Introductory lecture on sociology. Lecture notes on sociology

Sociology as a science of society. Subject and objectives of the course.

Literature:

1) Sociology / G.V. Osipov et al. M: Mysl, 1990.

2) Marxist-Leninist sociology. / Ed. N.I. Dryakhlova. M.: Moscow University Publishing House, 1989

3) System of sociology. Pitirim Sorokin, 1920 (1941).

4) A brief dictionary of sociology.-M.: Politizdat, 1988

5) Subject and structure of sociological science, sociological research, 1981.№-1.p.90.

6) The basis of sociology. Ed. Saratov University, 1992.

Plan.

1). Sociology as the science of society

2) Object and subject of sociological science.

3) Sociology in the system of social and human sciences.

Sociology as the science of society

The term “sociology” comes from the Latin word “societas” (society) and the Greek “hoyos” (word, doctrine). From which it follows that “sociology” is the science of society in the literal sense of the word.

At all stages of history, humanity tried to comprehend society, to express its attitude towards it. (Plato, Aristotle) But the concept of “sociology” was introduced into scientific circulation French philosopher Auguste Comte in_the_30s last century. As a science, sociology was formed in the 19th century in Europe. Moreover, scientists writing in French and German participated most intensively in its formation. English languages. Auguste Comte (1798 - 1857) and then the Englishman Herbert Spencer first substantiated the need to isolate social knowledge into an independent scientific discipline, defined the subject of the new science and formulated specific methods inherent only to it. Auguste Comte was a positivist, i.e. a supporter of a theory that should have become as demonstrative and generally valid as natural scientific theories, should have been based only on the method of observation, comparative, historical and resist speculative reasoning about society. This contributed to the fact that sociology immediately became an imperial science, a science tied to the earth. Comte's point of view on sociology as a science identical to social science dominated literature until the end of the 19th century.

At the end of 19 - beginning. 20th centuries In scientific studies of society, the social began to stand out along with the economic, demographic, legal and other aspects. In this regard, the subject of sociology becomes narrower and begins to be reduced to the study of the social aspects of social development.

The first sociologist to give a narrow interpretation of sociological science was Emile Durkheim (1858 -1917) - a French sociologist and philosopher, the creator of the so-called “French sociological school.” His name is associated with the transition of sociology from a science identical to social science to a science associated with the study of social phenomena and social relations of social life, i.e. independent, standing among other social sciences.

The institutionalization of sociology in our country began after the adoption of the resolution of the Council of People's Commissars in May 1918 “On the Socialist Academy of Social Sciences,” where a special clause stated “.. one of the priority tasks is to set a number of social studies at the Petorgrad and Yaroslavl Universities.” In 1919, the Sociobiological Institute was established. In 1920, the first faculty of social sciences in Russia with a sociological department was formed at Petrograd University, headed by Pitirim Sorokin.

During this period, extensive sociological literature of a theoretical profile was published. Its main direction is to identify the relationships between Russian sociological thought and the sociology of Marxism. In this regard, various sociological schools are observed in the development of sociology in Russia. The discussion between representatives of non-Marxist sociological thought (M. Kovalevsky, P. Mikhailovsky, P. Sorokin, etc.) and the sociology of Marxism was decisively influenced by the book by N.I. Bukharin (The Theory of Historical Materialism: A Popular Textbook of Marxian Sociology M. - 1923), in which sociology was identified with historical materialism and turned into an integral part of philosophy. And after the publication of the short course “History of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks” by I.V. Stalin, sociology was abolished by administrative order, and a strict ban was imposed on the specific study of processes and phenomena of social life. sociology was declared a bourgeois pseudoscience, not only incompatible with Marexism, but also hostile to it. Basic and applied research was stopped. The very word “sociology” turned out to be outlawed and was withdrawn from scientific use, and social professionals disappeared into oblivion.

The principles, theory and methods of cognition and mastery of social reality turned out to be incompatible with personal dictatorship, voluntarism and subjectivism in the management of society and social processes. Social mythology was elevated to the level of science, and real science was declared pseudoscience.

The thaw of the sixties also affected sociology: a revival of sociological research began, they received citizenship rights, but sociology as a science did not. Sociology was absorbed by philosophy, specific social research, as incompatible with sociology and the specifics of philosophical gnosiology, was taken beyond the boundaries of social knowledge. In an effort to retain the right to conduct specific research, sociologists were forced to place the main emphasis on the “positive aspects of the country’s social development and ignore negative facts. This explains the fact that the works of many scientists of that period until the last years of “stagnation” were one-sided. Not only were they not accepted, but they also condemned the alarming signals from social networks on the problems of the destruction of nature, the increasing alienation of labor, the alienation of power from the people, the growth of nationalism. trends, etc.

Such scientific concepts as ecology, alienation, social dynamics, sociology of labor, sociology of politics, sociology of family, sociology of religion, social norm, etc. were prohibited. Their use for a scientist could result in him being included in the number of followers and propagandists of revolutionary bourgeois sociology.

Since sociological research had the right to life, by the mid-60s the first major sociological works on social engineering and specific social analysis began to appear: S. G. Strumilina, A. G. Zdravomyslova, V.A. Yadova and others. The first sociological institutions were created - the department of sociological research at the Institute of Philosophy of the USSR Academy of Sciences and the laboratory of social research at Leningrad University. In 1962, the Soviet Social Association was founded. In 1969, the Institute of Concrete Social Research (from 1972 - the Institute of Sociological Research, and from 1978 - the Institute of Sociology) of the USSR Academy of Sciences was created. Since 1974, the journal “Sots issl” began to be published. But the development of sociology was constantly hampered during the period of “stagnation.” And after the publication of “Lectures on Sociology” by Yu. Levada, the Institute of Sociological Research was declared to inculcate bourgeois theoretical concepts, and a decision was made to create a Center for Public Opinion Polls on its basis. Once again the concept of “sociology” was banned and replaced by the concept of applied sociology. Theoretical sociology was completely rejected.

The ban on the development of theoretical sociology was in 1988. The seventy-year period of struggle for sociology as an independent science of society ended. (Resolution of the CPSU Central Committee of June 7, 1988 increasing the role of Marxist-Leninist sociology in solving key and social problems of Soviet society) Today in the West, much attention is paid to sociology in the USA. In the USA alone, there are 90,000 scientists working in the field of sociology, 250 faculties graduate people with a sociological education.

Ours had its first graduation of one hundred people in 1989. Now about 20,000 people are professionally involved in this specialty, but do not have a basic education, so the demand for specialists is very high.

Object and subject of sociological science.

The object of sociological knowledge is society, but defining only the object of science is not enough. For example, society is the object of almost all humanities, therefore the justification for the scientific status of sociology, like any other science, lies in the difference between the object and the subject of knowledge.

The object of knowledge is everything that the researcher’s activity is aimed at, that opposes him as an objective reality. Any phenomenon, process or relation of objective reality can be the object of study of a wide variety of sciences (physics, chemistry, biology, sociology, etc.). When we are talking about the subject of research of a specific science, then this or that part of objective reality (city, family, etc.) is not taken as a whole, but only that side of it that is determined by the specifics of this science. All other parties are considered secondary.

The phenomenon of unemployment

· economists

· psychologists

· sociologists

Each science differs from another in its subject. Thus, physics, chemistry, economics, sociology and other sciences in general study nature and society, which is characterized by an infinite variety of phenomena and processes. But each of them studies:

1. Your special side or environment of objective reality

2. Laws and patterns of this reality specific only to this science

3. Special forms of manifestation and mechanisms of action of these laws and patterns

The subject of any science is not just a certain phenomenon or process of the objective world, but the result of theoretical abstraction, which makes it possible to identify those patterns of functioning of the object being studied that are specific to this science and nothing else.

Sociology rather lately branched off from philosophy in France, political economy in Germany, and social psychology in the USA precisely for the reason that the object and subject of sociological knowledge were identified. To this day, many sociologists of various schools and directions still suffer from this serious methodological flaw.

So what is the subject of sociology? According to Comte, sociology is the only science that studies both the mind and the intellect of a person, this is done under the influence of social life.

Saint - Simon Subject sociology - social responsibilities, groups, social. institutions, social phenomena and processes, as well as interactions between them and their relationships, functioning and development.

The specificity of sociology as a science is that it studies every manifestation of human activity in a social context, i.e. in connection with society as a whole, in the interaction of various parties and levels of this social system.

Sorokin P. - “Sociology studies the phenomena of interaction between people. on the one hand, and the phenomena arising from this process of interaction, on the other.”

He adds: “...interhuman interactions,” that is, he gives boundaries.

Society is a social organism consisting of a complex, interconnected, integral and contradictory complex of social communities, institutions, collectives, groups. Each of the components of this complex is a relatively independent subject of social life and is in interaction with other elements regarding its reproduction, implementation and development as a single whole.

Society is not the sum of individuals, but an ensemble of human relationships.

For example: At present, people are the same as a year, two, or three ago, but the state of the state has changed. Why? Relationships have changed. Thus: Sociology studies the phenomena of interaction of people with each other, on the one hand, and the phenomena arising from this process of interaction, on the other.

If we imagine society in the form of a cube and roughly designate the spheres of people’s life activities, we get:

The subject of sociology is the social side of society.

So, we get that sociology studies the entire set of connections and relationships that are called social.

Social relations are relationships between groups of people occupying different positions in society, taking an inadequate part in its economic, political and spiritual life, differing lifestyles, levels and sources of income, and the structure of personal consumption.

Social relations are an expression of the mutual dependence of subjects regarding their life activities, lifestyle, attitude to society, internal self-organization, self-regulation, and relationships with other subjects.

Since connections and relationships in each specific social object (society) are always organized in a special way, the object of sociological knowledge acts as a social system.

The task of sociological science is to typologize social systems, study the connections and relationships of each typologized object at the level of patterns, obtain specific scientific knowledge about the mechanisms of their action and forms of manifestation in various social systems for their purposeful management.

So: The object of sociological knowledge, its features are associated with the concept of social, social connections and relationships and the method of their organization.

The subject of sociological science is social patterns.

Sociology is the science of the laws of formation, functioning, development of society as a whole, social relations and social communities, the mechanisms of interrelation and interaction between these communities, as well as between communities and the individual (Yadov).

Sociology in the system of social and human sciences.

Let us ask ourselves the question: Are there sufficient grounds for the creation of a special science - sociology, whose task is to study the phenomena of interaction between people?

The answer to this question depends on the solution of three preliminary questions:

Is the class of phenomena that sociology studies important enough?

· does it represent a sui generis phenomenon whose properties are not found in other classes of phenomena

· Isn’t it being studied by other sciences that appeared earlier than sociology, and therefore making the latter as an independent science redundant?

Let's try to answer these questions.

Practical and theoretical importance of sociology.

The practical importance of studying the phenomena of human interaction is undeniable, if only because we are vitally and selfishly interested in studying them.

The theoretical importance of sociology becomes obvious if we prove that the properties of the phenomena studied by it are not found in other classes of sciences and are not studied by other sciences, i.e. the last two questions need to be answered.

Let's consider them as follows

a) Sociology and physical and chemical sciences

The class of phenomena of interaction between people is not reducible to simple physical, chemical and biological processes. M. b. in the distant future, science will reduce them to the latter and explain the entire complex world of interhuman phenomena with the laws of physics and chemistry. In any case, such attempts have been and continue to take place. But for now - alas! What came of it? We have a number of formulas such as: “consciousness is the flow of a nervous-energy process,” “war, crime and punishment are the essence of the phenomenon of energy leakage,” “selling and buying is an exchange reaction,” “cooperation is an addition of forces.” , “social struggle - subtraction of forces”, “degeneration - disintegration of forces”

Even if this is true, what do we gain from such analogies? Just an inaccurate comparison.

The same conclusion can be drawn regarding the creation of social mechanics, in which the concepts of mechanics are transported into the area of human relationships.

Here the individual turns into a “material point”, his environment - socio-humans - into a “field of forces”, etc.

From here come theorems like the following: “an increase in the kinetic energy of an individual is equal to a decrease in potential energy,” “the total energy of a social group in relation to its work at some moment T is equal to the total energy that it had at the initial moment T0, increased by the total work that at this the period of time (T1-T0) was produced by all forces external to the group that acted on individuals or elements of this group,” etc.

Although this is true from a mechanical point of view, it does not give us anything to reveal interhuman interactions, because in this case, people cease to exist as people, as opposed to inanimate objects, and become only a material mass.

If crime is a drain of energy, does it mean that any dissipation of energy is at the same time a crime?

That is, in this case, what is observed is not the study of social communication between people, but the study of people as ordinary physical bodies.

All the more reason for the existence of a special science that studies people and their interactions as human beings, with all the unique richness of its content.

b) Sociology and biology, in particular ecology.

The world of human interactions is not studied by such biological disciplines as morphology, anatomy and physiology. dealing not with interhuman processes, but with phenomena given within or within the human body.

The situation is different with ecology as a part of biology. Ecology is a science that studies the relationship of an organism to its external environment, in the sense of the totality of conditions of existence (organic and inorganic). Ecology. studying the relationship of organisms to each other diverges into two branches: 300-sociology, which has as its subject the relationship of animals to each other (animal communities).

and phyto-sociology, sociology that studies the relationships of plants to each other (plant community)

As we see, ecology has as its object of study a class of phenomena similar to that. what is the subject of sociology? Both here and there the facts of interaction are studied. And here and there the processes of interaction between organisms are studied (for homo sapiens is also an organism)

Isn’t sociology thus being absorbed by ecology? The answer is: if people are no different from amoebae and other organisms, if they do not have specific properties. They can be equated between a person and an amoeba or another organism, between a person and a plant - then , yes, then no special homo-sociologist is needed. However, on the contrary, 300 - and phyto-sociology not only do not make homo-sociology superfluous, but also require its existence.

c) Sociology and psychology

1. If we talk about individual psychology, then its object and the object of sociology are different. Individual psychology studies the composition, structure and processes of the individual psyche and consciousness.

It cannot unravel the tangle of social factors, and, therefore, cannot be identified with sociology.

It is clear that they (social psychology and social psychology) do not replace each other, and moreover, social psychology could become the main one of its sections, as a science that studies all the main forms of interaction between people.

Psychology focuses on the inner world of a person, his perception, and co-studies a person through the prism of his social connections and relationships.

d) Sociology and special disciplines that study relationships between people.

All social sciences: political science, law, the science of religion, morals, morality, art, etc. also study the phenomena of human relationships, but each from its own special point of view.

Thus, the science of law studies a special type of phenomena in human relationships: the trustor and the debtor, the spouse and the spouse.

The object of political economy is the joint economic activity of people in the sphere of production, exchange, distribution and consumption of material goods.

The science of morals studies the collective ways of thinking and acting of people

Morality is a certain type of human behavior and provides a recipe for proper interaction

Aesthetics - studies the phenomena of interaction that arise on the basis of the exchange of aesthetic reactions (between an actor and spectators, between an artist and a crowd, etc.)

In short, social sciences study one or another type of human interaction. And co occupies a special place in the system of social and human sciences.

This is explained as follows.

co is the science of society, its phenomena and processes

· it includes a general sociological theory, or theory of society, which acts as the theory and methodology of all other social and human sciences

· all social and human sciences... that study various aspects of the life of society and man, always include a social aspect, i.e. laws and patterns that are studied in one or another area of public life are implemented through the life of people

· technology and methodology for studying man and his activities, methods of social measurement, etc. developed by sociology are necessary and used by all other social and human sciences. A whole system of research has developed at the intersection of scientific and other sciences (socio-economic, socio-political, etc.)

The position of sociology among other social and human sciences can be illustrated by the following formula

If there are n different objects to study, then the sciences that study them will be n +1, i.e. n sciences that study objects, and n +1 is a theory that studies what is common to all these objects.

Co occupies a general rather than a specific place among the social and human sciences; it provides scientifically based information about society and its structures, provides an understanding of the laws and patterns of interaction of its various structures. The position of co in relation to special social disciplines is the same as the position of general biology in relation to anatomy, physiology, morphology, systematics and other special biological branches of knowledge. The position of the general part of physics - to acoustics, electronics, the study of light, etc.

e) Sociology and history

In the system of social sciences there is a discipline with which the connection of sociology is the closest and most mutually necessary. This is history

Both history and history have society and its laws in their specific manifestations as the object and subject of their research. Both sciences reproduce social reality...

Faculty of Sociology

Lecture No. 2

Function, structure and method of sociology

I. Functions of sociology

II. Structure of sociology

III. Method of sociological science

I. Functions of sociology.

The functions of each science express the diversity of its interactions and connections with the daily practice of society. The functions contain the need of society for a specific cognitive or transformative action of a given science.

The purpose of sociology is determined by the needs of the functioning and development of the social sphere of life of society and individuals.

Thus sociology, the study of social life

firstly: solves scientific problems related to the formation of knowledge about social reality, description, explanation and understanding of the processes of social development, development of the conceptual apparatus of sociology, methodology and methods of sociological research. The theories and concepts developed in this area answer two questions:

1) “what is known?” - an object;

2) “how is it known?” - method;

those. are associated with the solution of epistemological (cognitive) problems and form theoretical, fundamental sociology.

secondly: it studies problems associated with the transformation of social reality, analysis of ways and means of systematic, targeted influence on social processes. This is the field of applied sociology.

Theoretical and applied sociology differ in the goal they set for themselves, and not in the object and method of research.

Applied sociology sets itself the task, using the laws and patterns in the development of society known by fundamental sociology, to find ways and means of transforming this society in a positive direction. Therefore, she studies practical branches of human activity, for example, the sociology of politics, the sociology of law, labor, culture, etc. and answers the question

"For what?":

(for social development, for the formation of a legal society, for social management, etc.)

The division of sociological knowledge by orientation into fundamental and applied is quite arbitrary, because both make a certain contribution to solving both scientific and practical problems.

The same applies to empirical sociological research: they can also be oriented towards solving practical problems.

Taking into account these two aspects, the functions of sociology can be presented and grouped as follows:

Fundamental

Cognitive:

1) descriptive (descriptive)

2) diagnostic

3) prognostic (attempt to predict)

4) modeling of social objects

Applied

Forecast

Social design and construction

Organizational and technological

Management

Instrumental

Cognitive function

Sociology studies the social.

Let's expand on this concept, because... it is key for sociology.

Social is a set of certain properties and features of social relations, integrated by individuals or communities in the process of joint activity (interaction) in specific conditions and manifested in their relationships to each other, to their position in society, to the phenomena and processes of social life. Any system of social relations (economic, political, cultural and spiritual) concerns the relationship of people to each other and to society, and therefore has its own social aspect.

The social arises as a result of the fact that people occupy different places and roles in specific social structures, and this is manifested in their different relationships to the phenomena and processes of social life. That's what social is.

Sociology is designed to study precisely this.

On the one hand, the social is a direct expression of social practice, on the other hand, it is subject to constant change due to the influence of this very social practice on it.

Sociology is faced with the task of cognition of the stable, essential and at the same time constantly changing in the social, analysis of the relationship between the constant and the variable in the specific state of a social object.

In reality, a specific situation acts as an unknown social fact that must be realized in the interests of practice.

A social fact is a single socially significant event, typical for a given sphere of social life.

Theoretical and empirical analysis of this social fact is an expression of the cognitive function of sociology.

1). At the same time, relying on fundamental knowledge about the social process, the subject, knowledge is accumulated about the nature of the specific state of the social phenomenon, its transformation and the real result of the development of this phenomenon.

That is, the cognitive function acts as descriptive (descriptive) and diagnostic at the same time in this case.

2). But the cognitive function must cover not only the object being studied, but also the process that is required to transform it, i.e., try to predict and anticipate this process.

For example, to know, say, not only how united people are in a given group or team, united among themselves, but also what needs to be done to make them even more united, i.e. to see these ways.

To solve this problem, sociology, as a rule, relies on related sciences - economic, demographic, psychological.

3). Another direction of the cognitive function is the development of the theory and methods of sociological research, methods and techniques for collecting and analyzing sociological information.

Prognostic function.

Science in general has a predictive function.

Science is able to build a short-term or long-term forecast based on:

Knowledge of the quality and essence of reality;

Knowledge of the laws of functioning of this reality;

Knowledge of the laws of reality development

When it comes to social phenomena, forecasting is especially important here, because it shows:

The need for certain changes;

The ability to make these changes.

Sociology in this case is based on one side:

– knowledge of the general foundations of the development of the society under study, its general prospects;

with another:

– knowledge of the specific capabilities of an individual social subject.

For example: predicting the development prospects of a particular state today. enterprises, we rely on the general trend of today's transformations in the public sector (privatization, creation of joint-stock companies, termination of subsidies to unprofitable enterprises, etc.) and on studying the potential capabilities of a given specific enterprise, taking into account all its features (who is in charge, what is the contingent of employees, what is the raw material base, scientific, material and technical, social and everyday, etc.), i.e., all the positive and negative factors of a given subject. And on this basis, the estimated characteristics of the possible future state of the subject in the forecast period are built. (how the social structure of the team will change, job satisfaction, what level of development will be achieved, etc.) and effective recommendations are drawn up.

The prognostic function of sociology is a reflection of society’s need to create conditions for the conscious development and implementation of a scientifically based prospect for the development of each social division of society.

Social forecasting must take into account the reverse impact of the forecast on people’s consciousness and their activities, which can lead to its “self-realization” (or “self-destruction”). This feature of forecasting requires the development of a scientific forecast in the form of options, development alternatives that describe possible forms and manifestations, the pace of development of processes taking into account control influences, as well as their qualitative changes.

There are 2 types of social forecasts, which combine extrapolation (prediction) and goal setting in different ways:

– search (designed to describe a possible state based on current trends taking into account control actions)

– normative (related to goal setting, describes the desired state, ways and means of achieving it).

Classification of forecasts by forecast periods:

– short-term

– medium-term

– long-term

There is a classification by role: For example: Forecasts, warnings, etc.

Tools and methods used for forecasting:

- statistical analysis;

– construction of time series with subsequent extrapolation;

– method of expert assessments of main trends;

- math modeling.

The best effect is a combination of different methods

Sociologists are conducting forecast developments in various areas. For example:

– development of the social structure of society;

– social problems of labor;

– social problems of the family;

– social problems of education;

– social consequences of decisions made (the most relevant ones).

Forecasting must be distinguished from utopias and futurological concepts (lat. futurum future + ... ology), which perform corresponding ideological functions.

Functions of social design and construction

Social design (from the Latin projectus - protruding forward) is a scientifically based design of a system of parameters for a future object or a qualitative new state of an existing object. This is a form of social management.

In social design, it is precisely social problems that are solved, regardless of what the object is: social (hospital, school), industrial (plant, factory), architectural (neighborhood), etc., i.e. social parameters are included in the project, requiring comprehensive provision of conditions for the implementation of all interrelated subgoals of social design, namely:

– socio-economic efficiency;

– environmental optimality;

– social integration;

– social and organizational manageability;

– social activity.

This is stage I.

Then stage II: a range of pressing social problems is identified, the solution of which is necessary to achieve each subgoal.

Stage III: Specific tasks for developing a social project are determined.

1). as a system of social parameters of the designed object and their quantitative indicators;

2). as a set of specific measures that ensure the implementation of the designed indicators and qualitative characteristics of the future facility.

When determining the degree of feasibility of social projects, the business game method is effective. This method has proven itself and is used in practice.

Organizational and technological function

An organizational-technological function is a system of means that determine the order and clear rules of practical actions to achieve a specific result in improving social organization, a social process or social relations, and solving various kinds of social problems. Increasing labor productivity, improving management organization, purposefully influencing public opinion through the media, etc. In other words, this is the creation of social technologies.

The organizational and technological function is, as it were, a continuation of the function of social design, because Without a project, an expected social result, it is impossible to create a social technology and develop measures for its implementation.

With the creation of a network of social services in the national economy, this function is becoming more and more widespread.

Social technologies are based on empirical experience and theoretical principles.

Management function

Scientific results of sociology -

Offers;

Techniques;

Assessments of various characteristics of the subject, his practice;

All this is the source material for developing and making management decisions.

Consequently, in order to make a competent decision on one or another social problem, so that it has a scientific basis, sociological activity is necessary.

For example: A management decision related to a change in the work regime in a work team requires a sociological analysis of direct and indirect factors that arise:

In the field of labor activity;

In the sphere of everyday life, leisure, etc.

The managerial function of sociology is manifested:

In social planning;

When developing social indicators and standards;

Instrumental function

Along with general methods of social cognition, sociology develops its own approaches and techniques for analyzing social reality.

With the help of some methods, a social phenomenon is cognized and reflected in its specific state;

with the help of others, ways of transforming it are being developed.

Those. this is a separate and independent function of sociology aimed at developing methods and tools for

Registration

Processing

Analysis

Generalization

primary sociological information.

Sociological research itself is the most general tool in sociology, and it includes a whole series of methods, the development and improvement of which continues. And this activity of developing research tools for social cognition occupies a significant place in sociology.

II. The structure of sociology.

Sociology is a fairly differentiated system of knowledge.

Each of its structural parts is determined by the needs of cognitive and productive activity and, in turn, characterizes the multifaceted and multipurpose purpose of sociology as a science.

The structure of sociology can be imagined as consisting of 4 main blocks:

I. Theoretical and methodological foundations of sociology.

II. A huge number of social theories (sociology of journalism, among others), i.e. all the problems.

III. Methods of sociological research, methods of processing, analysis and generalization of sociological information, i.e. empirical and methodological arsenal of science.

IV. Social engineering activities, social technologies, i.e. knowledge on the organization and activities of social development services, on the role of sociology in the national economy and management.

For Part I:

The study of a social phenomenon involves identifying the essence and nature of the social phenomenon, its historical specificity, and its connection with the economic and political aspects of life. This stage of cognition represents the fundamental theoretical foundations for the study of any social phenomenon. Without possessing this fundamental theoretical knowledge, it is impossible to study a social phenomenon.

For Part II:

Sociology deals with individual social phenomena (single or mass, reduced to an average statistical fact). Two points stand out from their study:

1) knowledge of the nature of a specific social phenomenon (personality, work collective, self-expression of the subject through any activity, manifestation of the subject’s social position in relation to something or opinion). It is systematized in special sociological theories, reveals the essence of a particular phenomenon, the specificity of the expression of the social in it.

2) knowledge of the nature of the very state of a social phenomenon as a moment and limit in its development.

For Part III:

The specificity of cognitive activity - the theory and methods of sociological research, methods of collecting, processing, and analyzing primary information about the state of a social phenomenon - is an important independent part of sociology.

For Part IV:

The theory of organization and activities of social development services, revealing the functions and role of a sociologist, is an independent specific part of sociology. This is a tool for transforming practice, which is owned by the head of any enterprise, workers of sociological services, and government agencies.

III. Method of sociological science.

Hegel said: “All philosophy is summed up in method.”

So in sociology - the specificity of the object and subject of science determined the specificity of its method.

Since in order to understand a social process, phenomenon, etc. it is necessary to obtain primary detailed information about it, its strict selection, analysis, then it is obvious that the tool in the process of such knowledge is sociological research.

Sociological research is one of the main methods in sociology. It includes:

1) Theoretical part

(- development of a research program,

Justification of goals and objectives,

Definition of hypotheses and stages of research).

2) Instrumental part (procedural part)

(- a set of information collection tools

Choosing a method of collecting information

Definition of the effective sample

Ability to process information

Obtaining characteristics of the state of the reality under study).

Faculty of Sociology

Lecture No. 3 (+ see lecture on MG)

II. Social laws: essence, classification

Faculty of Sociology

Literature:

A social phenomenon always has a certain social quality.

For example: “A group of students” is a social phenomenon.

Its qualities:

1) these are people who study;

2) have secondary or secondary specialized education;

3) a certain age (up to 35 years);

4) a certain level of intelligence;

These qualities of a social phenomenon are infinitely diverse and are in constant motion.

Example: - “group of full-time students”

Some quality characteristics;

- “a group of evening students”;

- “a group of technical university students”;

- “a group of students of a humanitarian university;

Specific states of a social phenomenon

Other quality characteristics.

All characteristics are mobile and appear as very different shades of the “whole”, i.e. the social phenomenon itself as a whole.

This unity and diversity, constancy and mobility of any social phenomenon in its specific state is reflected in the corresponding categories, concepts and laws of sociology.

To describe the specific state of a particular social phenomenon, the entire system of knowledge is necessary:

1) as relative to the social in general;

2) and in relation to the special area of a given social phenomenon down to its specific state;

From what has been said we can conclude:

In understanding any social phenomenon in sociology, it is necessary to take into account two interrelated points (contradictions).

1) Recognition of the individuality and specificity of the social phenomenon being studied (in our example, a group of students).

2) Identification of essential characteristics of a social phenomenon associated with the manifestation of statistical patterns of distribution of characteristics common to a given class of social phenomena, which manifest themselves in certain conditions and give grounds for drawing conclusions about the natural nature of the development, functioning and structure of both this social phenomenon and the whole class of related phenomena.

The theory of probability and the law of large numbers apply here:

The higher the probability of the manifestation of a certain characteristic, the more reliable and justified our judgment about a particular social phenomenon and its qualitative and quantitative characteristics.

The specificity of the object and subject of science determines the specificity of the categories (concepts) of a given science.

The extent to which the category apparatus has been developed characterizes the level of knowledge in a particular science. And vice versa - deepening knowledge in science is enriched by categories and concepts.

For sociology, one of the main and extremely broad categories is the category of “social”.

Social in its content is a reflection of the organization and life of society as a subject of the historical process. It accumulates experience, traditions, knowledge, abilities, etc.

Therefore, knowledge of the social manifests itself in the following functions:

Promotes understanding to what extent a social phenomenon, process, community contributes to the harmonious development of society and the individual in their integral unity;

Determines the content of interests, needs, motives, attitudes in the activities of social communities and individuals;

Speaking about “social”, I want to remind you: in the 1st lecture we said that this concept is key for sociology and wrote down its definition:

But I would like you to have a clearer understanding of this area of human relations and therefore I would like to draw your attention to the following:

Historical reference:

K. Marx and F. Engels used two terms in their works:

Public

Social

The concept of “public”, “social relations”, etc. were used when talking about society as a whole (economic, political, spiritual, etc. spheres).

It was often identified with the concept of “civil”.

The concept “social” was used in the study of the nature of people’s relationships to each other, to the factors and conditions of life, the position and role of a person in society, etc.

When developing the theory of historical materialism, K. Marx and F. Engels paid main attention to the interaction of all aspects of the life of society and therefore used the term “social relations”.

Subsequently, Marxist scientists lost sight of this circumstance and began to identify the concepts of “public” and “social.”

And when sociology was replaced by historical materialism, the specific object of sociological knowledge, social connections and relationships, was lost.

However, in Western European countries and the United States, the concept of “social” has traditionally been used in a narrow sense.

And in order to designate phenomena and processes related to society as a whole, the concept “societal” was introduced, used to characterize society as a whole, the entire system of social relations (economic, political, social, spiritual).

In our country, the concepts of “public” and “civil” were used. The first is as a synonym for “social”, the second is as a term of legal science, i.e. the true semantic meaning of the social was lost along with the science of sociology itself.

(End of historical information).

The social sphere is the sphere of reproduction of the subject, that is, the reproduction of the subject for the future and maintaining its existence in the present, so that it can function fruitfully in the spheres of production, political, cultural and spiritual.

The world is systematized: complete.

Every whole is a set of some elements and they make up a system, which means they have a communication structure.

Likewise:

Society is a whole, and society is a multitude, but not just people, but their connections, which forms a multitude and a whole.

"Whole"

"A bunch of"

"Structure"

"Function"

“Social role”

"Position"

Thus, we received the social structure of society.

To study society, you need to know its structure, and therefore the relationships and their connections.

As Mayakovsky said: “If the stars light up, it means someone needs it.”

Likewise, if there are social relationships, then this is necessary.

Social relationships are functional.

Those. Each member of society has his own functions (journalist, doctor, teacher, metallurgist, pensioner, husband, wife, etc.).

This defines a “social role”—a normatively approved mode of behavior.

“Position” is the place that an individual occupies, that is, how he relates to his role and functions.

We examined the concept of “social”.

The next, no less important category in sociology, with which all other groups and series of categories and concepts are consistent, is the category “social in its specific state.” Whether this concerns any social subject (social community, family, work collective, individual, etc.) or some social process (lifestyle, communication, struggle for the implementation of social interests, etc.), it is associated with identifying the social in its specific implementation.

Here, knowledge about each of the subject areas is of exceptional importance.

This knowledge, as well as the corresponding concepts and category apparatus, are accumulated and systematized in special sociological theories.

An independent and significant place in the system of categories and concepts of sociology is occupied by categories (concepts) that reflect the specifics of collecting and processing social information, organization and behavior of sociological research.

Here the categories are: “sociological research”, “programming and organization of social services”. research”, “technique and methodology of social. research”, “methods of collecting primary information”, “social tools. research”, etc.

The fourth section of sociology has its own conceptual apparatus: “social engineering”, “social design”, “social technologies”, etc.

II. Sociological laws: essence, classification

The core of any science is its laws.

A law is an essential connection or essential relationship that has universality, necessity and repeatability under given conditions. Social law is an expression of the essential, necessary connection of social phenomena and processes, primarily the connections of people’s social activities or their actions. Social laws express the stable interaction of forces and their uniformity, which reveals the essence of phenomena and processes.

To study social laws and patterns means to establish significant and necessary connections between various elements of the social sphere.

Classification of laws.

Laws vary in duration

General – valid in all social systems.

(Law of value and commodity-money relations).

Specific - operating within one or more social systems.

(The law of transition from one type of society to another)

Laws vary in their degree of generality.

Laws - characterizing the development of the social sphere as a whole.

Laws - determining the development of individual elements of the social sphere: classes, groups, nations, etc.

Laws differ in the way they are manifested:

Dynamic - determine the direction, factors and forms of social change, fix a rigid, unambiguous connection between the sequence of events in specific conditions

Statistical (stochastic) - reflect trends while maintaining the stability of a given social whole, determine the connection between phenomena and processes not rigidly, but with a certain degree of probability. It records only individual deviations from the line of movement specified by the dynamic law. They do not characterize the behavior of each object in the class of phenomena under study, but some property or feature inherent in the class of objects as a whole. They establish the trend of behavior of a given class of objects in accordance with their general properties and characteristics.

Causal - they record strictly determined connections in the development of social phenomena (to increase the birth rate, it is necessary to improve social and living conditions).

Functional - reflect empirically observed and strictly repeating mutual dependencies between social phenomena.

Example: method of production during the transition from one social-economy. Formations to another

Or the law about the determining role of being in relation to consciousness.

Example: Dependence of labor productivity on qualifications; knowledge from activity in class.

Example: demographic processes, staff turnover processes.

Women's increased economic independence increases the likelihood of divorce.

Laws of development (development of self-government).

The law of development determines the transition from one quality of social. object to another.

Laws of functioning (distribution of role functions in the family)

Typology of social laws according to forms of connections (5 categories)

(Example: Under totalitarian governance there is always a latent opposition).

II category. Laws reflecting development trends. They determine the dynamics of the structure of a social object, the transition from one order of relationships to another. This determining influence of the previous state of the structure on the subsequent one has the character of a law of development.

If the laws of development determine the transition from one quality of a social object to another, then the laws of functioning create the prerequisites for this transition.

(Example: The more actively students work in class, the better they master the educational material).

(Example: A necessary condition for increasing the birth rate in the country is improving social and living conditions for women).

(Example: Increased economic independence of women increases the likelihood of divorce.

The growth of alcoholism in the country increases the likelihood of childhood pathology).

Social actions are characterized by a random variable. These random variables together form a certain average resultant value, which acts as a form of manifestation of the social law.

Social regularity cannot manifest itself other than in the average, social, mass regularity with the interaction of individual deviations in one direction or another.

To identify the average resultant it is necessary:

1). Establish the direction of actions of similar groups of people in the same conditions;

2). Establish a system of social connections within the framework of which this activity is determined;

3). To establish the degree of repetition and stability of social actions and interactions of groups of individuals in the conditions of a given social system of functioning.

If we watch one person, we will not see the law. If we observe a set, then taking into account the deviations of each individual in one direction or another, we obtain the resulting results, i.e. pattern.

Therefore, a sample population is taken from the General Population and a prediction is made from it for the entire population.

If the sample is made accurately, then the pattern is derived extremely accurately.

Thus, sociology as a science is based on a complex hierarchical system of laws that characterize the peculiarities of being in its various manifestations.

Faculty of Sociology

Lecture No. 4

Literature:

I. Junior Sociology. Ed. N.N. Dryakhlova. M. Publishing house of Moscow Faculty, 1989. pp. 55-83, 186-194, 249-256

II. Sociology G.V. Osipov M. Mysl, 1990 pp. 50-79, 119-185.

III. Social structure of Soviet society: history and modernity - M. Politizdat 1987

IV. A brief dictionary of sociology - M. Politizdat 1988

1) Social as an objective essence of sociological science.

2) Social structures and relationships.

Social as the objective essence of sociological analysis. Social structures and relationships.

I. Social as an objective community of social. Sciences.

1. When it comes to production processes, the interactions of people and various social groups and communities regarding the production and exchange of consumer goods are considered ® mutual dependence is formed between people in society regarding their participation in social labor, the distribution and consumption of its results ® develops and the system of economic relations of society is functioning.

2. People, due to the need for a certain organization of the life of society, enter into interaction and interdependence with each other regarding the organization and exercise of political power; the political sphere of society’s life is formed and operates (political relations are formed).

3. People interact regarding the production and distribution of spiritual values in society - knowledge, orientations, norms, principles, etc. ® the cultural-spiritual sphere of society’s life is formed (cultural-spiritual relations are formed).

4. What is the social side or sphere of life of society?

The need for the social as a special phenomenon in the life of society lies in the complexity of the organization of society itself as an integral subject of the historical process. This complexity is expressed in the fact that society is built, forms its own systems and organs: 1). By function (production, political, demographic, etc.; 2) By the level of connection of people into various social formations (family, work collective, settlement, ethnic community, etc.).

Society (see the definition in lecture No. 1, p. 10 or abbreviated here) is an organism that is a system of relatively independent elements, each of which implements an integral life process and is in constant interaction with all other subjects of the social process regarding its implementation .

As a subject of life activity, any individual, any social organization or community occupies a specific position in the organization of society, in its structure and structure. He (the subject) needs historically determined conditions for his existence and reproduction, which would be adequate to his life needs. This is the main social interest of a given subject, characterizing its social position.

The essence of the social as a phenomenon of existence lies precisely in the fact that people, their diverse social groups and communities are in constant interaction regarding both maintaining their social position in society and improving their life process.

Thus, society has a complex functional and structural organization, in which all subjects are in interaction with each other regarding the integrity and qualitative certainty of their way of life and social position in society. ® This expresses the necessity, specificity, certainty of the social, its essence and significance in sociology.

Social is a set of certain properties and features of social relations, integrated by individuals or communities in the process of joint activity (interaction) in specific conditions and manifested in their relationships to each other, to their position in society, to the phenomena and processes of social life. Any system of social relations (economics, socialist politics) concerns the relationship of people to each other and to society: it has its own social aspect.

A social phenomenon or process occurs when the behavior of even one individual is influenced by another or a group (community) regardless of their physical presence.

On the one hand, the social is a direct expression of social practice, on the other hand, it is subject to constant change due to the influence of this very social practice on it.

Social in its content is a reflection of the organization and life of society as a subject of the historical process. It accumulates experience, traditions, knowledge, abilities, etc.

Therefore, knowledge of the social manifests itself in the following functions:

As a criterion for assessing the compliance of the state of society and its elements with the achieved level of social progress;

Promotes understanding to what extent any social phenomenon, process, community contributes to the harmonious development of society and the individual in an integral unity;

Acts as the basis for the development of social norms, standards, goals and forecasts of social development;

– determines the content of interests, needs, motives, attitudes in the activities of social communities and individuals;

Has a direct impact on the formation of social values and life positions of people, their way of life;

It acts as a measure for assessing each type of social relations, their compliance with actual practice and the interests of society and individuals.

Because economic, political and other social relations represent the mutual dependence of individuals regarding the implementation of a specific type of activity necessary for society, and, accordingly, occupying a place in the organization of society, and, accordingly, occupying a place in the organization of society for the implementation of this activity (industrial organizations, political organizations, etc.) .p.) then social relations are the mutual dependence of individuals, large and small groups regarding their life activities, lifestyle in general and place in the organization of society, i.e. regarding the integrity of the existence of society and man as subjects of life.

Social relations between groups of people occupying different positions in society, taking unequal participation in its economic, political and spiritual life, differing in lifestyle, level and sources of income, and structure of personal consumption.

Society is formed on the basis of property, accumulated labor in the form of material wealth and culture.

Labor as a purposeful activity of a person, as a manifestation of his generic essence, is a fundamental factor in the formation of the social.

The quality of a social phenomenon, subject or process has not only a general historical nature, but also a specific historical essence:

the peculiarity of the inclusion and participation of people in social production, in the production of all social life, determines the specifics of the social in various historical periods and phases of the development of society.

An important expression of the social is public opinion. In it and through it, the social position of the subject and his attitude to both the conditions of life as a whole and to individual events and facts are revealed.

Public opinion is the most sensitive expression of a subject's social position to mobile devices.

Public opinion is a state of mass consciousness that contains the hidden or explicit attitude of various social communities to problems, events and facts of reality.

It is indeed an important expression of the social.

We said that public opinion is sensitive to the social position of the subject.

Let's remember what a position is:

Society is a “Whole”, consisting of a “many” individuals, their relationships represent a system or “structure” of connections, each in this social structure has its own “functions”, and therefore fulfills its “social role” (normatively approved mode of behavior ) and have your own “position” (the place that an individual occupies, i.e., how he relates to his role, functions).

But besides this, there is another important concept that sociology studies: meanings.

Society is multidimensional. It is measured and changes in four dimensions (the cube: height, depth and width) plus time (social time). But there is also a fifth dimension - quasi (supposedly a dimension).

Let us conventionally depict it as a cylinder inscribed in a cube. This cylinder is meanings.

This cylinder also has a time dimension.

Parable: Three homosapiens were walking and saw a stone. One thought: it would be nice to make a weapon out of it for hunting mammoths”; another – “it would be good to use it for the hearth”; the third - “it would be nice to make a head out of it, carve out a head.”

That is, the object is in space, outside of us, and its essence lives in our consciousness, depending on our needs. Everyone has their own needs and their own vision.

Likewise, journalists invest their essence, that is, from the same object, depending on their subjective perception of this objective object, they extract their essence, depending on their position.

That is, each subject has his own idea of the same object, the same connections, relationships.

The task of sociology is to delve into these meanings, to recognize them in every social phenomenon, process, and relationship.

The social is diverse, because events, facts, situations are diverse, which are the expression of the specific state of a particular social phenomenon.

On the other hand, we are talking about the integrity, specificity and certainty of the organization of society, that is, social phenomena.

Thus, it is necessary to take into account the unity and diversity of the social in its cognition.

So, we have established that the essence of the social lies in the interaction of people regarding both maintaining their social position and improving their life process.

In other words:

Social or social phenomenon is the reproduction of man as such, his preservation and his development.

The sphere of life of society is a special type of its life activity, the process of development of society in which one or another function of society is realized. (for example: in the productive sphere the production function is implemented, etc.).

The social sphere is the process of functioning and development of society, in which its social function, social existence itself, is realized, i.e. holistic reproduction and enrichment of society and humans as subjects of the life process.

Everything that is aimed by society at ensuring the immediate life of people, their reproduction, and on this basis the reproduction of society as a whole, characterizes the social environment of life of society and people.

Those. The social environment is everything that is directed by society to ensure the immediate life of people, their reproduction and the development of their abilities and needs.

It can also be said that

The social sphere is the process of self-expression of society and man as the creator of his own life.

Based on the dialectics of the general, the particular and the individual, it should be emphasized that each subject (person, family, work collective, population of a city, village, district, etc.) is included in its own way in the social sphere of society. For each of the subjects, this environment is the sphere of his valuable life existence and life reproduction, the sphere of self-realization and self-development.

The social sphere can be represented as a system of characteristics of the social sphere, highlighting the fundamental needs of people's lives and how to satisfy them.

(For example: the need for housing and its actual satisfaction).

Identification of the characteristics of the social sphere makes it possible to develop their indicators, which should take into account both the normative-calculated, cancer and the actually achieved possibility of satisfying needs due to the potential created in society and the method of such satisfaction.

(For example:

By 1986, the average real total living space per person in the country was 14.6 square meters. m, and the calculated rational norm assumed 20 sq. m per person. The country needed to invest “1,000 billion rubles in housing construction.)

The quantitative characteristics of the social sphere represent a special aspect - social infrastructure.

Social infrastructure is the material and organizational components of the social sphere. This is a complex of institutions, structures, vehicles designed to serve the population, as well as a set of relevant sectors of the economy and social relations taking into account the population, i.e. real needs.

Based on the state of the infrastructure, one can assess the level and quality of satisfaction of needs, their correlation with the level of developed countries and the requirements of the development of modern civilization.

The structure of occupations and the activities of people characterizes the development of the social sphere and its infrastructure. Social policy is aimed at improving classes and their structure.

Social policy is the activity of the state to manage the development of the social sphere of society and aimed at raising the labor and socio-political activity of the masses, satisfying their needs, interests, increasing well-being, culture, image and quality of life.

At the same time, the development and use of social technologies by special social services are of great importance.

Faculty of Sociology

Lecture No. 5

I. Methodology

Literature

Methodological apparatus of sociological science.

I. Methodology.

Methodology is a system of principles of scientific research.

Example: “Social tension increased in September.”

How to come to such a theoretical conclusion?

Necessary:

Study the social structure of society;

Determine indicators of the standard of living of society and its social communities;

Study the dynamics of changes in these indicators over a certain period; (measure them);

Study the reaction of people and individual communities to changes in living standards and changes in indicators;

This is a methodology: a system of principles of scientific research, a set of research procedures, techniques and methods for collecting and processing data.

There are three levels of methodology:

Scientific branches/

Methodology levels

In science in general

In sociology in particular

I level (upper)

Philosophical, or universal scientific methodology

Level II (intermediate)

General scientific

Sociological methodology

III level (lower)

Specific scientific

Special methodology of sociological research

I Level.

Philosophy as a methodology equips the researcher with knowledge of the most general laws of development of nature, society and thinking, allows one to embrace the world in its entirety, determine the place of the problem being studied among many others, its connection with them, etc.

Discussing the methods of cognition, A. Einstein wrote: “To apply his method, the theorist needs as a foundation some general assumptions, the so-called principles, from which he can draw consequences.”

Philosophy as a methodology, representing a system of the most general concepts, laws, principles of the movement of matter, directs human activity in a certain direction. In this case, either the entire arsenal of known philosophical generalizations can be used, or a group of some general ideas, or one of the principles that begins to act as the main one, organizing, grouping other ways of cognition around itself.

The philosophical level or the level of universal scientific methodology is an expression of the heuristic (i.e. search) function. And the main thing here is the dialectical approach to knowledge.

Thus, dialectics asserts that the qualities or stable properties of an object (a social object in our case) are revealed as something that is preserved in the diverse relationships of this object with others.

All the basic provisions arising from the laws and categories of philosophy act as methodological principles:

Materialistic understanding of social reality;

Dialectical development;

Unity and struggle of opposites;

Dialectical negation;

Essence and phenomenon;

Relationship between quantitative and qualitative changes

They express a conscious philosophical position.

The methodological principle that follows from this:

It is necessary to provide for certain research procedures in order to “grab” precisely the stable properties of the object.

For example: “What is the structure of motives for work?”

Three types of specific situations are considered:

1) School graduates who are deciding on choosing a profession are surveyed. They evaluate the various advantages and disadvantages of the chosen specialty; value orientations and personally significant standards for assessing the content and conditions of work are identified. This is a projective (imaginary) situation.

2) They interview young workers who evaluate the positive and negative aspects of their actual work. This is a real balanced situation.

3) Workers who change jobs are surveyed, because for some reason they are not satisfied with it. This is a stressful or even conflict situation.

Comparing the data from the three situations, we find that some motives for work are constantly present in all three cases:

Earnings amount;

Opportunity for job advancement;

Prestige of the profession.

This is the motivational core, i.e. stable combinations characterizing the attitude towards work in its various states and connections.

The next statement of dialectics is associated with the need to consider social processes in their development and change.

(In the example above, this means interviewing these workers after "15 years."

This example shows how the rules of procedure implement a general methodological requirement:

consider phenomena and processes in the diversity of their connections and dynamics, thus identifying their stable and changeable properties.

In addition to the dialectical principle, one can also mention the principle of systematic theoretical knowledge and practice.

Being a philosophical principle that concretizes the dialectical-materialistic principle of universal connection, in relation to specific scientific directions it acts as a general scientific one, on its basis a certain general scientific methodology is developed.

So, level II.

General scientific methodology allows us to have certain laws and principles of research that are effective in various fields of knowledge.

For example, electromagnetic theory can be considered as a methodology for studying a wide range of electrodynamic phenomena.

For sociology, this is the general methodology of sociological research or sociological methodology. (from the Greek metodos - the path of research or knowledge and the Greek logos - word, concept, teaching) - the doctrine of the method of social cognition.

Social reality is specific, therefore, for its knowledge there is its own methodology - sociological methodology. Since there are different worldview approaches in sociology, today in the West alone, according to the main currents of philosophical thought, about 19 schools and directions of sociological methodology are subdivided. The most irreconcilable opposition remains between positivism and antipositivism. Until recently, the Marxist-Leninist methodology, which is based on the method of materialist dialectics, was officially in force in our country.

Acting as applied logic, general sociological theory helps to find the fundamental structure and main lines of relationships in the phenomenon being studied in order to move on to a targeted empirical study of the object.

(For example: “Increasing social tension” - everything up to empirical measurements, everything is sociological methodology, i.e. the methodology of the general theory of sociology.)

Sociological positivism is the leading direction in sociology of the 19th century. (Saint-Simon, Comte, Mill, Spencer). The main aspiration of positivism is the rejection of speculative reasoning about society, the creation of a “positive” social theory, which should have become as demonstrative and generally valid as natural scientific theories.

Positivism is the leading direction in sociology of the 19th century, the main methodological guidelines were formulated by Saint-Simon, the main concepts were developed in the works of Comte, Mill, and Spencer.

It developed in opposition to theorizing.

The main aspirations of positivism are the departure from speculative reasoning about society, the creation of a social theory that is evidence-based, like natural science theories. (Observational, comparative, historical and mathematical methods).

Structuralism is a methodological movement that proceeds from the idea of the predominance and advantage of structural change in any phenomena of the surrounding world: from structural analysis as a method of understanding nature and society.

(Montesquieu 1689-1755; Saint-Simon 1760-1825, Comte 1798-1856, Spencer, Durigame).

Functionalism is one of the main methodological approaches. The essence is in highlighting the elements of social interaction, determining their place and meaning (function) (Spencer, Durrheim, etc.)

A special sociological research methodology or a specific sociological research methodology.

In science in general, specific scientific methodology reflects the sum of patterns, techniques, and principles that are effective for studying a specific area of reality.

The methodology of specific sociological research is the doctrine of methods for collecting, processing and analyzing the utilization of primary sociological information.

Research activities are guided by the following principles:

1) constant reference to the object of study in order to concretize knowledge and achieve truth;

2) comparison with the results of previously acquired knowledge in science;

3) dividing all cognitive actions into simpler procedures in order to test them using proven methods

The specification of these principles is in the nature of requirements for conducting sociological research.

Summarize. The concept of “methodology” is a collective term that has various aspects. General scientific methodology is a method of searching for the most general approaches to the study of a subject. General sociological methodology provides guidance on the fundamental principles for the development of particular sociological theories in relation to their factual basis. The latter, in turn, contain special methodological functions, acting as the applied logic of research in a given subject area.

II. Methods, techniques, procedures.

In contrast to methodology, research methods and procedures are a system of more or less formalized rules for collecting, processing and analyzing information.

To study the problem posed, methodological premises and principles play a decisive role in the choice of certain techniques.

Neither in Soviet nor in foreign practice is there a uniform usage of words regarding particular methods of sociological research. Some authors call the same system of actions a method, others - a technique, others - a procedure or technique, and sometimes - a methodology.

Let's introduce the following meanings of words:

Method is the main way of collecting, processing or analyzing data.

Technique is a set of special techniques for the effective use of a particular method.

Methodology is a concept that denotes a set of technical techniques associated with a given method, including particular operations, their sequence and interrelation.

For example: Method - questionnaire survey:

Some open questions

Part of the closed questions (options of possible answers are proposed)

These two methods form the technique of this questionnaire survey.

Application form, i.e. data collection tool,

Instructions to the questionnaire

Methodology.

Procedure - the sequence of all operations, the general system of actions and the method of organizing the study. This is the most general concept related to the system of methods for collecting and processing sociological information.

For example: Conducted under the guidance of B.A. Grushin's study of the formation and functioning of public opinion as a typical mass process included 69 procedures. Each of them is like a completed miniature empirical study, which is organically included in the general theoretical and methodological program.

Thus, one of the procedures is devoted to the analysis of the content of central and local media on problems of international life;

the other aims to establish the effect of these materials on the reader;

the third is a study of a number of other sources that influence awareness of international issues;

Some procedures use the same method of data collection (for example, quantitative text analysis), but different techniques (text analysis units can be larger - topic and smaller - concepts, names).

The methodology of this major study is concentrated in its general design, the essence of the hypotheses developed and tested further, in the final generalization and theoretical understanding of the results obtained.

An analysis of all the methodological, technical and procedural features of the work of a sociologist shows that, along with special methods, general scientific methods are used, borrowed from other disciplines, especially from economic, historical, and psychological.

A sociologist must master the techniques of statistical analysis, and therefore know the relevant branches of mathematics and statistics, otherwise he will not be able to correctly determine the method of processing and analyzing the collected material, quantify the content of the primary material, i.e. quantitatively display qualitative features (represent the properties and relationships of social objects in quantitative form).

III. Sociological research is the main method of sociology. Its classification.

(See Lecture on “The Program and Organization of Sociological Research of the Social Sphere” pp. 4-14).

Faculty of Sociology

Lecture No. 6

Methodology and principles of a systematic approach to the analysis of social objects.

I. Methodology

II. Methods, techniques, procedures.

III. An integrated approach and system-functional analysis in sociology.

Literature

I. V. A. Yadov “Sociological research: methodology, program, methods” M. Science 1987

II.M-l sociology/Under. ed. N. I. Dryakhlova, B. V. Knyazeva, V. Ya. Nechaeva - M. Moscow University Publishing House, 1989 (p. 124)

Averyanov A. N. Systemic understanding of the world: methodological problems M. Politizdat, 1985

Methodology and principles of a systematic approach to the analysis of social objects.

III. An integrated approach and system-functional analysis in sociology.

When studying social reality, an integrated approach is of fundamental methodological importance. This is explained by the fact that every social phenomenon is multifaceted. In addition, no less important are those specific components that characterize the diverse conditions that determine a given social phenomenon.

Let's highlight them:

I. Correspondence and consistency of the dynamics of a social phenomenon with the general perspective of the development of the socio-economic system, i.e. how and to what extent the specificity of the socio-economic formation is represented in a given social phenomenon, to what extent it is adequate.

II. The role and place of this social phenomenon in the existing socio-economic system.

III. The connection of this social phenomenon with a specific type of production, its specificity and scale (branch of the national economy, enterprise, team, etc.).

IV. The connection of a social phenomenon with a region, certain territorial and economic conditions, their mutual dependence and conditionality.

V. Ethnic characteristics of a social phenomenon, the influence of the national factor on the course of the social process.

VI. The political nature and political form of this social phenomenon.

VII. The social phenomenon and the time in which it occurs, i.e. specific conditions (established norms, value orientations, opinions, traditions, etc.).

VIII. The social subject with which the social phenomenon is associated, the level of its organization, the degree of socio-psychological stability, maturity, etc.

All of these factors are in constant interaction. The specific state of a social phenomenon is the integrated result of this interaction.

Consequently, it is possible to correctly understand a social phenomenon only through a comprehensive coverage of the action of all the diverse forces and dependencies.

Thus, the integrated approach represents a thoughtful, scientifically based system of cognitive activity of representatives of various disciplines.

For example: Studying: “Stability of the workforce.”

The following characteristics need to be studied:

Economic;

Socio-political;

Social-psychological;

Social;

Very often, the object being studied seems to exist on its own, but the first thing a sociologist must do when studying it is to identify all the diversity of connections and interacting components of this object, i.e. its integrity.

Integrity, expressing the same quality of the whole and its elements, is a necessary characteristic of the objective reality of a certain quality.

Wholeness reveals to us all the interactions of the whole and the necessity of these interactions.

For example: “Work collective” is a whole.

And a holistic idea of it is knowledge of such connections as the relationship to the means of production of a given collective, the form of labor organization, formal and informal connections, etc.

So, an integrated approach in sociology expresses the need to take into account the interactions of a social phenomenon in its specific state, which would make it possible to reveal the integrity of the reality under study to the greatest extent.

Systemic-functional analysis in sociology reveals the dialectic of the whole and the part.

System analysis, a systems approach is a necessary component of the dialectical-materialist method.

Thus, it should be emphasized once again that the essence of the systems approach (analysis) in sociology is to strictly and consistently proceed from knowledge of the integrity of the social process and social organization in the study of a social phenomenon in its specific state and to consider the social object under study as a necessary organ or element of the socio-political system.

The relationship between the system, its organs and parts is recorded as a functional dependence and, in general terms, can be presented as a systemic-functional characteristic of the whole.

Function is defined as the relation of a whole to something.

For example: The problem “Social protection of students” is being studied.

Sociology does not study the functions themselves, no matter how important they are, but the social phenomenon that appears through the implementation of a specific function, in which the very integrity of the system is manifested.

A social phenomenon is complex in that it represents a moment of action of a subject through a specific function.

Systemic-functional analysis allows one to penetrate into a real social situation and understand a social phenomenon.

Tutoring

Need help studying a topic?

Our specialists will advise or provide tutoring services on topics that interest you.
Submit your application indicating the topic right now to find out about the possibility of obtaining a consultation.

MINISTRY OF HEALTH

THE REPUBLIC OF BELARUS

EDUCATIONAL ESTABLISHMENT

"GRODNO STATE

MEDICAL UNIVERSITY"

________________________________________________

Department of Humanities

SOCIOLOGY

teaching aid

Grodno, 2004

annotation

This educational and methodological manual includes a lecture course in sociology, a brief dictionary of sociological terms for each topic, a list of educational literature, as well as test questions on the discipline. The manual was developed in accordance with the standard sociology program and is intended for full-time and part-time students of all faculties of the State Medical University. The purpose of this manual is to provide students with the necessary minimum of educational and methodological material in sociology.

Approved and published by decision of the central scientific and methodological council of the Grodno State Medical University.

Reviewer: head. Department of Humanities, GSMU, Professor L.I. Lukyanova

Responsible for the issue: First Vice-Rector of the State Medical University, Doctor of Medical Sciences, Professor I.G. Zhuk

Introduction 4

Lecture 1 7

SOCIOLOGY – THE SCIENCE OF SOCIETY 7

AND THE SOCIAL WORLD OF HUMAN 7

Lecture 2 14

HISTORY OF FORMATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIOLOGY 14

Lecture 3 27

SOCIETY AS WHOLE 27

DYNAMICALLY DEVELOPING SYSTEM 27

Lecture 4 36

SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS 36

2. The variety of social institutions and their types 38

A social institution is a relatively stable form of organization of social life that ensures the stability of connections and relationships within society. 42

Lecture 5 43

PERSONALITY AS A UNIQUE SOCIAL SYSTEM 43

Personality is a relatively stable and holistic system of social qualities that characterize a given individual, acquired and developed by him in the process of interactions with other people and is a product of social development. 49

Lecture 6 49

FAMILY AS A BASIC SOCIAL INSTITUTE 49

Marriage is a historically conditioned and socially sanctioned form of relationship between a man and a woman, establishing their certain rights and responsibilities in relation to each other, their children and society. 57

Lecture 7 58

SOCIOLOGY OF MEDICINE 58

Sociology of medicine (medical sociology, sociology of health care and medicine) is a branch of sociology that studies social phenomena, facts, processes and relationships that characterize the field of medical care, its organizational structure, the efficiency of individual institutions and the health care system as a whole, as well as the health status of the population, its social conditionality and role in the development of society. 64

Lecture 8 65

APPLIED SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH 65

Educational literature on sociology 80

Final questions for discipline 81

Introduction

Modern man lives in an extremely complex, dynamically developing and extremely contradictory world. People located in different parts of the globe daily and hourly absorb huge amounts of information, in which part of the word “social...” is present as a code sign. The general scientific term “society” and its derivatives – social, sociality, sociology – are among the most common concepts today. Everyone understands that in these cases we are talking about phenomena, processes, events characteristic of people living together - either very close, or simply on the same planet.

Sociology opens before us a unique world - the world of human existence, in which every individual is immersed. It makes it possible to diagnose the current state of society, predict the onset of crises and develop a strategy to overcome them. A sociologist can calculate the popularity rating of a political figure, predict the results of elections with a high degree of probability, and after they are held, use a special method to determine whether they were rigged or not. The work of a sociologist is very diverse, but it has its own “zest”: it allows you to see the problems generated by social interaction, formulate them in the language of sociology, find ways and means to resolve them and offer them to society.

Sociology gives rise to a special view of the world. Sociology textbooks are, in fact, life textbooks for everyone, and not just for those who receive a diploma in the relevant education. Students all over the world, mastering a particular profession, simultaneously acquire the necessary knowledge from the field of sociology, since, no matter what they do in the future, they will have to be included in various social communities - families, professional groups, social, ethnic groups, etc. P.

Humanity today is at the stage of transition from the industrial to the post-industrial stage of development. The new era opens up not only wonderful prospects for the future, but also raises many questions that require immediate solutions now. A prerequisite for understanding the modern world, its features and contradictions, directions for further development, as well as developing one’s own behavioral strategy for an individual can and should be not only one’s own life experience, the “trial and error” method, but also the advice of a sociologist.

The curriculum of the course “Sociology” is aimed at developing in students scientific ideas about society and the social world of man, about the sociological patterns of the formation and development of sociocultural reality, about the possibilities of knowing these patterns and using the acquired knowledge in a specific field of professional activity. This educational and methodological manual has been developed in accordance with the standard program of the course “Sociology” for higher educational institutions of the Republic of Belarus (approved by the Ministry of Education of the Republic of Belarus on May 11, 2000. Reg. No. TD-75type). Its main purpose is to help students deeply and meaningfully study the main issues of the topics covered in seminar classes, fruitfully organize the process of independent work, and monitor the degree of their preparation for classes.

The structure of the manual includes the texts of lectures on the main sections of the curriculum - eight lecture topics, including, for the purpose of profiling this course and taking into account the specifics of the university - the topic “Sociology of Medicine”. The author sought to structure the presentation of the lecture course in such a way that it would activate students’ mental activity and independent work skills. The teaching materials offered at the end of each topic allow you to penetrate deeper into their content, thus performing important cognitive functions. The presented information and methodological material is focused on mastering the basic concepts of each topic, its main problems, and the questions for repetition proposed after each topic can become the subject of not only independent analysis, but also subsequent discussion during seminar classes.

As a result of mastering the Sociology course, the student should know:

the specifics of socio-humanitarian knowledge, the main theoretical and methodological problems of sociology;

leading representatives of foreign and domestic sociology;

the basics of specific methods and procedures for sociological work;

be able to characterize:

the integrity of sociocultural life and its multidimensionality;

main levels, structures, subsystems and objects of society;

basic sociocultural processes and interactions;

be able to analyze, interpret and illustrate:

the place and role of sociocultural problems in a person’s personal life;

transformation processes of transition from one type of society to another;

sociocultural realities, current problems and trends in the formation of civil society in Belarus, CIS countries, countries of the former “socialist camp”

quality of sociological information;

acquire skills and qualities:

developing socially oriented assessments of the problems that society faces;

assessing specific life situations, justifying your solution, programming your own actions;

taking an independent, reasoned and critical position in discussing sociocultural issues;

recognition and opposition (if possible) to manipulative influences, recognition and critical assessment of political, ideological and similar engagement.

Lecture 1

SOCIOLOGY – THE SCIENCE OF SOCIETY

AND THE SOCIAL WORLD OF HUMAN

Sociology as a science. The object and subject of the study of sociology. The concept of social.

Structure and levels of sociological knowledge.

Tasks and functions of sociology. Categories of sociology.

The place and role of sociology in the system of modern socio-humanitarian knowledge.

Lecture notes

1. Sociology as a science. The object and subject of the study of sociology. Concept of social

Modern man lives in a complex, contradictory, rapidly changing world. He has a lot of opportunities to independently control his destiny and change his life for the better. Walking along the path of achieving his goals, a person constantly faces situations that require him to objectively assess his own situation and make optimal decisions. Making the right choice on your own in such conditions is extremely difficult.

How did the modern world become like this? Why are the circumstances of our lives so different from those of our predecessors? In what direction will changes occur in the future? What prospects await humanity in the future? These questions are primarily of interest to sociology, a science that plays a vital role in the intellectual culture of modern society.

Television, radio, and newspapers report the results of sociological surveys of the population on a wide variety of problems of social reality. Sociological services study public opinion on the most important socio-political and economic issues. At enterprises and in the regions, specific studies are carried out to determine the state of social tension in teams, the population’s satisfaction with transport services, the work of various organizations, etc. In higher education institutions, students evaluate the work of teachers.

As a result, an image of sociology emerges as an applied science that serves to meet the current, immediate needs of society. Can we consider that this exhausts the subject and tasks of this science? What is sociology today, what is its role and purpose? To understand these questions, we should first turn to the etymology of the term “sociology”.

The term “sociology” is derived from the Latin societas - society and the Greek logos - science, teaching and literally means the science of society. In this meaning, this term was introduced into scientific circulation in 1839 by the French philosopher, founder of positivism, Auguste Comte (1798-1857). At the same time, this definition of sociology is quite abstract, since society in its various aspects is studied by a number of sciences - social philosophy, economic sciences, political science, history, demography and others. In order to understand the features of the sociological approach to the study of society, it is necessary to highlight one’s own subject area of sociological research and determine the methods that this science uses. To do this, it is necessary to make a strict distinction between the object and the subject of sociology.

The object of any science is a certain part of the surrounding natural or social world, which has integrity and completeness and its own properties studied by this science. The object of sociological knowledge is society as a community of individuals with their inherent set of properties, connections and relationships, which are called social. The concept of social has several meanings. Most often it is used in the meaning of “social”, different from biological, natural phenomena and processes. The term “social” covers the entire set of problems of human life - relations between social groups and strata, nations and nationalities, living conditions, work, leisure, specific problems of youth, women, children, old people, etc.

The lecture notes are a selection of material for the Sociology course and cover the main topics of the program. The publication is intended for students of secondary and higher educational institutions. The book will be an excellent assistant in preparing for a test or exam, as well as for writing coursework and tests.

Davydov S. A.

This manual is intended for students of secondary and higher educational institutions and is a lecture notes for the course “Sociology”. Using the material contained in the notes, the student will study the main issues of the course, which will help him pass the exam or test.

LECTURE No. 1. Sociology as a science

1. Subject, object, functions and methods of sociology

Term sociology comes from two words: Latin “societes” - “society” and Greek “logos” - “word”, “concept”, “teaching”. Thus, sociology can be defined as the science of society.

The same definition of this term is given by the famous American scientist J. Smelser. However, this definition is rather abstract, since society is studied in various aspects by many other sciences.

In order to understand the features of sociology, it is necessary to determine the subject and object of this science, as well as its functions and research methods.

Object of any science is a part of external reality chosen for study, which has a certain completeness and integrity. As already noted, the object of sociology is society, however, science does not study its individual elements, but the entire society as an integral system. The object of sociology is a set of properties, connections and relationships that are called social. Concept social can be considered in two senses: in a broad sense it is similar to the concept of “public”; in a narrow sense, the social represents only an aspect of social relations. Social relations develop between members of society when they occupy a certain place in its structure and are endowed with social status.

Consequently, the object of sociology is social connections, social interaction, social relationships and the way they are organized.

Subject science is the result of a theoretical study of a selected part of external reality. The subject of sociology cannot be defined as unambiguously as the object. This is due to the fact that throughout the historical development of sociology, views on the subject of this science have undergone significant changes.

Today we can distinguish the following approaches to defining the subject of sociology:

1) society as a special entity, distinct from individuals and the state and subject to its own natural laws (O. Comte) ;

2) social facts, which should be understood as collective in all manifestations (E. Durkheim) ;

3) social behavior as a person’s attitude, i.e. an internally or externally manifested position focused on action or abstinence from it (M. Weber) ;

4) scientific study of society as a social system and its constituent structural elements (base and superstructure) ( Marxism).

In modern domestic scientific literature, the Marxist understanding of the subject of sociology is preserved. It should be noted that this is fraught with a certain danger, since the representation of society in the form of a base and a superstructure leads to ignoring the individual and universal values, denying the world of culture.

Therefore, a more rational subject of sociology should be considered society as a set of social communities, layers, groups, individuals interacting with each other. Moreover, the main mechanism of this interaction is goal setting.

So, taking into account all these features, we can determine that sociology is the science of general and specific social patterns of organization, functioning and development of society, ways, forms and methods of their implementation, in the actions and interactions of members of society.

Like any science, sociology performs certain functions in society, among which are the following:

1) cognitive(cognitive) – sociological research contributes to the accumulation of theoretical material about various spheres of social life;

2) critical– sociological research data allows us to test and evaluate social ideas and practical actions;

3) applied– sociological research is always aimed at solving practical problems and can always be used to optimize society;

4) regulatory– theoretical material of sociology can be used by the state to ensure social order and exercise control;

5) prognostic– based on sociological research data, it is possible to make forecasts for the development of society and prevent the negative consequences of social actions;

6) ideological– sociological developments can be used by various social forces to form their position;

7) humanitarian– sociology can contribute to the improvement of social relations.

Another distinctive feature of sociology as a science is its range of research methods. In sociology method is a way of constructing and justifying sociological knowledge, a set of techniques, procedures and operations of empirical and theoretical knowledge of social reality.

Three levels of methods for studying social phenomena and processes can be distinguished.

First level covers general scientific methods used in all humanities fields of knowledge (dialectical, systemic, structural-functional).

Second level reflects the methods of related sociology of the humanities (normative, comparative, historical, etc.).

Methods of the first and second levels are based on universal principles of cognition. These include the principles of historicism, objectivism and systematicity.

The principle of historicism involves the study of social phenomena in the context of historical development, their comparison with various historical events.

The principle of objectivism means the study of social phenomena in all their contradictions; It is unacceptable to study only positive or only negative facts. The principle of systematicity implies the need to study social phenomena in inextricable unity and identify cause-and-effect relationships.

TO third level Methods that characterize applied sociology can be included (survey, observation, document analysis, etc.).

The actual sociological methods of the third level are based on the use of complex mathematical apparatus (probability theory, mathematical statistics).

2. Sociology in the system of humanities

It is quite obvious that if the object of sociology is society, then it is in close contact with other social and human sciences that study this area of reality. It cannot develop in isolation from them. Moreover, sociology includes a general sociological theory that can serve as the theory and methodology of all other social sciences and humanities.

Sociological methods for studying society, its elements, members and their interactions are today actively used in many other sciences, for example, political science, psychology, and anthropology. At the same time, the dependence of sociology itself on these sciences is obvious, since they significantly enrich its theoretical base.

Another significant reason for the close relationship between many social and humanitarian sciences, including sociology, is their common origin. Thus, many independent social sciences arose within the framework of social philosophy, which, in turn, was a branch of general philosophy. Close connection sociology and social philosophy manifests itself primarily in a very wide area of coincidence of the object of study. However, there are significant differences between these sciences, which make it possible to distinguish sociology as an independent science. First of all, this is the subject of research.

If sociology is aimed at studying the social relationships of members of society, then social philosophy studies social life from the point of view of an ideological approach. These sciences are even more different in the method of researching their subject area.

Thus, social philosophy is focused on general philosophical methods, which is reflected in the theoretical nature of the research results. Sociology primarily uses sociological methods themselves, which makes the research results more practical.

However, these differences only emphasize the independence of sociology as a science, but do not detract from the importance of its relationship with social philosophy. Based on specific historical realities, social philosophy seeks to identify general trends and patterns.

Sociology, using the knowledge of these patterns, analyzes the place and role of man in the life of society, his interaction with other members of society within the framework of various social institutions, and explores the specifics of communities of different types and levels.

Connection sociology with history is also the most intimate and necessary. In addition to a common object of research, these sciences also have common research problems.

Thus, both sociology and history in the process of research are faced with the presence of certain social patterns, on the one hand, and with the existence of individual, unique phenomena and processes that significantly change the trajectory of historical movement, on the other. The successful solution of this problem in both sciences is a priority, and therefore each of them can use the successful experience of the other.

In addition, the historical method is quite in demand in sociology.

The use of the achievements of sociology in historical science is also of great importance, since it allows historians to analyze historical phenomena from the perspective of a descriptive-factual approach.

The accumulated statistical material allows us to more fully reveal the essence of historical processes and phenomena and rise to broad and deep historical generalizations.

An important component of social life is material production. This leads to the existence of a close connection sociology with economics. Moreover, in the system of sociological knowledge there is such a discipline as economic sociology.

A person's place in the labor system has a significant impact on his position in the social structure. On the other hand, under the influence of various social processes and changes, work activity itself changes.

Another science related to sociology is psychology. The area of intersection of these sciences is, first of all, the problem of man in society.

However, despite the close relationship between the object of science, their subjects are largely different.

Psychology is mainly focused on the study of the personal level of the individual, his consciousness and self-awareness, the scope of sociology is the problems of relations between individuals as members of society, i.e., the interpersonal level. To the extent that a scientist studies personality as a subject and object of social connections, interactions and relationships, considers personal value orientations from social positions, role expectations, etc., he acts as a sociologist. This difference led to the emergence of a new discipline - social psychology, which is still part of sociology.

There is also a close connection between sociology And political science. The nature of this connection is determined by the fact that, firstly, social communities, social organizations and institutions are the most important subjects and objects of politics; secondly, political activity is one of the main forms of life of the individual and his communities, directly influencing social changes in society; thirdly, politics as a very broad, complex and multifaceted phenomenon manifests itself in all spheres of public life and largely determines the development of society as a whole.

In addition, the scope of study of both of these sciences includes such a social phenomenon as civil society. It must be remembered that political life is always based on social patterns, the analysis of which is necessary when studying political processes and phenomena. So, it is quite obvious that sociology is in close relationship with the system of social and human sciences and is its element.

3. Structure of sociology

Sociology is a differentiated and structured system of knowledge. System - an ordered set of elements interconnected and forming a certain integrity. It is in the clear structuring and integrity of the system of sociology that the internal institutionalization of science is manifested, characterizing it as independent. Sociology as a system includes the following elements:

1) social facts– scientifically based knowledge obtained during the study of any fragment of reality. Social facts are established through other elements of the sociological system;

2) general and special sociological theories– systems of scientific sociological knowledge aimed at resolving the issue of the possibilities and limits of knowledge of society in certain aspects and developing within the framework of certain theoretical and methodological directions;

3) sectoral sociological theories– systems of scientific sociological knowledge aimed at describing individual spheres of social life, substantiating a program of specific sociological research, and ensuring the interpretation of empirical data;

4) methods of data collection and analysis– technologies for obtaining empirical material and its primary generalization.

However, in addition to the horizontal structure, systems of sociological knowledge are clearly differentiated along three independent levels.

1. Theoretical sociology(basic research level). The task is to consider society as an integral organism, reveal the place and role of social connections in it, formulate the basic principles of sociological knowledge, the main methodological approaches to the analysis of social phenomena.

At this level, the essence and nature of the social phenomenon, its historical specificity, and its connection with various aspects of social life are revealed.

2. Special sociological theories. At this level there are branches of social knowledge whose subject is the study of relatively independent, specific subsystems of the social whole and social processes.

Types of special social theories:

1) theories that study the laws of development of individual social communities;

2) theories that reveal the patterns and mechanisms of the functioning of communities in certain spheres of social life;

3) theories that analyze individual elements of the social mechanism.

3. Social engineering. The level of practical implementation of scientific knowledge for the purpose of designing various technical means and improving existing technologies.

In addition to the indicated levels, macro-, meso- and microsociology are distinguished in the structure of sociological knowledge.

Within macrosociology society is studied as an integral system, as a single organism, complex, self-governing, self-regulating, consisting of many parts and elements. Macrosociology primarily studies: the structure of society (which elements make up the structure of early society and which - modern), the nature of changes in society.

Within mesosociology groups of people existing in society (classes, nations, generations), as well as stable forms of organization of life created by people, called institutions: the institution of marriage, family, church, education, state, etc., are studied.

At the level of microsociology, the goal is to understand the activities of an individual person, motives, nature of actions, incentives and obstacles.

However, these levels cannot be considered separately from each other as independently existing elements of social knowledge. On the contrary, these levels must be considered in close relationship, since understanding the overall social picture and social patterns is possible only on the basis of the behavior of individual subjects of society and interpersonal communication.

In turn, social forecasts about this or that development of social processes and phenomena, the behavior of members of society are possible only on the basis of the disclosure of universal social patterns.

In the structure of sociological knowledge, theoretical and empirical sociology are also distinguished. The specificity of theoretical sociology is that it is based on empirical research, but theoretical knowledge prevails over empirical knowledge, since it is theoretical knowledge that ultimately determines progress in any science and in sociology too. Theoretical sociology is a set of diverse concepts that develop aspects of the social development of society and provide their interpretation.

Empirical sociology is more of an applied nature and is aimed at solving current practical issues of social life.

Empirical sociology, unlike theoretical sociology, is not aimed at creating a comprehensive picture of social reality.

Theoretical sociology solves this problem by creating universal sociological theories. Theoretical sociology lacks a core that has remained stable since its founding.

There are many concepts and theories in theoretical sociology: the materialist concept of the development of society by K. Marx is based on the priority of economic factors in the development of society (historical materialism); there are various concepts of stratification, industrial development of societies; convergence, etc.

However, it must be remembered that certain social theories are not confirmed in the course of the historical development of society. Some of them are not implemented at one or another stage of social development, others do not stand the test of time.

The specificity of theoretical sociology is that it solves the problems of studying society on the basis of scientific methods of understanding reality.

In each of these levels of knowledge, the subject of research is specified.

This allows us to consider sociology as a system of scientific knowledge.

The functioning of this system is aimed at obtaining scientific knowledge both about the entire social organism and about its individual elements that play different roles in the process of its existence.

Thus, sociology is a multidimensional and multi-level system of scientific knowledge, which consists of elements that concretize general knowledge about the subject of science, research methods and methods of its design.

Like any other science, sociology has its own categorical apparatus. The categorical or conceptual apparatus is one of the most important issues for any science. The categories and concepts of each science reflect, first of all, the quality of objective reality, which is the subject of this science. The subject of sociology is social phenomena. Since social phenomena always have social qualities, the categories of sociology are aimed primarily at characterizing these qualities.

Social characteristics are always dynamic and appear as very different shades of the “whole,” that is, the social phenomenon itself as a whole. This unity and diversity, constancy and mobility of any social phenomenon in its specific state is reflected in the corresponding categories, concepts and laws of sociology.

Among the most commonly used categories of sociology are society, stratification, mobility, person, community, social, etc. The system of categories and concepts in sociology has a complex structure and subordination of concepts.

Social law – this is an expression of the essential, universal and necessary connection of social phenomena and processes, primarily the connections of people’s social activities or their own social actions. There are general and specific laws in sociology. The general laws of sociology are the subject of the study of philosophy. The specific laws of sociology are studied specifically by sociology and form its methodological basis. In addition to this classification, there are other types of laws that differ on the following grounds:

By duration:

1) laws characteristic of a social system in any period of its existence (the law of value and commodity-money relations);

2) laws that are characteristic only of one or several social systems that differ in specific properties (the law of transition from one type of society to another).

According to the method of manifestation:

1) dynamic– determine the dynamics (direction, forms, factors) of social changes, record a clear sequence of social phenomena in the process of change;

2) statistical– reflect general trends in social phenomena, regardless of ongoing changes, characterize social phenomena as a whole, and not their specific manifestations;

3) causal– record existing cause-and-effect relationships between various social phenomena;

4) functional– consolidate strictly repeating and empirically observable connections between social phenomena.

However, despite the fairly extensive theoretical material, the question of the laws of sociology is very acute. The fact is that in the course of historical development, many historical events went beyond the framework of existing laws. Therefore, it can be argued that laws actually turn out to be only a description of probable development trends.

This is an important argument for opponents of the possibility of creating universal universal sociological laws.

Therefore, today it is customary to talk not about sociological laws, but about sociological patterns.

These patterns are based on the existence in society of determinants that determine the life of society: power, ideology, economy.

A typology of social patterns can be made into five categories that reflect the forms of connection existing between social phenomena:

1) patterns that fix unchangeable connections between social phenomena, their mutual conditionality. that is, if there is phenomenon A, then there must also be phenomenon B;

2) patterns that consolidate the development trends of social phenomena, reflecting the influence of changes in social reality on the internal structure of a social object;

3) patterns that establish patterns between elements of social entities that determine its functioning (functional patterns) (example: the more actively students work in class, the better they master the educational material);

4) patterns that establish cause-and-effect relationships between social phenomena (causal patterns) (example: a necessary condition for increasing the birth rate in a country is improving social and living conditions for women);

5) patterns that establish the likelihood of connections between social phenomena (probabilistic patterns) (example: the growth of women’s economic independence increases the likelihood of divorce).

At the same time, it is necessary to remember that social laws are realized in a specific form - in the activities of people. And each individual person carries out his activities in specific conditions of society, in conditions of specific socio-political or production activities, in the system of which he occupies a certain production and social position.

If we watch one person, we will not see the law. If we observe a set, then, taking into account the deviations of each individual in one direction or another, we obtain the results, i.e., a pattern.

Thus, it can be argued that the objectivity of a social pattern is a series of cumulative actions of millions of people.

5. Basic paradigms of sociology

First of all, it is necessary to point out that paradigm- this is a set of basic provisions and principles underlying a particular theory, which have a special categorical apparatus and are recognized by a group of scientists.

The term “paradigm” was first introduced into scientific circulation by an American philosopher and historian of science. T. Kuhn . Based on this definition, it can be argued that the concept of a paradigm is broader than the concept of a theory. Sometimes a paradigm is understood as large theories or groups of theories, as well as universally recognized achievements in a given field of science.

It should also be noted that the presence of several paradigms in sociology also confirms its status as an independent science. All sociological paradigms can be divided into three levels: macroparadigms, microparadigms and universal general paradigms. In addition to this classification, there are others.

One of the most common among them is the classification of the Russian sociologist G. V. Osipova , who identified the following groups of sociological paradigms:

1) paradigms social factors(structural functionalism and social conflict theory);

2) paradigms social definitions(symbolic interactionism and ethnomethodology);

3) paradigms social behavior(theories of exchange and social action).

In Western sociological thought today there are five main paradigms: functionalism, conflict theory, exchange theory, symbolic interactionism, ethnomethodology. Thus, at the moment there is no general scientific opinion about the system of sociological paradigms. However, it is necessary to dwell in detail on the characteristics of the most common paradigms in sociology.

Paradigm of social conflict. The theory of conflict, the founder of which is considered Georg Simmel , in sociology was developed by a number of researchers: R. Dahrendorf (Germany), L. Koser (USA), K. Boulding (USA), M. Crozier , A. Touraine (France), Yu. Galtung (Norway), etc.

Proponents of this theory view conflict as a natural phenomenon of social life.

Its basis is the differentiation objectively existing in society. Conflict performs a stimulating function in society, creating preconditions for the development of society.

However, not all conflicts play a positive role in society, therefore the state is entrusted with the function of controlling conflicts so that they do not develop into a state of increased social tension.

Social exchange theory. This paradigm was developed most intensively by American researchers J. Homans, P. Blau, R. Emerson.

The essence of the paradigm is that human functioning in society is based on the exchange of various social benefits. Interaction between subjects of social relations is of a value-normative nature.

This concept is intermediate between macrosociological and microsociological paradigms. This is precisely where its main value lies.

Symbolic internationalism. This paradigm was also developed within the framework of American sociological schools J. Mead, G. Bloomer, T. Shibutani, T. Partland etc. The basis of symbolic internationalism is the assertion that people interact through the interpretation of symbols and signs.

Social progress is considered by sociologists as the development and change of social meanings that do not have strict causality, depending more on the subjects of interaction than on objective reasons.

Ethnomethodology. A paradigm closely related to symbolic internationalism (it is also based on the study of social interaction) was developed by the American sociologist G. Garfinkel . The basis of this paradigm is the study of the meanings that people attach to social phenomena.

This concept arose as a result of expanding the methodological base of sociology and including methods for studying various communities and primitive cultures and translating them into the language of procedures for analyzing modern social and cultural phenomena and processes.

Neo-Marxist paradigm. It was developed by a number of representatives of the Frankfurt school - M. Horkheimer, T. Adorno, G. Marcuse, J. Habermas . The neo-Marxist concept is based on such a social phenomenon as alienation, which is considered as a socio-economic phenomenon. This paradigm has become a revision of the foundations of Marxism and, above all, a desire to substantiate the gap between “labor” and “interaction” in the sense that the first, as the dominant type of relationship, is being replaced by universal interaction between people in all spheres of life.

Of course, the wealth of sociological paradigms is not exhausted by this list. However, today they are the leaders in sociological research and the construction of sociological theories. Particular attention in modern sociological paradigms is paid to interpersonal interactions, the dynamics of personal development, changes in social meanings and meanings, revealing the transformation of broad social structures.

In general, it should be noted that in modern sociology the tendency towards pluralism of various paradigms is very clearly manifested, which is expressed in increased differentiation of the system of sociological knowledge. This feature acutely poses the problem of developing and pursuing a unified theoretical and methodological line in sociology. This fact allows us to speak of sociology as a “multi-paradigm” science.

TOPIC 1 SOCIOLOGY AS A SCIENCE

Target - to form an idea of the object and subject of sociology, the principles of its construction, functioning and to develop a scientific approach to the analysis of social phenomena.

Time: 2 hours

Plan.

1 Object and subject of sociology.

2 Sociology and other social sciences.

Main literature

1. Volkov Yu.G., Mostovaya I.V. Sociology: Textbook for universities/Ed. IN AND. Dobrenkova/ - M.: GARDARIKI, 2001.

2. Kazarinova N.V. Sociology: Textbook for universities / Ed. G.S. Batygina / - M., 2000.

3. Komarov M.S. Introduction to sociology: Textbook for universities. – M., 1994.

4. Sociology. Fundamentals of General Theory: Textbook / Ed. G.V. Osipova. M., 1996.

5. Fundamentals of sociology. Course of lectures / Rep. Ed. Efendiev A.I. M., 1993.

6. Smelser N. Sociology. M., 1994.

7. Frolov S.S. Fundamentals of Sociology: Textbook. M.. 1997.

additional literature

1. Aron R. Stages of development of sociological thought. M.: Progress. 1993.

2. Goffman A.B. seven lectures on the history of sociology. M., 1995.

3. History of theoretical sociology / Ed. Davydova Yu. N. M., 1997.

4. Dobrenkov V.I. Sociology, education, society. Bulletin of Moscow State University. Sociology and politics. 1996, no. 5.

5. Durkheim E. On the division of social labor. Method of sociology. M., 1991.

6. Komarov V.S. Reflections on the subject and prospects of sociology // Sotsis, 1990, No. 4.

1. Object and subject of sociology.

To answer the question whether sociology is a science, firstly, we must know what science is, otherwise the question does not make much sense. In fact, current philosophical views on the nature of science are varied, and have largely liberalized from earlier views. First, they no longer accept strong falsification criteria as a scientific method. There are several ways to phrase the fake, but what I mean is something like this: Scientific theories must make observable predictions, and we must discard the theory if we find only one discrepancy between the theory's and observation's predictions. Because even physics cannot satisfy such a strong crite RIA, now philosophers like Lakatos (1970) allow such inability to be tolerated to some extent. Another new movement in philosophy is the attack on universal laws. Cartwright (1983) argued that seemingly universal physical laws are not truly universal, from a logical point of view. For these and other reasons (note 1), Cartwright (1983) and Hacking (1983) presented a new view of science in which inconsistent “models,” instead of universal laws and theories, play the central role of scientific inquiry. Here "models" means simplified mental pictures of the structure. For example, the planetary model of the atom has long been known as oversimplified, but it is still widely used by chemists as a convenient way to think about chemical reactions.

Early sociologists tried to establish sociology as a science, and their arguments were mainly based on the methodology of sociology. Comte argued that sociology uses four different types of methodologies, namely: observation, experiment, comparison and historical research as a special case of comparison. This is a methodology used in a number of other scientific fields, especially biology. So, if his sociology really followed these methods, it would be a case of sociology as a science. But he never actually did any empirical research, so we can't take his argument at face value. But his arguments influenced other sociologists, especially Durkheim. For Durkheim, sociology is the study of social facts. A social fact is "a thing that is external to, and coercive of, an actor." Because they are external, social facts cannot be examined by introspection). We must use empirical research. A typical use of this methodology is in one's analysis of suicide. Durkheim used statistics on suicide rates to establish his argument that suicide is a social phenomenon. He rejected alternative hypotheses. This is an admirable attempt at empirical study of society, but there are several problems. Durkheim applied too strict criteria for falsification to compete accounts. Accepting them is suicidal for sociology, because it is difficult for sociological theory to make an accurate prediction, let alone to make an accurate and correct prediction (and without this, falsification criteria do not work). Another related problem is his dismissal of introspection as a sociological method. This limits the scope of sociology too narrowly, and indeed even Durkheim's own study becomes impossible. For example, Durkheim's definition of suicide is "no death" resulting directly from the indirec TLY from a positive or negative act of the individual against himself, which he knows should produce that result " "(ED p.32). But, without the use of introspection, how can we decide if "he knows what" the result is or not, just from external data?

Like anthropology, economics, political science, psychology, sociology is a social science. All of these disciplines use research to try to understand various aspects of human thinking and behavior. Although this chapter naturally focuses on social scientific research methods, much of the discussion is also relevant to research in other social and behavioral sciences.

When we say that sociology is a social science, we mean that it uses the scientific method to try to understand the many aspects of society that sociologists study. An important goal is to make generalizations—general statements about trends among various aspects of social life. We have Marx's theory, Durkheim's theory, Weber's theory and so on, but none of them are common to all sociologists. This seems to make a strong contrast with other areas of science where scientists have agreed on basic theories. But, as we saw in the previous paragraph, some philosophers think that even in other scientific fields, what scientists are working on are inconsistent models rather than universal theories. And, like F or such models, we can find a plethora of models shared by many sociologists. In fact, these are what Weber called "ideal types." Ideal types are constructed by exaggerating certain features of real cases. By comparison with ideal types, we can find the characteristics of each real case. These ideal types are useful conceptual tools for sociology in precisely the same sense that the planetary model of the atom is a useful conceptual tool for chemists. Thus, at this point, the difference between sociology and other scientific fields is not as great as it seems.

In order to talk about the "meaning of free" sociology, I present a distinction made by philosophers of late. This is the distinction between "epistemological values" and non-epistemological values. Epistemic meanings are associated with a special type of question “what should we accept as knowledge (or fact)?” Logical consistency, empirical adequacy, simplicity, etc. The criteria for answering such a question, and they are called epistemic values. On the other hand, other meanings must be used to answer the broader question: "What should we do?" They are not epistemic values. Using this distinction, we will find that the "cost-free" sociology claims made by ea Rly sociologists were actually claims about the independence of epistemic values from other values in sociology (even if they are not aware of this distinction).

First, let's look at Spencer's case. Spencer distinguishes several types of emotional biases, and argued that we should eliminate these biases from sociological research. None of these biases are of epistemic significance as characterized above. Moreover, Spencer's claim that we must exclude these biases is a value judgment, but it is an epistemic value judgment, and to the extent that this statement itself does not affect emotional biases, to apply such a value for sociology must have. So Spencer's argument agrees with my definition of the "meaning of free" sociology. The same reasoning applies to Weber. Weber says that teachers should not use circumstances in the lecture hall to impress upon students their personal political views, since the teacher's task is to teach his students to recognize "facts that are inconvenient to their party of opinion." Again, this is a value judgment, but an epistemic one. Apparently sociology (or any other science) cannot be free from all meanings (since sociology's ideal of "value free" is itself meaning), but at least it can be free from non-epistemic kinds of values when we decide that fact and what not.

I suppose that even Marx may agree with this concept of "value" of free sociology to some extent. Of course, in Marx's theory the judgment of value and theory are inextricably linked, but his actual arguments show that he separated these two things. For example, Marx criticizes Ricardo in The Theory of Surplus Value, but the main reason he criticizes Ricardo is not that Ricardo is capitalist, but that Ricardo's conceptual scheme is insufficient because he cannot cope with certain cases. Thus, the criteria for this judgment are epistemic values, not other types of value. I think that this mode of argument gives Marx's theory its pursuasiv eness.

Of course, I admit, non-epistemic values and sociology have many connections. For example, the choice of research topic is influenced by the personal values of the sociologist, and sometimes the result of sociological research has a direct meaning (for example, Marx's analysis of alienated labor). But still, I think, at the point of accepting something as a fact, we should be free of non-epistemic meanings.

Comte believed that sociology is the study of social statics (social structure) and social dynamics (social change). Durkheim believed that sociology should deal with social facts. Simmel argued that “everything that is not a science of external nature must be a science of society.” Are any of these the correct answer? I don't think there is anything right or wrong on this topic, but my own preference is the answer Simmel quoted here.

In accordance with the liberalization of the philosophical view of science, there is nothing wrong with accepting Weber and "ideal types" as a scientific method, thereby recognizing sociology using these methods as a science. A final distinction between epistemic and non-epistemic values is made by the requirement of "meaning free" sociology. The first and fairly complete idea of the structure of society was given by ancient philosophers. Then came a very long historical pause, stretching over two thousand years. Finally, in the 19th century. The science of sociology itself is born, among whose creators are O. Comte, K. Marx, E. Durheim and M. Weber. They open a scientific period in the history of sociology.

The term "sociology" comes from the Latin word "societies"(society) and Greek"logos"(word, teaching). From which it follows that sociology is the science of society in the literal sense of the word. At all stages of history, humanity has tried to comprehend society and express its attitude towards it.

The concept of “sociology” was introduced into scientific circulation by the French philosopher Auguste Comte in the 30s of the last century. How the science of sociology was formed inXIXcentury in Europe. Moreover, scientists writing in French, German, and English participated most intensively in its formation. Auguste Comte (1798-1857) and then the Englishman Herbert Spencer for the first timesubstantiated the need to separate social knowledge into an independent scientific discipline, defined the subject of the new science and formulated specific methods inherent only to it. Auguste Comte was a positivist, i.e. a proponent of a theory that was to become as demonstrative and generally valid as natural scientific theories, was to be based only on the method of observation, comparative, historical and resist speculative reasoning about society. This contributed to the fact that sociology immediately became an empirical science, a science tied to the earth. Comte's point of view on sociology as a science identical to social science dominated in literature until the end of the twentieth century.IX century.

The first sociologist to give a narrow interpretation of sociological science was Emile Durkheim (1858-1917) - a French sociologist and philosopher, the creator of the so-called “French sociological school”. His name is associated with the transition of sociology from a science identical to social science to a science associated with the study of social phenomena and social relations of public life, i.e. independent, standing among other social sciences.

The institutionalization of sociology in our country began after the adoption of the resolution of the Council of People's Commissars in May 1918 “On the Socialist Academy of Social Sciences,” where a special clause stated “... one of the priority tasks is to set up a series of social research at Petrograd and Yaroslavl Universities.” In 1919, the Sociobiological Institute was established. In 1920, the first faculty of social sciences in Russia with a sociological department was formed at Petrograd University, headed by Pitirim Sorokin.

In subsequent years, the principles, theory and methods of knowledge and mastery of social reality turned out to be incompatible with personal dictatorship, voluntarism and subjectivism in the management of society and social processes. Social mythology was elevated to the level of science, and real science was declared pseudoscience.

The thaw of the sixties also affected sociology. A revival of sociological research began, they received citizenship rights, but sociology as a science did not. Sociology was absorbed into philosophy. In an effort to retain the right to conduct specific research, sociologists were forced to place the main emphasis on the “positive aspects of the country’s social development” and ignore negative facts. This explains that the works of many scientists of that period until the last years of “stagnation” were one-sided.

Since sociological research had the right to life, by the mid-60s the first major sociological works on social engineering and specific social analysis by S.G. began to appear. Strumilina, A.G. Zdravomyslova, V.A. Yadova and others. The first sociological institutions were created - the department of sociological research at the Institute of Philosophy of the USSR Academy of Sciences and the laboratory of sociological research at Leningrad University. In 1962, the Soviet Sociological Association was founded. In 1969, the Institute of Concrete Sociological Research (from 1972 - the Institute of Sociological Research, and from 1978 - the Institute of Sociology) of the USSR Academy of Sciences was created. Since 1974, the journal “Sociological Research” began to be published. But the development of sociology was constantly hampered during the period of “stagnation.” And after the publication of “Lectures on Sociology” by Yu. Levada, the Institute of Sociological Research was declared to inculcate bourgeois theoretical concepts, and it was decided to create a Center for Public Opinion Polls on its basis. Once again the concept of “sociology” was banned and replaced by the concept of applied sociology. Theoretical sociology was completely rejected.

In recent years, sociology has become one of the priority sciences and academic disciplines, the study of which is provided for by the State educational standard. Since 1993, sociological science has been included in the list of compulsory subjects taught in Russian universities. At the moment, about 20,000 people are professionally involved in this specialty, but do not have a basic education, so the demand for specialists is very high.

The specificity of each social science is manifested in what qualitatively unique area of social life it studies.

Subject of Sociology This is a social category. Sociology studies human society and the behavior of people in social circumstances, clarifying and emphasizing those social forces that influence life.

Sociology is the effect that occurs as a result of human interaction. Social life is the area of social relations, both between communities of people and the people themselves acting as representatives of these communities.

According to the subject, social relations are:

Socio-demographic

Social - territorial

Socio-ethnic

Social relationships themselves are based on the actions and interactions of people, and sociology can be described as “the science of the behavior of people among their own kind.” A social phenomenon arises even when the behavior of even one individual is influenced by another or not.

Object of study of sociology is society, its formation and development, as well as social organizations and institutions, patterns of social action and mass behavior

The differences between the scientific and everyday point of view on social life are that:

1. Sociology strives to develop a holistic idea of society, considers society in the unity of its components.

The ordinary view is limited to knowledge of those spheres of social life with which it encounters.

2. Sociological knowledge is built in accordance with a certain technique and methodology. The truth of the facts and generalizations obtained by sociology is established in the course of empirical research by comparing the hypotheses put forward with the data obtained.

The everyday idea of the social world is formed under the influence of various sources: family, friends, school. The criteria for their truth are a person’s personal experience and common sense.

3. Sociology uses special terms and concepts (social stratification, deviant behavior, social role), which allow you to see and understand a lot in social life about the existence of which, usually a person may not even guess.

The object of sociological knowledge is society, but defining only the object of science is not enough. For example, society is the object of study of almost all the humanities, therefore the justification for the scientific status of sociology, like any other science, lies in the difference between the object and the subject of knowledge.

The object of knowledge is everything that the researcher’s activity is aimed at, which opposes him as objective reality. Any phenomenon, process or relationship of objective reality can be the object of study of a wide variety of sciences (physics, chemistry, biology, sociology, etc.). When we are talking about the subject of research of a specific science, then this or that part of objective reality (city, family, etc.) is not taken as a whole, but only that side of it that is determined by the specifics of this science. All other parties are considered secondary.

Sociology rather lately branched off from philosophy in France, political economy in Germany, social psychology in the USA precisely for the reason that the object and subject of sociological knowledge were identified. To this day, many sociologists of various schools and directions still have this serious methodological flaw.

In modern science, there are different approaches to defining the subject of sociology, for example, according to Comte, sociology is the only science that studies both the human mind and mind, this is done under the influence of social life.

Saint-Simon believed that sociology is social responsibilities, groups, social institutions, social phenomena and processes, as well as the interactions between them and their relationships, functioning and development. The specificity of sociology as a science is that it studies every manifestation of human activity in a social context, i.e. in connection with society as a whole, in the interaction of various parties and levels of this social system.

P. Sorokin - “Sociology studies the phenomena of interaction between people with each other, on the one hand, and the phenomena arising from this process of interaction, on the other.”

There are other interpretations, but the generally accepted definition is that sociology studies the entire set of connections and relationships that are called social.

Since connections and relationships in each specific social object (society) are always organized in a special way, the object of sociological knowledge acts as a social system. The task of sociological science is to typologize social systems, study the connections and relationships of each typologized object at the level of patterns, obtain specific scientific knowledge about the mechanisms of their action and forms of manifestation in various social systems for their purposeful management. Consequently, sociology is the science of the laws of formation, functioning, development of society as a whole, social relations and social communities, the mechanisms of relationship and interaction between these communities, as well as between communities and the individual.

Let us define two working definitions of sociology:

Sociology is the science of the development and behavior of organized and active human communities.

Sociology is the science of society and the relationships within it.

Conclusion: Sociology in the broad sense of the word is the study or science of society. The central concept of this science is “social”. It is understood as a set of properties and relationships of a given society, integrated in the process of joint activity by individuals or groups of individuals. The task of sociological science is to typologize social systems, study the connections and relationships of each typologized object at the level of patterns, obtain specific scientific knowledge about the mechanisms of their action and forms of manifestation in various social systems for their purposeful management.

2. Sociology and other social sciences.

Society is also studied by other social sciences. However, sociology is the only one that studies society as a whole organism, while other social sciences study individual aspects of social life. Sociology appliessystems approach. A systems approach is an approach to the study of the properties, aspects, parts of the subject of study in the context of a holistic system. All objects that sociology studies are complex systems, so a systems approach is necessary.

By the middle of the 20th century. Two trends emerged in the development of world sociology: European and American. European sociology developed in close connection with social philosophy, and American sociology is the science primarily of human behavior. Now these differences are being erased, although European sociology still retains a classical socio-philosophical orientation, and American sociology is problem-oriented, i.e., aimed at solving specific social problems.

Sociology is closely related to philosophy. Social philosophy is a branch of philosophy. The subject of social philosophy is social life from the angle of ideological problems, among which the central place is occupied by the problems of the meaning of life, the meaning and purpose of the existence of society, its destinies and prospects, the driving forces of its development, the qualitative uniqueness of society in its difference from nature. On these issues, theoretical sociology is still intertwined with social philosophy.

Between sociology and history a lot in common. Both sciences study the entire society, and not just one part or aspect of it. Both of these sciences pay special attention to the active, subjective side of the historical process. Each of these sciences, in one way or another, bases its knowledge on the study of specific factors of social life.

A close relationship is determined betweensociology and political science the fact that, firstly, individuals, social groups and social communities, social organizations and institutions are the most important subjects and objects of politics; secondly, political activity is one of the main forms of life of the individual and his communities, directly influencing social changes in society; thirdly, politics as a very broad, complex and multifaceted phenomenon manifests itself in all spheres of public life (economic policy, social policy, cultural policy, etc.)

Also sociology is closely related to psychology, economics, cultural studies, and statistics. But if, for example, psychology studies human behavior, sociology studies mass behavior and mass social processes. Sociologists study groups, and social psychology studies individuals in groups. Currently, directions at the intersection of sciences are being developed. For example, sociogeography is the influence of the geographic environment on society; sociobiology – the influence of biological principles and instincts on social behavior.

The practical and theoretical importance of sociology is explained by the following:

The practical importance of studying the phenomena of human interaction is undeniable, if only because we are vitally and selfishly interested in studying them.

The theoretical importance of sociology becomes obvious if we prove that the properties of the phenomena studied by it are not available in other classes of sciences, and are not studied by other sciences. Let's consider them as follows:

a) Sociology and physical and chemical sciences. The class of phenomena of interaction between people cannot be reduced to simple physical, chemical and biological processes. Perhaps in the distant future, science will reduce them to the latter and explain the entire complex world of interhuman phenomena with the laws of physics and chemistry. In any case, such attempts have been and continue to take place. But for now - alas! What came of it? We have a number of formulas such as: “consciousness is the flow of a neuro-energetic process”, “war, crime and punishment” are the essence of the phenomenon of “energy leakage”, “sale-purchase is an exchange reaction”, “cooperation is a summation of forces” , “social struggle is the subtraction of forces,” “degeneration is the disintegration of forces.”

Although this is true from a mechanical point of view, it does not give us anything for revealing interhuman interactions, since in this case people cease to exist as people, unlike inanimate objects, and become only a material mass.

If crime is a drain of energy, does it mean that any dissipation of energy is at the same time a crime? That is, in this case, what is observed is not the study of social communication between people, but the study of people as ordinary physical bodies. All the more reason for the existence of a special science that studies people and their interactions as human beings, with all the unique richness of its content.

b) Sociology and psychology. If we talk about individual psychology, then its object and the object of sociology are different. Individual psychology studies the composition, structure and processes of the individual psyche and consciousness. It cannot unravel the tangle of social factors, and, therefore, cannot be identified with sociology.

Collective or, as it is otherwise called, social psychology has an object of study that partially coincides with the object of sociology: these are phenomena of human interaction, the units of which are individuals “heterogeneous” and “having a weakly organized connection” (crowd, theater audience, etc.) In such groups, interaction takes on different forms than in the aggregate “homogeneous” and “organically connected” groups that sociology studies. It is clear that they do not replace each other, and moreover, social psychology could become one of the sections of general sociology, as a science that studies all the main forms of interaction between people.

Consequently, it turns out that psychology is focused on the inner world of a person, his perception, while sociology studies a person through the prism of his social connections and relationships.

c) Sociology and special disciplines that study relationships between people. All social sciences: political science, law, the science of religion, manners, morality, art, etc. They also study the phenomena of human relationships, but each from its own special point of view.

Thus, the science of law studies a special type of phenomena in human relationships: trustee and debtor, spouse and husband.

The object of political economy is the joint economic activity of people in the sphere of production, exchange, distribution and consumption, material goods.

The science of morals studies the collective ways of thinking and acting of people. Aesthetics - studies the phenomena of interaction that develops on the basis of the exchange of aesthetic reactions (between the actor and the audience, between the artist and the crowd, etc.)

Thus, social sciences study one or another type of interaction between people. And sociology occupies a special place in the system of social and human sciences. This is explained as follows.

Sociology is the science of society, its phenomena and processes;

It includes a general sociological theory, or theory: of society, which acts as the theory and methodology of all other social and human sciences;

All social and human sciences that study various aspects of society and human life always include a social aspect;

Techniques and methods for studying man and his activities, methods of social measurement, etc., developed by sociology are necessary and used by all other social and human sciences.

A whole system of research has emerged, conducted at the intersection of sociology and other sciences (socio-economic, socio-political, etc.). Such studies are called sociological.

Sociology occupies a general, rather than a particular place among the social and human sciences; it provides a scientifically based theory about society and its structures, provides an understanding of the laws and patterns of interaction of its various elements.

Conclusion: the relationship between sociology and other social sciences shows interpenetration in the real study of social life while maintaining the subject boundaries of these sciences, but not about the absorption of these sciences by sociology.

3. Structure, categories, functions and methods of sociology as a science

Structure of sociology

The structure of any science is always determined by the tasks that it poses and the functions that it performs in society. Sociology is no exception. Its structure is determined by:

The fact that sociology solves scientific problems related to the formation of knowledge about social reality, description, explanation and understanding of the processes of social development, the development of sociological concepts, methodology and methods, techniques of sociological analysis. Theories and concepts developed in the field of formation of knowledge about social reality form theoretical, fundamental sociology.

Sociology studies problems related to the transformation of social reality, analysis of paths and means of systematic, targeted influence on social problems. Consequently, theoretical and applied sociology differ not in the object and method of research, but in the goal they set.

Sociological knowledge – unity of theory and practice. Theoretical research explains social reality at the level of general and specific trends in its functioning and development, and focuses on identifying the mechanisms of action of laws and the forms of their manifestation. Empirical sociological research is associated with specific detailed information regarding certain phenomena and processes; in contrast to theoretical research conducted using general scientific methods, they are based on static analysis, methods of specific sociological research (surveys, sociological observations, time budget studies, etc. .). There is no absolute line between theoretical and empirical knowledge.

Basic elements of sociology : (structure)

General sociological theory gives an idea of society as an integral organism, a system of social mechanisms, reveals the place and role of the main elements of society, and formulates the principles of social cognition.

Special sociological theories clarify the provisions of general sociology in relation to individual types and mechanisms of social interaction.

Specific sociological research is the measurement of specific social processes, based on approaches, principles, concepts, indicators that are provided by general and special sociological theories. Information about specific social phenomena is collected here.

Along with these three levels, sociologists also distinguish macro- and microsociology within their science.

Macrosociology examines large-scale social systems over historically long periods.

Microsociology studies the ubiquitous behavior of people in their direct interpersonal interactions. These levels cannot be considered as being on different planes and not touching each other. On the contrary, they are closely interrelated, since the direct, everyday behavior of people is carried out within the framework of certain social systems, structures and institutions.

For example, a group is people united by mutual interests or dependent on each other and differing from other groups in relationships and goals. In this sense, we are talking about both a group and a system.

A unique form of intersection of all these levels are such structural elements of sociology as sectoral sociology: sociology of labor, economic sociology, sociology of organizations, sociology of leisure, sociology of health care, sociology of the city, sociology of the countryside, sociology of education, sociology of the family, etc. In this case, we are talking about the division of labor in the field of sociology according to the nature of the objects being studied.

Categories of sociology are basic concepts that reflect the essential features, aspects, properties, and structural elements of social reality. They are usually divided into general philosophical, general sociological and operational.

General philosophical:

society

social and moral norms, culture

cultural values

personality

social environment, etc.

General sociological:

social action

social interaction

social institution

social processes

social system

social structure, etc.

Operating rooms:

sample

representativeness

population

people's opinions about someone

income level of certain social groups

public opinion.

Functions of sociology

The variety of connections between sociology and the life of society, its social purpose are determined, first of all, by the functions that it performs.

One of the most important functions of sociology, like any other science, iseducational . Sociology at all levels and in all its structural elements provides, first of all, an increase in new knowledge about various spheres of social life, reveals patterns and prospects for the social development of society. This is served by both fundamental theoretical research, which develops methodological principles for the knowledge of social processes and generalizes significant factual material, and directly empirical research, which supplies this science with rich factual material and specific information about certain areas of social life.

A characteristic feature of sociology is the unity of theory and practice. A significant part of sociological research is focused on solving practical problems. In this regard, the first place comesapplied function of sociology , within which a number of its other functions are manifested.

Sociological research provides specific information for the implementation of effective social control over social processes. Without this information, the possibility of social tension, social crises and disasters increases. In the vast majority of countries, executive and representative authorities, political parties and associations widely use the capabilities of sociology to pursue targeted policies in all spheres of public life. This showsfunction of social control.

The practical orientation of sociology is also expressed in the fact that it is capable of developing scientifically based forecasts about trends in the development of social processes in the future. This reveals the predictive function of sociology. It is especially important to have such a forecast during the transition period of social development.

In this regard, sociology is capable of:

1) determine the range of possibilities and probabilities opening up to participants in events at a given historical stage;

2) present alternative scenarios for future processes associated with each of the selected solutions;

Of great importance in the life of society is the use of sociological research to plan the development of various spheres of public life. Social planning is developed in all countries of the world, regardless of social systems. It covers the widest areas, ranging from certain life processes of the world community, individual regions and countries, and ending with the social planning of the life of cities, villages, individual enterprises and groups.

Sociology, despite the personal attitudes of sociologists, has fulfilled and continues to fulfillideological function . The results of research can be used in the interests of any social groups to achieve certain social goals.

Sociological knowledge often serves as a means of manipulating people’s behavior, forming certain behavioral stereotypes, creating a system of value and social preferences, etc. But sociology can also serve to improve mutual understanding between people, to develop a sense of closeness among them, which, ultimately, helps to improve social relations. In this case they talk abouthumanistic function sociology.

Thus, in a generalized form, the following functions can be distinguished in sociology:

1. Theoretical-cognitive . Sociology reveals what is essential and natural in all spheres of social life, creates theoretical models of society as a whole and its individual components.

2. Descriptive and informational . Since it conducts a systematic accumulation of material regarding aspects of social life. Based on the information received, management decisions are made.

3. Methodological. The provisions of sociological science are guidelines for other sciences, that is, they act as methods (methods, tools) of knowledge.

4. Worldview. Sociology as a scientific discipline, providing a body of knowledge about society, participates in the formation of individuals' ideas about the world and the most general value orientations.

5. Prognostic. Based on the study of trends in changes in social reality, sociology gives a certain prediction of the future. (An example of a short-term forecast is the assumption of the victory of a particular candidate in the elections.)

6. Social planning function . In the course of social planning, optimal models for the development of the social sphere of enterprises and regions are created.

7. Educational. Sociology does not contain any moral teachings, but shows a person his place in society, the nature of social connections, the role of social norms; it interacts in a certain way on the consciousness and behavior of people.

The core of any science is its laws. A law is an essential connection or essential relationship that has universality, necessity and repeatability under given conditions. Social law is an expression of the essential, necessary connection of social phenomena and processes, primarily the connections of people’s social activities or their actions.

In Russian sociology today there is the following classification of laws:

Laws vary in duration

1. General - valid in all social systems. (Law of value and commodity-money relations).

2. Specific - operating within one or more social systems. (The law of transition from one type of society to another).

Laws vary in degree of generality .

1. Laws characterizing the development of the social sphere as a whole.

2. Laws that determine the development of individual elements of the social sphere: classes, groups, nations, etc.

Laws differ in the way they are manifested:

1. Dynamic - determine the direction, factors and forms of social change, fix a rigid, unambiguous connection between the sequence of events in specific conditions

2. Statistical (stochastic) - reflect trends while maintaining the stability of a given social whole, determine the connection between phenomena and processes not rigidly, but with a certain degree of probability. It records only individual deviations from the line of movement specified by the dynamic law. They do not characterize the behavior of each object in the class of phenomena under study, but some property or feature inherent in the class of objects as a whole.

3. Causal - they record strictly determined connections in the development of social phenomena (to increase the birth rate, it is necessary to improve social and living conditions).

Functional - reflect empirically observed and strictly repeating mutual dependencies between social phenomena. (Example: mode of production during the transition from one socio-economic formation to another).

The following typology of social laws is distinguished according to the forms of connections (5 categories):

Icategory. Laws reflecting the invariant (not changing) coexistence of social or related phenomena. That is, if there is phenomenon A, then there must also be phenomenon B.

(Example: under totalitarian governance there is always an opposition).

IIcategory. Laws reflecting development trends. They determine the dynamics of the structure of a social object, the transition from one order of relationships to another. This determining influence of the previous state of the structure on the subsequent one has the character of a law of development.

IIIcategory. Laws that establish functional relationships between social phenomena. The preservation of the social system is ensured, but its elements are mobile. These laws characterize the variability of the system, the ability to assume different states. If the laws of development determine the transition from one quality of a social object to another, then the laws of functioning create the prerequisites for this transition.

(Example: the more actively students work in class, the better they master the educational material).

IVcategory. Laws that fix the causal relationship between social phenomena. (Example: a necessary condition for increasing the birth rate in a country is improving social and living conditions for women).

Vcategory. Laws that establish the probability of connections between social phenomena. (Example: increased economic independence of women increases the likelihood of divorce,the growth of alcoholism in the country increases the likelihood of childhood pathology).

Hegel said: “All philosophy is summed up in method.”

So in sociology - the specificity of the object and subject of science determined the specificity of its method. Since in order to understand a social process, phenomenon, etc. it is necessary to obtain primary, detailedinformation about him, its strict selection, analysis, it is obvious that the tool in the process of such knowledge is sociological research.

Sociological research is one of the main methods in sociology. It includes:

1) Theoretical part

Development of a research program; justification of goals and objectives; determination of hypotheses and stages of research.

2) Instrumental part (procedural part)

A set of information collection tools;

Choosing a method for collecting information;

Determination of the effective sample; ability to process information;

Obtaining characteristics of the state of the reality under study.

When studying social processes, the following are used:methods:

1. The methodological principle of objectivity, which assumes that each phenomenon is considered as multifaceted and contradictory.

2. The methodological principle of historicism involves the study of sociological problems, institutions, processes in their emergence, formation and development, comprehension of the specifics of relevant historical situations, understanding of general development trends and the uniqueness of specific circumstances.

3. The methodological principle of systematicity is a method of scientific knowledge and practical activity, in which individual parts of a phenomenon are considered in inextricable unity with the whole.

The significance of the problem of the sociological method lies, first of all, in the fact that only sociological knowledge that is obtained on the basis of strict compliance with all requirements can be recognized as truly scientific.

The impact of sociology on social development is wide and varied. This is due, first of all, to the fact that sociological knowledge is increasingly penetrating into the most diverse segments of the population, which is facilitated, in particular, by the systematic study of relevant problems, both in secondary school and in higher education, in other systems of training and retraining of personnel . Thanks to this, more and more specialists have the opportunity to apply their sociological knowledge in practice, including in the process of professional activity. The role of sociology is great in the development of scientifically based social policy and in determining the effectiveness of activities carried out within its framework. It can be added to the above that research methods developed in sociology are increasingly and more successfully used in other social sciences.

Questions for self-control

1. How can we define the object and subject of sociology?

2. Describe the process of emergence, formation and development of modern sociology?

3. What is the structure of sociology?

4. How can we characterize the categories of modern sociology?

5. What is the method of sociological science?

6. What are the main functions of sociology?

7. What are the basic sociological laws??

8. What is the connection between sociology and other sciences? society?

Federal Agency for Railway Transport Ural State Transport University Department of Personnel Management and Sociology

N. A. Alexandrova

A. D. Galyuk

O. N. Shestopalova

SOCIOLOGY

Lecture notes for students of all specialties

and forms of training

Ekaterinburg Publishing House UrGUPS 2013

BBK S 5 UDC 316 (075.8)

C 69

P 69 Sociology: lecture notes / N. A. Alexandrova, A. D. Galyuk,

ABOUT. N. Shestopalova. - Ekaterinburg: Publishing house UrGUPS, 2013. – 134, p.

Lecture notes for the course “Sociology” are compiled on the basis of the State educational standard for higher professional education and can serve as a reliable aid in the educational process. The structure of the lectures is such that it allows you to gain in-depth knowledge about the essence of sociological science, its role in modern society, and the tasks facing sociologists. Particular attention is paid to such concepts of sociology as social development of society, social stratification, social institutions, family and marriage, etc. At the end of each lecture, test questions and assignments are given.

UDC 316 (075.8)

Published by decision of the University's Editorial and Publishing Council

Compiled by: N. A. Aleksandrova, Associate Professor of the Department of Personnel Management and Sociology, Ph.D. Philosopher Sciences, USGUPS

A. D. Galyuk, Associate Professor of the Department of Personnel Management and Sociology, Ph.D. sociol. Sciences, USGUPS

O. N. Shestopalova, Associate Professor of the Department of Personnel Management and Sociology, Ph.D. sociol. Sciences, USGUPS

Reviewers: N. I. Shatalova, head. Department of Personnel Management and Sociology, Doctor of Sociology. sciences, professor

R. A. Khaneev, deputy Head of the Sverdlovsk Infrastructure Directorate for Personnel and Social Issues


Preface........................................................ ........................................................
Lecture 1. Sociology as a science................................................... .......................
Lecture 2. History of the formation and development of sociological thought.......
Lecture 3. Society as a social system.................................................... ...
Lecture 4. Social structure of society and its elements....................................
Lecture 5. Social stratification and mobility....................................
Lecture 6. Social interactions and social relationships...........
Lecture 7. Social control and deviation.................................................... ...
Lecture 8. Personality as a social type and active subject...................
Lecture 9. Youth as a specific social
demographic group................................................... ..............
Lecture 10. Family as a social institution.................................................... ....
Lecture 11. Education as a social institution....................................................
Lecture 12. Public opinion as an institution of civil society.82
Lecture 13. Social movement as a type of collective action..........
Lecture 14. Social processes and changes....................................................
Lecture 15. Culture as a factor of social change....................................
Lecture 16. Global society: concept and varieties.
Russia's place in the world community....................................................
Lecture 17. Methodology and methods of sociological research........
Glossary of terms................................................... .......................................
Bibliography................................................................ .......................

PREFACE

Why does sociology exist when there are already so many sciences about society? - any, not very curious person can ask. In fact, society and man are studied by many sciences - history, political science, economics, psychology, philosophy... Why was another science needed?

Sociology is the science of social reality as such. The subject of her research is social life, social changes in society and events that people constantly encounter, in which they participate and which in one way or another affect their behavior, lifestyle, position in society, and, possibly, their fate.

Sociology carefully analyzes the structure of society and its elements, the range of its scientific interests extends from the small family or group of friends to large human associations, whether social classes, audiences or crowds. Sociology is interested in professional groups or political parties, perhaps organized crime or religious cults, since both are manifestations of human behavior and interaction.

Sociology as a science is unique in that it has developed several strategic theories of the development of society, from the positions of which one can look at and explain the world around us in different ways. These are functional structuralism and humanistic perspective, gender and phenomenological sociology, Marxism and positivism, etc.

The variety of sociological approaches is caused by the complexity and multidimensionality of human society itself, as well as the complexity of the inner world of man, who evaluates and cognizes reality from a wide variety of points of view. Only the physical world is unambiguous and consistent, since it is created by nature, not by human beings. Social reality is not only multidimensional, but also multi-valued. By creating it, man does not

only measures and analyzes, he also evaluates, experiences, criticizes, accepts and rejects, endows the surrounding with symbolic knowledge, generates illusions and fictions.

One of the main tasks of studying sociology in higher education is the formation of sociological thinking, which provides for an adequate understanding of existing social problems, sources of occurrence and the mechanism for their effective resolution. Information about social phenomena and processes allows students to correctly evaluate them, form their own opinions, develop strategies and tactics in business, political, social, family and other areas.

Lecture notes for the course “Sociology” are compiled on the basis of the State educational standard for higher professional education and can serve as a reliable aid in the educational process.

LECTURE 1. SOCIOLOGY AS A SCIENCE

1. Object and subject of sociology. Functions of sociology.

2. The place of sociology in the system of sciences.

3. The structure of sociological knowledge.

Object and subject of sociology

The term “sociology” was first introduced into scientific circulation by the French philosopher Auguste Comte in the 1840s. Literally it means “the doctrine of society” or “the science of society” (societas - society, logos - word, doctrine). This term is also applicable in many other sciences, for example, philosophy, history, political science and other social sciences. The specificity of sociology lies in the object and subject of research.

So what is sociology? How does its subject of study differ from those of other social sciences?

Thus, according to the founder of sociology O. Comte, the subject of research should be laws of social development, from which practical recommendations would flow, useful in all sectors of human activity. O. Comte likened sociology to the natural sciences, sometimes calling it social physics. The laws of social development, like natural laws, have, in his opinion, a strict, unambiguous and objective character, independent of the will of people.

M. Weber considered the so-called subject of sociology social action, that is, an action that correlates with the actions of other people and is oriented towards them. As we can see, Weber's subject is sociology subjectified,“attached” to a person.

E. Durkheim declared the subject of the science of society social facts, by which I meant norms, laws, values, pre-

Sociology as a science

attitudes of people, social institutions, organizations and ideas in general, materialized in the form of buildings, structures, etc. Each generation sets its own set of social facts, which determines people's behavior. Durkheim's approach to the subject of sociology has objective nature, character independent of a given person.

But the approaches of M. Weber and E. Durkheim are united by the fact that they, like the overwhelming number of other sociologists, consider a person’s behavior in society to be determined by the connections that this person has with the people and objects around him, his previous experience of communication, education, upbringing, place in public life, public institutions.

It should be noted that the discussion about the subject and the object was conducted throughout the development of science. Modern sociology is a variety of movements and scientific schools that explain its subject and role in different ways and answer the question “what is sociology” in different ways. At the same time, in modern science, despite the diversity of theories, concepts and approaches, two main paradigms dominate - sociological realism(objects of research - society, social structure, social institutions) and sociological nominalism(objects of research – individual, personality, person). They continue to exist, personifying one or another methodological strategy. In accordance with this, the structure, levels and conceptual apparatus of sociology depend on what is considered the object and subject of sociology as a science.

Then the most common idea of sociology as a science of society should be supplemented with a number of clarifying points: 1) the science of the social systems that make up society; 2) the science of the laws of social development; 3) the science of social processes, social institutions, social relations; 4) the science of social structure and social communities.

So, we can say that sociology is the science of the structure, functioning and development of social systems of different scales.

Based on this definition, the object of sociology is the world of social relations and actions of people, which make up the forms of organization of social life, i.e. modern society, and accordingly, the subject is the patterns of development and functioning of human society as a whole, social communities, groups, systems and organizations filling society.

Characteristic features of sociology as a science:

– systemicity - sociology studies the entire set of really existing spheres in which a person acts, and creates a complete picture of the modern world;

– studying the mechanism of functioning of systems or general

– unity of theoretical and empirical foundations;

– understanding the contradictions of modern society;

– sociology is one and indivisible for all humanity, since its main goal is to obtain objective information about people’s lives.

Functions of sociology

As a social science, sociology performs a number of functions that prove its significance and usefulness for society.

1. Epistemological(cognitive-theoretical) – allows you to obtain new knowledge, create and clarify theories, concepts, a general view of society, its social connections.

2. Informational (worldview)– provides an opportunity to gain sociological knowledge not only for specialists, but also for the public; and social knowledge contributes to a person’s evaluative activity, that is, the development of his orientation in society, his attitude towards himself and towards others.

3. Managerial – the essence is that sociological conclusions, recommendations, proposals, assessments of the state of a social object serve as the basis for developing and making decisions.

4. Prognostic– allows you to predict the future, formulate scientific forecasts regarding the development of certain social phenomena and processes in the life of society.

5. Propaganda– makes it possible to form social ideals, values, create images of heroes of society, certain social relations; This function is especially active in education, politics, in the activities of mass media, and in the military sphere.

The place of sociology in the system of sciences

Sociology is closely related to a number of sciences – both social and humanitarian and natural.

The theoretical basis, the foundation of sociology is philosophy, within the framework of which it developed for 2.5 thousand years, until in the 19th century.

Sociology as a science

did not become an independent science. It is from philosophy that sociology draws paradigms, concepts, approaches, individual ideas, methods and terminology.

Based on philosophy, sociology views the life of society and the individual as an integral process. But unlike philosophy, for sociology the possibility of correlating concepts with empirically verifiable facts is of fundamental importance. Since sociology studies real social systems, it is also a kind of basis for deepening the life-meaning problems of philosophy itself.

They had and continue to have a great influence on the development of sociology history, ethics, legal science. It is thanks to history that sociology reveals the general trends of modern development of society. Sociology uses the description of specific social phenomena, facts, processes that history gives it, while history proceeds (more precisely, should proceed) from the knowledge and generalizations developed by sociology.

The sciences closest to sociology, both in age, in historical development, and in relation to philosophy as the ancestor, can be considered psychology and political science. Psychology also studies human behavior, but its focus is on the individual. Political science deals with how a person governs himself. She is interested in formal political organizations and the political behavior that is shaped and determined by these organizations, as well as the cultural beliefs and philosophy of government, and finally, the social structure of society as a whole.

Sociology has very close connections with such sciences as economics, ethnography, anthropology. When studying individual social relations, sociology relies on the laws and trends discovered by these sciences.

Sociology has less close, although no less significant for its development, connections with physiology, mathematics, statistics, geography and other sciences. Today it is impossible to imagine the preparation and conduct of specific sociological research without the use of mathematical and statistical methods for processing and analyzing the information received. And its collection itself is based on calculations of the sample population, which require certain mathematical and statistical knowledge.

Sociology today is closely related to information technologies. Any specialist in the field of sociology, first of all

applied, will not be able to do without the use of software, high technology, electronic computer technology.

All this suggests that sociology is included today in the system of not only social and humanitarian, but also natural science knowledge.

Structure of sociological knowledge

Sociology is a multi-level science, representing the unity of abstract and concrete forms, macro- and micro-theoretical approaches, theoretical and empirical knowledge.

The structure of sociological knowledge is determined depending on the methodological principles that are used in the study of social reality. In sociology the following types of classification are used:

1) on the scale of the social interaction being studied – macrosociology(orientation towards the analysis of social structures, communities, large social groups, layers, systems and processes occurring in them),microsociology(addressed to social behavior, interpersonal communication, motivation of actions, incentives for group, community actions, etc.);

2) on the degree of generalization of knowledge – general sociological theory

(the idea of society as an integral organism, a system of social mechanisms, reveals the place and role of basic social connections, formulates the principles of social cognition, the main methodological approaches to sociological analysis), sectoral sociological theories or middle-range theories(concern certain spheres of public life, social groups and institutions; the cognitive perspective is much narrower than that of general sociological theory and is limited, as a rule, to certain subsystems of society), specifically sociological research (constitutes an important area of empirical sociology, allows one to obtain material

O various aspects of social reality, identify public opinion about certain events in public life, social problems, ways to solve them, etc.);

3) p about the objectives of the study– theoretical sociology (summarizes the accumulated factual material and creates theories and concepts that explain the patterns of development of social phenomena and processes, focuses on clarifying and defining the object and subject of sociological science, its conceptual