All-Russian market. Formation of the all-Russian market

Lecture: New phenomena in the economy: the beginning of the formation of the all-Russian market, the formation of manufactories. Legal registration of serfdom

New trends in the economy

Most of the negative consequences that the Russian State faced after the Time of Troubles was overcome only by the middle of the 17th century. The basis for overcoming the crisis was the development of new lands, namely: Siberia, the Urals and the Wild Field. The borders expanded, the population increased to 10.5 million people.

A merchant's family in the 17th century, A.P. Ryabushkin, 1896

The tsarist government, trying to overcome the crisis, granted privileges to the merchants: low taxation, the introduction of duties for foreign merchants. Nobles, boyars and the church became more actively involved in market relations, developing a common market.

A new trend in the economy of that time was a smooth transition from handicrafts to small-scale production, focused on needs. Mining began to develop actively. Product-oriented centers appeared: metallurgy - the Tula-Serpukhov-Moscow and Ustyuzhno-Zheleznopolsky regions, woodworking - Moscow, Tver, Kaluga, jewelry production - Veliky Ustyug, Tikhvin, Nizhny Novgorod and Moscow.

The specialization of various territories in the production of a particular product led to the activation of the common market. Fairs appeared, where specialized goods from one area were supplied to another. Arkhangelsk and Astrakhan are also of particular importance as centers for conducting foreign economic relations. Although the agricultural segment remained the leading one in the Russian State, handicrafts are gradually turning into manufactories.

Manufactory- an enterprise using the manual labor of workers and the division of labor.

In the 17th century, there were about thirty different manufactories in Russia, and private manufactories appeared. The market is growing even faster.

In 1650-1660, a monetary reform was carried out. To increase national wealth, Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich introduces "protectionism", the protection of domestic producers against foreign ones, with the application of duties for foreign merchants. Legislative support for domestic producers also begins - the New Trade Charter of 1667 (author A.L. Ordin-Nashchokin) is created, which increases the duty on foreign goods.

Legal registration of serfdom

In social terms, many changes also took place: the boyars lost their power and influence on the state, merchants came to the fore in terms of status among the urban population, the clergy did not change their positions and played a big role in the life of the state. Peasants were the largest group among the population.

Yuriev day. Painting by S. Ivanov

The policy of enslavement of the peasants continues actively. This process was lengthy. Let us recall how, after the ban on the transfer of peasants from one landowner to another on St. George's Day in 1581, scribe books are compiled to control the number of peasants in the land. A law is issued on the investigation and return of fugitive peasants - a decree on lesson years. In 1597, a law came into force that deprived the right to release bonded serfs, even after paying all debts. Also, free (voluntary) serfs who worked for more than six months with the owner also became complete serfs. They could get freedom only in the event of the death of the feudal lord. The boyar tsar V. Shuisky in 1607 established a search for fugitive peasants for a period of 15 years, it was also forbidden to prevent the capture or hide the fugitives.

And in 1649, the Cathedral Code was the last act of enslavement of the peasants. Peasants were forbidden for life to move from one owner to another. The terms of the investigation were canceled, that is, the investigation of fugitive peasants became indefinite. Chernososhnye (paying taxes to the state) and palace (working for the palace) peasants also no longer had the right to leave their communities. The Cathedral Code of 1649 became a legal document that legalized serfdom. In the future, this will lead to a series of uprisings due to the split of society.

• the transition of the peasants, which prevented the collection of taxes;
• the desire of the peasants to flee to the outskirts, while the state needed taxpayers;
• the need for a free labor force necessary to restore the devastation of the Time of Troubles and the economic development of the country based on the activities of manufactories;
• strengthening the autocratic power of the monarch;
• the desire of the nobility for personal enrichment;
• preventing uprisings like the Salt Riot of 1648 in Moscow.

The ruin caused by the Time of Troubles is difficult to express in numbers, but it can be compared with the devastation after the Civil War of 1918-1920. or with damage from military operations and occupation in 1941-1945. Official censuses - scribe books and "watches" of the 20s. 17th century - they constantly noted “a wasteland that was a village”, “arable land overgrown with forest”, empty yards, whose owners “wandered off without a trace”. In many districts of the Muscovite state, from 1/2 to 3/4 of the arable land was "deserted"; a whole layer of ruined peasants appeared - "bobs", who could not conduct an independent economy. Entire cities turned out to be abandoned (Radonezh, Mikulin); in others (Kaluga, Velikiye Luki, Rzhev, Ryazhsk) the number of households was a third or a quarter of what it was at the end of the 16th century; According to the official census, the city of Kashin "Polish and Lithuanian people burned, and carved, and ravaged to the ground" so that only 37 inhabitants remained in it. According to modern demographic estimates, only by the 40s. 17th century the population of the 16th century was restored.

These consequences of the Time of Troubles were gradually overcome, and in the second half of the 17th century. in the economic development of the country can be noted the territorial division of labor. In the second half of the XVII century. there were areas specializing in the production of flax (Pskov, Smolensk), bread (territories south of the Oka); the population of Rostov and Beloozero grew vegetables for sale; Tula, Serpukhov, Ustyuzhna Zhelezopolskaya, Tikhvin became the centers of iron production. The inhabitants of many villages were mainly engaged in trade and handicrafts (Ivanovo, Pavlovo, Lyskovo, Murashkino, etc.): they produced and sold iron products, linen, felt boots, caps. The peasants of the Gzhel volost near Moscow made dishes that later became famous, the Kizhi churchyard was famous for its knives, and Vyazma for its sledges.

Formerly fortresses, the southern cities (Orel, Voronezh) became grain markets, from where grain collected from local black soil went to Moscow and other cities. Yaroslavl was the center of leather production: raw leather was supplied there, then dressed by local artisans and dispersed throughout the country. When in 1662 the state declared a monopoly on the trade in this commodity, the treasury in Yaroslavl bought up 40% of the country's hides. The government sought to streamline the collection of customs fees: since 1653, all merchants paid a single "ruble" duty - 10 money (5 kopecks) from each ruble of the value of the goods, with one half at the place of purchase, and the other at the place of sale of the goods.

Both peasants and feudal lords entered the market with their products. A reflection of this process was the development of monetary rent, which at that time, according to historians, was found in every fifth land holding - an estate or estate. Documents of the 17th century talk about the emergence of prosperous

nyh "merchant peasants" and urban "rich men and throats" from yesterday's townspeople or archers. They started their own business - forges, soap factories, tanneries, bought up home canvas in the villages, and shops and yards in the cities. Having grown rich, they subordinated other small producers to themselves and forced them to work for themselves: for example, in 1691, the artisans of Yaroslavl complained about "trading people" who had 5-10 shops and "cut off" small producers from the market. Such rich peasants appeared as Matvey Bechevin, who owned a whole river fleet and delivered thousands of quarters of grain to Moscow; or serf B.I. Morozov Alexei Leontiev, who easily received a loan of a thousand rubles from his boyar; or the patriarchal peasant Lev Kostrikin, who kept taverns at the mercy of the country's second largest city, Novgorod. Trade people increasingly actively mastered distant and near markets.

After the Time of Troubles, the government restored the former monetary system. But still, the weight of the penny gradually halved (from 0.7 to 0.3 g), and it literally fell through the fingers. In 1654, an attempt was made to reform the currency: the silver kopeck was replaced by large silver coins of 1 ruble, 50 kopecks and copper coins. But the reform ended in failure. The annexation of Ukraine in 1654 and the ensuing protracted war with Poland led to increased production of copper money, rapid inflation and the “Copper Riot” of 1662, during which Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich had to go out to the angry Muscovites and even “beat on the hands” with them. As a result, the government was forced to return to the old monetary system.

The volume of foreign trade for a century increased 4 times: at the end of the XVI century. 20 ships came to Arkhangelsk annually, and in the second half of the 17th century. already 80; 75% of Russia's foreign trade turnover passed through this port. English and Dutch merchants brought colonial goods here from Africa, Asia and America: spices (cloves, cardamom, cinnamon, pepper, saffron), sandalwood, incense. In the Russian market, non-ferrous metals (tin, lead, copper), paints, glass glasses and wine glasses brought in thousands of pieces, and large quantities of paper were in demand. Hundreds of barrels of wine (white French, Renskoe, Romanea, red church wine, etc.) and vodka, despite their high cost in Russia, and lots of imported herring were bought up.

An Armenian court was built in Astrakhan; Merchants of the Armenian Company, under a charter of 1667, were allowed to import and export silk and other goods from Russia in order to direct the transit of Persian silk to Europe through Russia. Merchants of the Astrakhan Indian Court brought morocco, precious stones, and pearls to Russia. Cotton fabrics came from the countries of the East. Servicemen valued sabers made in Iranian Isfahan. In 1674, the first Russian caravan of the guest O. Filatiev went through the Mongolian steppes to distant China, from where they brought precious porcelain, gold and no less expensive tea, which at that time was considered in Russia not as a drink, but as a medicine.

Among the export goods, it was no longer furs and wax, but leather, lard, potash (potassium carbonate obtained from ash for the manufacture of soap and glass), hemp, resin, i.e. raw materials and semi-finished products for further processing. But bread until the second half of the XVIII century. remained a strategic commodity (there was not enough grain on the domestic market), and its export was an instrument of foreign policy: for example, during the Thirty Years' War, the government of Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich allowed the purchase of bread for the countries of the anti-Habsburg coalition - Sweden, Denmark, the Netherlands and England.

The British and the Dutch fought for the Russian market, together they made up half of the 1,300 merchants and landowners known to us who traded in Russia. Russian merchants complained in petitions: “Those Germans in Russia have multiplied, they have become great poverty, that all sorts of auctions have been taken away from us.” In 1649, the privileges of English merchants were abolished, and the New Trade Charter of 1667 banned retail trade for foreigners: when transporting goods from Arkhangelsk to Moscow and other cities, the amount of travel duties for them increased by 3-4 times compared to those paid by Russians merchants.

In 1654, the first exploration expedition to Novaya Zemlya set off from Moscow. On the Volga in 1667, foreign craftsmen built the first "European" ships of the Russian fleet. In 1665, regular postal communication began with Vilna and Riga.

Finally, in the 17th century a transition began from small-scale handicraft production, which at that time numbered 250 specialties, to manufactory based on a detailed division of labor (technology was not always used in manufactories). Back in the early 30s. 17th century state-owned copper-smelting enterprises appeared in the Urals. Then private manufactories were founded - merchant rope yards in Vologda and Kholmogory, ironworks of the boyars I. D. Miloslavsky and B. I. Morozov; Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich himself had four vodka factories and a “morocco yard” in the palace economy. Foreign experience and capital were also attracted: in the 30s. 17th century Dutch merchants A. Vinius, P. Marselis and F. Akema built three ironworks in Tula and four in the Kashirsky district. The Swede B. Koyet founded a glass manufactory, the Dutchman fan Sveden - paper production. In total, throughout the XVII century. up to 60 manufactories arose in the country. And yet, manufactory production in Russia took only the first steps and could not even satisfy the needs of the state: by the end of the 17th century. iron had to be imported from Sweden, and muskets for the army had to be ordered from Holland.

There are disputes in science whether it is possible to consider the enterprises of the 17th century. capitalist. After all, distilleries, Ural or Tula factories worked primarily for the treasury at fixed prices, and only the surplus could be put on the market. At the Tula factories, masters and apprentices - Russian and foreign - had good earnings (from 30 to 100 rubles a year), and the bulk of the working people were ascribed state peasants who worked at enterprises in return for paying state taxes. Rather, it can be said that Russian manufactories combined contradictory trends in the development of society: a new technical level of production with the use of forced labor and state control.

The weakness of the Russian city did not contribute to the development of capitalist relations. The population of cities was divided (archers, for example, were exempted from taxes for their service); people were in charge and judged by various state institutions. The state sent citizens of all categories to a free service: to collect customs duties or sell salt and wine to the "sovereign"; they could be "transferred" to live in another city.

Business activity was undermined by periodically announced state monopolies for trade (furs, caviar, leather, lard, flax, etc.): then all owners of such goods had to immediately hand them over at a “specified” price. There were also local monopolies, when an enterprising person agreed with the governor that only he would have the right to bake gingerbread in the city, write petitions for the illiterate, or sharpen knives; after that, an order followed: “besides him, Ivashka, do not order other third-party people” to engage in one or another craft. The state received a guaranteed income from such a monopolist. A loan was expensive for a business person: there were no bank offices in Russian cities, and money had to be borrowed from usurers at 20% per annum, since the legislation did not guarantee the collection of interest on the loan.

Russia remained on the periphery of the world market. Elements of bourgeois relations appeared in the country, but they were deformed by the feudal system and state control. According to a number of scientists, pre-Petrine Russia was at the level of England in the 19th-16th centuries in terms of the degree of economic development, however, there are disagreements in science on the issue of the formation of capitalist relations in Russia.

Some authors (V. I. Buganov, A. A. Preobrazhensky, Yu. A. Tikhonov and others) prove the simultaneous development in the 17th-18th centuries. and feudal-serfdom, and bourgeois relations. They consider the main factor in the development of capitalism to be the impact of the growing market on the feudal patrimony, as a result of which the landowner's estate became a commodity-money economy, and the peasant household turned into a base for small-scale commodity production, which was accompanied by the stratification of the peasants. Other historians (L. V. Milov, A. S. Orlov, I. D. Kovalchenko) believe that quantitative changes in the economy and even commodity production associated with the market do not yet indicate the emergence of a capitalist economy, and the formation of a single all-Russian market took place on a non-capitalist basis.

A new phenomenon, exceptional in its significance, was the formation of an all-Russian market, the center of which was Moscow. By the movement of goods to Moscow, one can judge the degree of social and territorial division of labor on the basis of which the all-Russian market was formed: the Moscow region supplied meat and vegetables; cow butter was brought from the Middle Volga region; fish was brought from Pomorye, the Rostov district, the Lower Volga region and the Oka places; vegetables also came from Vereya, Borovsk and Rostov district. Moscow was supplied with iron by Tula, Galich, Ustyuzhna Zhelezopolskaya and Tikhvin; skins were brought mainly from the Yaroslavl-Kostroma and Suzdal regions; wooden utensils were supplied by the Volga region; salt - the cities of Pomorye; Moscow was the largest market for Siberian furs. Based on the production specialization of individual regions, markets were formed with the primary importance of any goods. So, Yaroslavl was famous for selling leather, soap, lard, meat and textiles; Veliky Ustyug and especially Salt Vychegodskaya were the largest fur markets - furs coming from Siberia were delivered from here either to Arkhangelsk for export, or to Moscow for sale inside the country. Flax and hemp were brought to Smolensk and Pskov from the surrounding areas, which then entered the foreign market. Some local markets establish intensive trade relations with cities far removed from them. Tikhvin Posad, with its annual fair, supported trade with 45 Russian cities. Buying iron products from local blacksmiths, buyers resold them to larger merchants, and the latter transported significant consignments of goods to Ustyuzhna Zhelezopolskaya, as well as to Moscow, Yaroslavl, Pskov and other cities. An enormous role in the trade turnover of the country was played by fairs of all-Russian importance, such as Makarievskaya (near Nizhny Novgorod), Svenskaya (near Bryansk), Arkhangelskaya, and others, which lasted for several weeks. In connection with the formation of the all-Russian market, the role of the merchants in the economic and political life of the country increased. In the 17th century, the top of the merchant world, whose representatives received the title of guests from the government, stood out even more noticeably from the general mass of merchants. These major merchants also acted as financial agents of the government - on his behalf, they conducted foreign trade in furs, potash, rhubarb, etc., carried out construction contracts, purchased food for the needs of the army, collected taxes, customs duties, tavern money, etc. e. The guests attracted smaller merchants to carry out contract and buy-out operations, sharing with them huge profits from the sale of wine and salt. Farming and contracts were an important source of capital accumulation. Large capitals sometimes accumulated in the hands of individual merchant families. N. Sveteshnikov owned rich salt mines. The Stoyanovs in Novgorod and F. Emelyanov in Pskov were the first people in their cities; their opinion was considered not only by governors, but also by the tsarist government. The guests, as well as merchants close to them in position from the living room and cloth hundreds (associations), were joined by the top of the townspeople, who were called "best", "big" townspeople. Merchants begin to speak to the government in defense of their interests. In petitions, they asked that English merchants be banned from trading in Moscow and in other cities, with the exception of Arkhangelsk. The petition was satisfied by the tsarist government in 1649. This measure was motivated by political considerations - the fact that the British executed their king Charles I. Great changes in the country's economy were reflected in the Customs Charter of 1653 and in the New Trade Charter of 1667. The chief took part in the creation of the latter. Ambassadorial order A. L. Ordin-Nashchokin. According to the mercantile views of that time, the New Trade Charter noted the special importance of trade for Russia, since “in all neighboring states, in the first state affairs, free and profitable auctions for collecting duties and for the worldly possessions of the world are guarded with all care.” The customs charter of 1653 abolished many small trading fees that had been preserved from the time of feudal fragmentation, and instead of them introduced one so-called ruble duty - 10 kopecks each. from the ruble for the sale of salt, 5 kop. from the ruble from all other goods. In addition, an increased duty was introduced for foreign merchants who sold goods within Russia. In the interests of the Russian merchants, the New Trade Charter of 1667 further increased customs duties from foreign merchants.

Cultural development

Cultural development

Education

In the 17th century great changes took place in various areas of Russian culture. The "new period" in the history of Russia imperiously broke with the traditions of the past in science, art and literature. This was reflected in a sharp increase in printed output, in the appearance of the first higher educational institution, in the birth of a theater and a newspaper (handwritten "chimes"). Civic motifs are gaining more and more space in literature and painting, and even in such traditional arts as icon painting and church murals, there is a desire for realistic images, far from the stylized manner of writing by Russian artists of previous centuries. The reunification of Ukraine with Russia had enormous and fruitful consequences for the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian peoples. The birth of the theater, the spread of partes singing (church choral singing), the development of syllabic versification, and new elements in architecture were common cultural phenomena for Russia, Ukraine and Belarus in the 17th century. Literacy has become the property of a much wider circle of the population than before. A large number of merchants and artisans in the cities, as shown by the numerous signatures of townspeople on petitions and other acts, were able to read and write. Literacy also spread among the peasant population, mainly among the black-skinned peasants, as can be seen from the notes on manuscripts of the 17th century made by their owners - peasants. In noble and merchant circles, literacy was already a common phenomenon. In the 17th century, intensified attempts were made to create permanent educational institutions in Russia. However, only at the end of the century these attempts lead to the creation of the first institution of higher education. First, the government opened a school in Moscow (1687), in which the learned Greek brothers Likhud taught not only ecclesiastical, but also some secular sciences (arithmetic, rhetoric, etc.). On the basis of this school, the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy arose, which played a prominent role in Russian education. It was located in the building of the Zaikonospassky Monastery in Moscow (some of these buildings have survived to this day). The Academy mainly trained educated people to fill spiritual positions, but it also provided quite a few people employed in various civil professions. As is known, the great Russian scientist M. V. Lomonosov also studied there. Further development was received by book printing. Its main center was the Printing Yard in Moscow, the stone building of which still exists today. The printing house mainly published church books. During the first half of the 17th century Approximately 200 individual editions were released. The first book of civil content printed in Moscow was the textbook of the patriarchal clerk Vasily Burtsev - “A Primer of the Slavonic Language, that is, the beginning of teaching for children”, first published in 1634. In the second half of the 17th century. the number of secular books produced by the Printing House is increasing dramatically. Among them were "The Teaching and Cunning of the Military Structure of Infantry Men", "Cathedral Code", the Customs Regulations, etc. In Ukraine, Kyiv and Chernigov were the most important centers of book printing. In the printing house of the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra, the first textbook on Russian history was printed - "Synopsis or a short collection from various chroniclers about the beginning of the Slavic-Russian people."

Literature. Theatre

New phenomena in the Russian economy of the XVII century. found their way into the literature. Among the townspeople, a household story is born. "A Tale of Woe and Misfortune" describes the gloomy story of a young man who failed on the path of life. “Ino I know and know that you can’t put scarlet without a master,” the hero exclaims, citing an example from the life of artisans and merchants who are familiar with the use of scarlet (velvet). A number of satirical works are devoted to ridiculing the negative aspects of Russian life in the 17th century. In the story about Yersh Yershovich, unrighteous order courts are ridiculed. Ruff is known and eaten only by "moth hawkers and tavern pebbles", who have nothing to buy good fish. Ruff's main fault is that he took possession of Lake Rostov "en masse and conspiracy" - this is how the story parodies the article of the "Cathedral Code" about speaking out against the government. There is also a caustic satire on church orders. "Kalyazin petition" ridicules the hypocrisy of the monks. The archimandrite drives us to the church, the monks complain, and at that time we “are sitting around a bucket (with beer) without trousers in the same scrolls in cells ... we won’t be in time ... and ruin the buckets with beer.” In the "Feast of the Tavern Rows" we find a parody of the church service: "Vouchee, Lord, this evening, without beatings, drink us drunk." In the literature of the second half of the XVII century. folk elements are more and more pronounced: in the stories about Azov, in the legends about the beginning of Moscow, etc. Folk chants sound in the poetic story about Azov, in the cry of the Cossacks: “Forgive us, dark forests and green oak forests. Forgive us, the fields are clean and the backwaters are quiet. Forgive us, the sea is blue and the rivers are fast.” In the 17th century, a new type of literary work was established - notes, which would receive special development in the next century. The wonderful work of the founder of the schism - "The Life" of Archpriest Avvakum, which tells about his long-suffering life, is written in simple and clear language. The teacher of Princess Sofya Alekseevna Simeon Polotsky launched a wide literary activity as the author of numerous verses (poems), dramatic works, as well as textbooks, sermons and theological treatises. To print new books, a special court printing house was created by the “sovereign at the top”. The appearance of theatrical performances in Russia was a great cultural event. Russian theater arose at the court of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich. For him, Simeon of Polotsk wrote "The Comedy of the Parable of the Prodigal Son." It depicted the story of the prodigal son, who repented after a dissolute life and was taken back by his father. For the performance in the royal village near Moscow, Preobrazhensky, a “comedy temple” was built. Here the play "Artaxerxes action" on the biblical story was played. The play was extremely liked by Alexei Mikhailovich, and the tsar's confessor relieved him of doubts about the sinfulness of the theater, pointing to the examples of Byzantine pious kings who loved theatrical performances. The director of the court theater was Gregory, a pastor from the German Quarter. Soon his place was taken by S. Chizhinsky, a graduate of the Kyiv Theological Academy (1675). In the same year, a ballet and two new comedies were staged at the court theater: about Adam and Eve, about Joseph. The troupe of the court theater consisted of over 70 exclusively male members, since female roles were also performed by men; among them were children - "unskillful and unintelligent lads."

Architecture and painting

In the 17th century, stone construction was greatly developed. Stone churches appeared not only in cities, but also became commonplace in rural areas. In large centers, a considerable number of stone buildings for civil purposes were built. Usually these were two-storied buildings with windows decorated with architraves and a richly trimmed porch. Examples of such houses are "Pogankin's chambers" in Pskov, Korobov's house in Kaluga, etc.

The architecture of stone churches was dominated by five-domed cathedrals and small temples with one or five domes. Artists liked to decorate the outer walls of churches with stone patterns of kokoshniks, cornices, columns, window architraves, sometimes multi-colored tiles. The heads, set on high necks, took on an elongated onion shape. Stone hipped churches were built in the first half of the 17th century. Later, hipped temples remained the property of the Russian North with its wooden architecture. At the end of the XVII century. a new style appears, which sometimes received the wrong name of "Russian baroque". The temples had a cruciform shape, and their heads began to be located also in a cruciform instead of the traditional arrangement in the corners. The style of such churches, unusually effective in their rich external decoration, was called "Naryshkin" because the best churches of this architecture were built in the estates of the Naryshkin boyars. An excellent example of it is the church in Fili, near Moscow. Buildings of this kind were erected not only in Russia, but also in Ukraine. Unusually slender and at the same time richly decorated with columns, architraves, parapets, buildings of this style delight with their beauty. According to the territory of its distribution, this style could be called Ukrainian-Russian. The best master painter of that era, Simon Ushakov, strove to paint not abstract, but realistic images. Icons and paintings of such “Fryazhsky writing” show the desire of Russian artists to get closer to life, leaving abstract schemes. New trends in art caused deep indignation among zealots of antiquity. Thus, Archpriest Avvakum spoke venomously about the new icons, saying that they depicted “the merciful one who saved” like a drunken foreigner with a blush on his cheeks. Applied art reached a high level: artistic embroidery, decorative woodcarving, etc. Fine examples of jewelry art were created in the Armory, where the best craftsmen worked, fulfilling orders from the royal court. In all areas of the cultural life of Russia, new trends were felt, caused by profound economic and social changes. These shifts, as well as the fierce class struggle and powerful peasant uprisings that shook the feudal-feudal state, were reflected in folk poetry. Around the majestic figure of Stepan Razin, a cycle of songs of an epic nature has developed. “Turn, guys, to the steep bank, we will break the wall, and we will smash the prison stone by stone,” the folk song sings of the exploits of Razin and his associates, calling for the fight against landlords, serfdom, and social oppression.

In the 17th century in Russia, trade developed intensively. Several regional shopping centers were formed:

Trade charter of 1653. established a single ruble duty for merchants and abolished a number of internal duties. In 1667 was accepted new trading charter, according to which foreign merchants were prohibited from retail trade in Russia.

Thus, in the Russian economy of the XVII century. the dominant position was occupied by the feudal system. At the same time, early bourgeois elements began to take shape in the country, which were subject to the deforming effects of the feudal system.

In Soviet historiography of the 17th century. was called the beginning new period of Russian history. By this time, a number of historians attributed the beginning of the disintegration of feudalism and the emergence in its depths of the capitalist way of economy.

Urban uprisings of the middle of the century and the attachment of townspeople to cities. Legal registration of the system of serfdom. Cathedral Code of 1649

The state was faced with the task of returning the lands seized during the years of intervention. For this, funds were needed to maintain the army. The financial situation of the state was extremely difficult. The feudal state shifted the entire burden of eliminating the consequences of the intervention onto the masses. In addition to the land tax, they resorted to extraordinary cash collections - "five money", which were collected from 1613 to 1633 seven times. The population strongly resisted the collection of emergency taxes. The heaviest direct tax on the upkeep of the troops, the "streltsy money", has increased greatly.

There was another circumstance that worsened the situation of ordinary townspeople - the penetration of feudal landownership into the cities. Settlements in the cities belonging to the feudal lords were called white, and their population was exempted from paying state taxes. Many townspeople went to white freedoms, escaping from state taxes, and the share of taxes that fell on the departed was distributed to the remaining population. The townspeople demanded the destruction of the white settlements. The contradictions between the urban poor and the feudal nobility, as well as the merchant elite adjoining it, continuously increased.

This led to a number of urban uprisings.

Failing to collect arrears direct taxes in 1646., the government of the boyar B.I. Morozov established an indirect tax on salt. The people were unable to buy salt at the new prices. Instead of replenishing the treasury, there was a reduction in cash income. In 1647 the state abolished the tax on salt. Then Morozov, who was at the head of the government, tried to reduce cash costs by reducing the salaries of archers, gunners, officials of orders. This led to an unprecedented scale of bribery and embezzlement, dissatisfaction with the archers and gunners, who, in their position, were increasingly close to the townspeople.

The activities of the Morozov government caused powerful urban uprisings . In 1648 uprisings occurred in Kozlov, Voronezh, Kursk, Solvychegodsk and a number of other cities. The most powerful uprising was Moscow in the summer of 1648. The reason for the uprising was an attempt to file a petition demanding the liquidation of white settlements, protection from unfair judges of the Zemsky order (Morozov and Pleshcheev), and tax reduction. The people, who tried to give the tsar a petition, were dispersed. The townspeople sacked Morozov's palaces.

Cathedral Code of 1649

On September 1, 1648, the Zemsky Sobor began its work, and in January 1649 it adopted the Cathedral Code.

The Cathedral Code in its content was feudal and reflected the victory of the nobility. serfdom finally took shape. This document proclaimed the abolition of "lesson years" and the establishment of an indefinite investigation of fugitive peasants and townspeople. The property of the feudal lord became not only the peasant with his family, but also his property.

The Code recognized for the nobleman the right to transfer the estate by inheritance, provided that the sons would serve, like the father. Thus, the two forms of feudal property - patrimony and estate - converged. Church land ownership was limited. White settlements were eliminated. Their population is obliged to pay tax. Posad people are also attached to the community, like a peasant to a feudal lord. Service people according to the instrument - archers, etc. - were obliged to pay state taxes from their trades and crafts.

In 1650, the uprisings of the townspeople broke out in Pskov and Novgorod. The state needed funds to maintain the state apparatus and troops. In an effort to increase the revenues of the treasury, since 1654 the government began to mint copper coins at the same price instead of silver coins. For eight years there were so many of them (including fake ones) that they simply depreciated. This led to an increase in prices. Silver money disappeared, and the state accepted taxes only with them. Arrears grew. Price gouging led to famine. Desperate townspeople of Moscow in 1662 revolted (Copper Riot). The uprising was brutally suppressed, but copper money was no longer minted.

Appolinary Vasnetsov. Red Square in the second half of the 17th century (1918)

Territory of Russia by the end of the 17th century. increased significantly due to the annexation of the Left-Bank Ukraine and Eastern Siberia. However, the vast country was sparsely populated, especially Siberia, where on the verge of the XVII-XVIII centuries. lived only 61 thousand Russian people.

The total population of Russia in 1678 is 11.2 million people, of which the townspeople accounted for 180 thousand. This testified to the low level of the division of labor, and, consequently, the development of the economy. The bulk of the population was made up of peasants, among whom landowners predominated (52%), followed by peasants belonging to the clergy (16%) and the royal family (9.2%). There were 900 thousand unenslaved peasants. All this population was feudally dependent on the landowners, the clergy, the royal family and the state. The privileged estates included the nobility (70 thousand) and the clergy (140 thousand). The most populated areas were considered to be the non-chernozem center, as well as the western and northwestern regions, that is, territories with the least fertile lands.

Cathedral Code of 1649 and the legal registration of serfdom

Due to extremely primitive tools for the development of the economy and the state's regular need for funds (mainly for the maintenance of the state apparatus itself and the conduct of wars), by the middle of the 17th century. the state chose the path of further enslavement of the peasants, and the Cathedral Code of 1649 became its legal framework.

According to the Code of 1649, an indefinite search for fugitive peasants was established, which indicates their transformation into the hereditary property of the landowner, palace department and spiritual owners. Article XI of Chapter "The Court of Peasants" provided for the amount of a fine (10 rubles per year) for receiving and keeping fugitives, the procedure for transferring them to their rightful owners, the fate of children who had been adopted on the run, as well as property, instructed what to do in cases where a fugitive peasant, to cover his tracks, change his name, etc.

The status of the posad population, hitherto considered free, also changed. Thus, Chapter XIX extended serf relations to the posad population - it forever attached the posad man to the posad, determined the criteria for enrolling the population in it. One of the main norms of the head is the liquidation of white settlements, as a rule, belonging to large secular and spiritual feudal lords. The class privilege of the townspeople is a monopoly on trading and crafts. The head determined the order of acquisition of the settlement by the commercial and fishing population. There were three signs according to which those who left the settlement were forcibly returned to it: “in the old days”, that is, persons who were previously registered in it; by kinship, that is, all relatives of the townsman were enrolled in the settlement; Finally, by occupation. The main duty of the townspeople was the obligatory occupation of trading and crafts - both were a source of financial income to the treasury.

Serfdom

Troubles at the beginning of the 17th century. accompanied by the destruction of productive forces and a decrease in the population. Both caused desolation: on a vast territory, especially in the center, sources in many cases noted the presence of arable land, “overgrown with forest” as thick as an arm. But the Time of Troubles, in addition, undermined the centuries-old living conditions: instead of a plow and a sickle, a flail turned out to be in the hands of a peasant - detachments roamed the country, robbing the local population. The protracted nature of the restoration of the economy, which took three decades - 20-50s. The 17th century was also explained by the low fertility of the soil of the Non-Black Earth Region and the weak resistance of the peasant economy to natural conditions: early frosts, as well as heavy rains, which caused the crops to become wet, led to crop failures. The scourge of animal husbandry was contagious animal diseases, which deprived the peasant family of both draft cattle and milk and meat. Arable land was cultivated with traditional tools that remained unchanged for centuries: a plow, a harrow, a sickle, less often a scythe and a plow. The dominant farming system was three-field , that is, the alternation of winter and spring crops with fallow. In the northern regions, preserved undercut - the most labor-intensive system of farming, when the plowman had to cut down the forest, burn it, loosen the ground and then sow. True, the exhausting labor of the peasant was rewarded with higher yields in those few years when the ash fertilized the soil. The abundance of land made it possible to use fallow - depleted soil was abandoned for several years, during which it restored fertility, then again put into economic circulation.

The low level of agricultural culture was explained not only by unfavorable soil and climatic conditions, but also by the peasant’s lack of interest in increasing the results of labor generated by serfdom - landlords, monasteries and the administration of royal estates often seized not only surpluses, but also the necessary product. This largely resulted in the use of routine equipment and routine farming systems, which gave invariably low yields - two or three, that is, from each sown grain, the tiller received two or three new ones. The main shift in agriculture consisted in some elimination of its natural isolation and gradual involvement in market relations. This long process proceeded extremely slowly and in the 17th century. affected only an insignificant layer of landowners, especially those who had large farms. The bulk of both peasant and landowner farms retained a natural character: the peasants were content with what they themselves produced, and the landowners were content with what the same peasants delivered to them in the form of quitrent: poultry, meat, lard, eggs, hams, coarse cloth , canvas, wooden and earthenware, etc.

17th century sources preserved for us descriptions of two types of farms ( small local and large local ) and two trends in their development. An example of one of the types was the farm of the country's largest landowner, Morozov. boyar Boris Ivanovich Morozov , the "uncle" (tutor) of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, who was also married to the sister of the Tsar's wife, was distinguished, as they believed, by excessive greed and money-grubbing. Contemporaries said about the boyar that he had "the same thirst for gold as an ordinary thirst for drink." Savings in this childless family absorbed a lot of the energy of his head, and he significantly increased his possessions: in the 20s. behind him were 151 households, inhabited by 233 male souls, and after his death, 9,100 households with 27,400 serfs remained. The peculiarity of Morozov's economy was given by the presence of various crafts in it. Along with agriculture, in his estates, located in 19 districts of the country, they were engaged in the production of potash - fertilizer from ash, not only used in their households, but also exported abroad. The weekday camps located in the Volga estates, where potash was produced, brought the boyar a grandiose profit for those times - 180 thousand rubles. Morozov's economy was diversified - he contained distilleries and an ironworks in the Zvenigorod district.

The economy of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich also belonged to a similar type, with the difference, however, that it, being also diversified, was not market-oriented: metallurgical, glass and brick factories operated in the royal estates, but the products produced on them were intended for the needs of a vast the king's household. Alexey Mikhailovich was known as a zealous owner and personally delved into all the little things in the life of the estates. For example, he bought thoroughbred cows abroad, including Dutch ones, introduced a five-field crop rotation, and demanded that the fields be fertilized with manure. But in the economic plans of the king there was also a lot of ephemeral: he, for example, tried to grow melons, watermelons, grapes and citrus fruits in Izmailovo, to boil salt from brines of low concentration in Khamovniki, on Devichye Pole, near Kolomenskoye. Some monasteries also organized crafts in their estates (they arose as early as the 16th century). Solovetsky, Pyskorsky, Kirillo-Belozersky and other monasteries, whose possessions were located in Pomorye, rich in brines containing a lot of salt, started salt production in their estates. Salt was on sale. Other large feudal lords also maintained connections with the market: Miloslavsky, Odoevsky.

A different type of economy was formed by a middle-class landowner Bezobrazova. It does not reveal traces of intensification in the form of fisheries and market links. Bezobrazov did not like the service, resorted to tricks to evade it, and preferred to spend time in the countryside for household chores or in Moscow, from where he vigilantly followed the activities of 15 clerks. If Morozov's entire complex economy was managed by the patrimonial administration located in Moscow, which sent orders to the clerks on behalf of the boyar, then Bezobrazov personally led the clerks. Even more primitive was the economy of small landlords and monasteries. The peasants who belonged to them barely provided the life resources of the master and the monastic brethren. Such feudal lords, both secular and spiritual, and there were an overwhelming majority of them, conducted a simple subsistence economy.

The emergence of manufactories

The main innovation in the economic development of the country was the appearance of manufactories. In the countries of Western Europe, in most of which serfdom had long since disappeared, the emergence of manufactories led to the onset of the era of capitalism in them. In Russia, serfdom dominated in all spheres of life. Hence the insufficiently high level of small industries from which manufactory could grow, the absence of a wage labor market, the lack of necessary capital for the creation of manufactories, the construction and operation of which required significant costs. It is no coincidence that the owners of the first ironworks in Russia were not domestic, but foreign merchants who attracted foreign craftsmen to work on them. But the emergence of manufactory in Russia was marked by the activities of the Dutch merchant Andrey Vinnius , who brought an outlandish method of production to Russia. The history goes back to the 1630s, when deposits of iron ore were found near Tula. Since Andrei Vinnius often visited those places, he quickly realized the profitability of his idea. Andrei Vinnius not only donated money for the extraction of iron, but also received the mercy of Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich in 1632 founded the first iron-working manufactory. So we stopped importing iron from Europeans, and the benefits of manufactory were already evident during the Smolensk War.

At the first stage of the development of manufactory production in Russia, two features should be noted: transferred to serfdom, it acquired the features of a patrimonial economy associated with the market; the second feature is the state's active patronage of large-scale production. Since cannons and cannon balls were cast at metallurgical plants, in the presence of which the state was interested, it provided the manufacturer with benefits: already the state attached peasants to the first metallurgical plants, obliging them to perform the most labor-intensive work that did not require high professional skills - to mine ore and manufacture charcoal. There are disputes among scientists about the number of manufactories in Russia in the 17th century. Some of them included in the list of manufactories enterprises that lacked one of the main signs of manufactories - the division of labor. At distilleries, salt pans, leather enterprises, the labor of a master and an apprentice was used. Such enterprises are usually called cooperation. They are distinguished from manufactories by the absence of a division of labor. Therefore, there is every reason to consider the presence in Russia of the end of the 17th century. only 10-12 manufactories, and all of them functioned in metallurgy. For the emergence of metallurgical manufactories, triune conditions were required: the presence of ore deposits, forests for the production of charcoal, and a small river, blocked by a dam, for year-round use of the energy of water, which set in motion bellows in blast furnaces and hammers in forging iron. Thus, in the most time-consuming processes, simple mechanisms were used. The first blast-furnace and hammer mills arose in the Tula-Kashirsky region, then in the Lipetsk region, and also in Karelia, where the first copper smelter in Russia appeared. All factories in European Russia used swamp ores, from which brittle cast iron and low-grade iron were obtained. Therefore, Russia continued to buy high-quality iron from Sweden. The famous ore of the Ural deposits began to be used only from the beginning of the next century.

Formation of a single all-Russian market and the emergence of fairs in Russia

Despite the low purchasing power of the population, due to the subsistence nature of the economy, certain successes can be traced in the development of domestic trade. They were caused by the beginning of the specialization of some areas in the production of any type of product:

• Yaroslavl and Kazan were famous for leather dressing;
• Tula - manufacture of iron and products from it,
• Novgorod and Pskov - paintings.

Wholesale trade was concentrated in the hands of the richest merchants, enlisted by the state in the privileged corporations of guests and merchants of the living room and cloth hundreds. The main privilege of the guests was the right to travel abroad for commercial transactions. Both manufacturers of goods and resellers, as well as agents of wealthy merchants, were engaged in petty trade. Everyday trade was conducted only in large cities. Fairs have become of great importance in internal exchange. The largest of them, such as Makarievskaya near Nizhny Novgorod, Irbitskaya in the Urals, Svenskaya near Bryansk and Arkhangelsk in the North, were of all-Russian significance and attracted merchants, mainly wholesalers, from all over the country. In addition to them, there were fairs of regional and city significance. They differed both in their modest size and in a less diverse assortment of goods.

More noticeable shifts can be traced in foreign trade, as can be judged by the number of ships arriving in Arkhangelsk - the only seaport that connected Russia with the countries of Western Europe: in 1600, 21 of them sailed, and at the end of the century about 70 ships arrived a year. The main article of Russian export was the “soft junk” mined in Siberia, as furs were then called. Following it were raw materials and semi-finished products: flax, hemp, resin, wood, tar, potash. Mast timber, flax and hemp were in great demand by maritime powers, who used them to equip ships. The semi-finished products made by artisans included leather, especially yuft, representing its highest grade, as well as linen. Large landowners (Morozov, Odoevsky, Romodanovsky, etc.), as well as rich monasteries, participated in the export. Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich did not consider it shameful to participate in foreign trade. The imports were mainly products of Western European manufactories (cloth, mirrors, iron, copper, etc.), as well as luxury items used by the court and the aristocracy: wines, expensive fabrics, spices, jewelry. If in the north the window to Europe was Arkhangelsk, then in the south the same role fell to the share of Astrakhan, which became a transit point in trade with Iran, India and Central Asia. Astrakhan, in addition, served as a transit point for Western European merchants who traded with Eastern countries. Throughout the 17th century Russia's economic development was influenced by two interrelated factors: backwardness gave rise to serfdom, which, in turn, exacerbated the backwardness. Nevertheless, progress is noticeable, reflected in the emergence of manufactories, the revival of domestic trade, and the establishment of closer economic ties with the countries of Western Europe and the East.

Russia lagged behind the most developed countries of Western Europe. Due to the lack of access to non-freezing seas, it was difficult to expand ties with these countries. The development of trade was also hampered by internal customs barriers, preserved from the times of fragmentation . AT 1653 was accepted Customs charter, which eliminated petty customs duties, and New trade charter of 1667 further limited the rights of foreign merchants: now they could sell their goods in bulk only in border towns. Further across Russia, Russian merchants were supposed to sell them. Higher taxes were imposed on imported goods. However, Russian merchants did not have the skills and energy that their foreign competitors had. As a result, we defended the economic space, but by the end of the 17th century it was turned out to be practically empty due to routinized production, the backwardness of technologies in agriculture and manufactories. Russia still had to make its economic breakthrough, which was due to the serious needs of Peter I in the costs of the great war.