of “enlightened absolutism” include the measures taken by Catherine II regarding public education. Catherine II, in her “Instructions,” was the first to talk about the educational significance of education and then began to take care of the establishment of various educational institutions.

In accordance with the “General Institution for the Education of Both Sexes of Youth,” a school was opened at the Academy of Arts (1764), the Society of Two Hundred Noble Maidens (1764) with sections for middle-class girls, a commercial school (1772)

In 1782, the Commission on the Establishment of Schools was formed to carry out a larger school reform. These schools were all-class and were maintained at the expense of the state.

The main merit of Catherine II in the field of educational reforms can be considered the first experience of creating in Russia a system of general primary education, not limited by class barriers (with the exception of serfs). The significance of this reform is very high, because it was about creating an all-Russian educational school system.

Organization of medical care to the population

It is also noteworthy that under Catherine II, the organization of medical care to the population was entrusted to the authorities. Concerns about public health and hygiene led to an attempt under the empress to properly organize medical care throughout the country. The medical commission, established in 1763, and the orders of public charity were supposed to oversee the medical unit in the empire and train medical workers. Each city was required to have a hospital and a pharmacy, where patients were offered not those medicines that were cheaper, but those prescribed by the doctor. The city was also supposed to establish asylums for the incurable and the insane. Since there were not enough doctors, they were discharged from abroad and Russian doctors and surgeons were trained. At the same time, pharmacies and surgical instrument factories were founded. In 1783, Catherine II organized a medical service to monitor the health of the population. She established hospitals and psychiatric hospitals.

Development of Russian science

Russian science is making a big step forward. In 1783, a special Russian Academy was founded for the study of language and literature. The Academy of Sciences, which existed since Peter the Great's time, conducted five geographical expeditions in the years 1768-1774, which made a valuable contribution to the study of the geography of the country. The Academy of Sciences began publishing Russian chronicles, and twenty-five volumes of ancient Russian documents were published. In 1765, the Free Economic Society emerged, intended to popularize advanced agronomic knowledge and promote landowner rationalization. Numerous articles on the organization and management of agriculture were published in the proceedings of the Free Economic Society. The number of Russian scientists at the Academy of Sciences has increased significantly, among them the outstanding naturalists I. I. Lepyokhin, N. Ya. Ozeretskovsky, astronomer S. Ya. Rumovsky, mineralogist V. M. Severgin and others. The second half of the 18th century included the activities of prominent historians M. M. Shcherbatov and I. N. Boltin; sources on Russian history were actively published (by N.I. Novikov, the Academy of Sciences). Publishing output is increasing enormously. Over the entire 18th century, 9,500 books were published in Russia, of which about 85% were published during the reign of Catherine II. On January 15, the Empress signed a decree allowing the establishment of “free” printing houses.

Positive changes have also occurred in the organization of research work. In 1783, Princess E.R. Dashkova was appointed director of the Russian Academy of Sciences, who showed remarkable abilities in the administrative field. During the twelve years of her tenure in this post, the academic economy and academic educational institutions were put in order, the work of publicly accessible courses in the main branches of science was established, and the publishing activity of the Academy was intensified.

Conclusion

Catherine II was a subtle psychologist and an excellent judge of people; she skillfully selected assistants for herself, not being afraid of bright and talented people. That is why Catherine’s time was marked by the appearance of a whole galaxy of outstanding statesmen, generals, writers, artists, and musicians. In dealing with her subjects, Catherine was, as a rule, restrained, patient, and tactful. She was an excellent conversationalist and knew how to listen carefully to everyone. By her own admission, she did not have a creative mind, but she was good at catching every sensible thought and using it for her own purposes.

During the entire reign of Catherine there were practically no noisy resignations, none of the nobles were disgraced, exiled, much less executed. Therefore, there was an idea of ​​Catherine’s reign as the “golden age” of the Russian nobility. At the same time, Catherine was very vain and valued her power more than anything else in the world. In order to preserve it, she is ready to make any compromises to the detriment of her beliefs.

Under Catherine II, the country's territory, population (by 75%), and income (more than quadrupled) increased significantly. Victories on land and sea glorified Russian weapons and military art. Equally impressive are the successes in economics and culture. But despite all this, one cannot help but see the difficult situation of the working strata of the population. It is not without reason that during the reign of Catherine II, the most powerful popular uprising in the history of feudal Russia took place, led by E. I. Pugachev.

In her policy, Catherine II relied on the Russian nobility. It is not for nothing that Russian nobles, both during her lifetime and after her death, spoke and wrote about the golden age of Catherine the Great, Mother Empress, and wise ruler.

It is difficult to unambiguously assess the results of the reign of Catherine II. Many of her outwardly effective undertakings, conceived on a broad scale, led to modest results or gave unexpected and often erroneous results.

It can also be said that Catherine simply implemented the changes dictated by the times and continued the policies outlined in her previous reigns.

Or recognize her as a major historical figure who took the second, after Peter I, step along the path of Europeanization of the country, and the first along the path of reforming it in a liberal-educational spirit.

Bibliography

1. Encyclopedia for children “Avanta+”. Russian history. Volume 5, part two. M.: Avanta+, 1997.

2. “Order” of Empress Catherine II. S. - Petersburg, 1907.

3. History of Russia. A. Ishimova. M.: Olma-Press, 2000.