Human chest anatomy. The structure, features and types of the human chest Changes in the chest

Rib cage

the totality of the thoracic vertebrae of the thoracic ribs and sternum, which in reptiles, birds, mammals, and humans provides a strong support for the shoulder girdle and makes it possible to use the intercostal muscles during respiratory movements. Historically, G. to. appears in amniotes (See. Amniotes) in connection with the progressive development of their organs of movement and respiration. In mammals, the respiratory function of G. to. increases due to the appearance of the thoracic obstruction (See. Abdominal obstruction) and the formation of the chest cavity (See. Thoracic cavity). In most reptiles, whose body touches the ground, the G. to. is flattened from top to bottom and its lateral diameter is larger than the dorso-abdominal one; in mammals and some reptiles (for example, chameleons), in which the body is raised on its paws from the ground, the gastric cavity is flattened from the sides and its dorsal diameter predominates over the lateral one. This form of G. to. is called "primary". In great apes and especially in humans, the primary form of G. to. changes to a "secondary" one, in which the lateral diameter exceeds the dorso-abdominal one. Barrel-shaped G. to. with equal dorso-abdominal and lateral diameters is characteristic of animals jumping on their hind legs (kangaroos, jerboas), flying (birds, bats, from fossils - pterosaurs), swimming (whales, from fossils - ichthyosaurs).

G. to. in humans has the shape of a truncated cone flattened in the anterior-posterior direction. There are lateral walls of the G. to., which are formed by 12 pairs of ribs, separated by intercostal spaces; the front wall, which includes the ends of the ribs and the sternum, and the back wall with the spine in the middle. From above G. to. has a hole - the upper aperture, the boundaries of which are the right and left first ribs, the first thoracic vertebra and the handle of the sternum. Through this opening, the trachea, esophagus, vessels and nerves pass into the chest cavity. The lower aperture is limited by the ends of the ribs. From below G. to. it is separated from an abdominal cavity by a diaphragm. Depending on gender, age, physique, there are various forms of G. to., For example, in men G. to. is more cone-shaped, in women it is cylindrical. Children suffering from rickets are distinguished by keeled G. to. In the elderly, G. to. is either flattened or becomes barrel-shaped, especially with emphysema (See Pulmonary emphysema). Persons with an asthenic physique (see the Human Constitution) have an elongated and flattened G. to., in people of the picnic type G. to, short and massive. When you inhale G. to. expands, which is accompanied by an increase in its longitudinal, anterior-posterior and transverse dimensions.

V. V. Kupriyanov.

Great Soviet Encyclopedia. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. 1969-1978 .

See what "Chest" is in other dictionaries:

Rib cage- (compages thoracis) consists of ribs connected by the anterior ends to the sternum (sternum), and the posterior ends to the thoracic vertebrae. The frontal surface of the chest, represented by the sternum and the anterior ends of the ribs, is much shorter than ... ... Atlas of human anatomy

RIB CAGE- (thorax), composed of the thoracic spine at the back, twelve pairs of ribs and their cartilages from the sides and the sternum in front. Usually only the first seven pairs of ribs reach the sternum, less often eight; VIII, IX and usually X ribs are connected with their cartilage to ... ... Big Medical Encyclopedia

The totality of the thoracic vertebrae, ribs and sternum, which in reptiles, birds, mammals and humans forms a strong support for the shoulder girdle. The space inside the chest (thoracic cavity) in mammals is separated from the abdominal ... ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

- (thorax), in anatomy, the part of the body between the neck and the abdominal cavity. In mammals, it is formed by the costal cell and contains the lungs, heart, and esophagus. Separated from the abdominal cavity by the DIAPHRAGM. In arthropods, it consists of several segments, to which ... Scientific and technical encyclopedic dictionary

- (thorax), part of the axial skeleton of amniotes, formed by the connection of the thoracic vertebrae, thoracic ribs and sternum into a single system. It arose for the first time in reptiles in connection with the progressive development of the organs of movement (support of the shoulder girdle) and respiration ... Biological encyclopedic dictionary

Exist., Number of synonyms: 1 breast (33) ASIS Synonym Dictionary. V.N. Trishin. 2013 ... Synonym dictionary

Bones of the human chest Chest, chest (lat. Thorax) is one of the parts of the body. Formed by the sternum, ribs, spine ... Wikipedia

The totality of the thoracic vertebrae, ribs and sternum, which in reptiles, birds, mammals and humans form a strong support for the shoulder girdle. The space inside the chest (thoracic cavity) in mammals is separated from the abdominal ... ... encyclopedic Dictionary

RIB CAGE- chest, skeleton of the thoracic trunk of vertebrates. It consists of osteocartilaginous segments, each of which includes a vertebra, a pair of ribs and a fragment of the sternum (sternum). Cattle have 13-14 segments, ... ... Veterinary Encyclopedic Dictionary

- (box, thorax) has a barrel-shaped shape in humans and is composed of bones: 12 pairs of ribs, 12 thoracic vertebrae and the sternum. The posterior ends of the ribs are attached to the vertebrae by means of ligaments; anterior at the upper 7 ribs (true ribs) ... ... Encyclopedic Dictionary F.A. Brockhaus and I.A. Efron

Books

• Radiation diagnostics. Thorax , M. Galansky , Z. Dettmer , M. Keberle , J. P. Oferk , KI Ringe , The book is part of the "Dx-Dircct" series, dedicated to imaging methods for diagnosing various organs and systems. All books in the series are built according to a single scheme, which provides an overview ... Category: Ultrasound. ECG. Tomography. x-ray Series: Dx-Direct Publisher: MEDpress-inform,
• Radiation diagnostics Chest , Galansky M. , Dettmer Z. , Keberle M. , Oferk J. , Ringe K. , The book is part of the Dx-Direct series, dedicated to imaging methods for diagnosing various organs and systems. All books in the series are built according to a single scheme, which provides an overview ... Category:

The chest is a frame consisting of a set of bones and separated from the abdominal cavity by a flat respiratory diaphragm. Due to its structure of a closed hollow space, this part of the body protects the internal organs from mechanical influences from the environment.

Skeleton of the chest

The skeleton of the human chest includes:

• ribs
• sternum.

Thoracic vertebrae

They are 12 unpaired bones, each of which is the supporting unit of the spine and has a massive anterior fragment - the vertebral body. The body is designed to take on the main load and, together with the arc, forms a ring, inside which the spinal cord is located. Between themselves, the vertebrae are connected by discs and a whole network of ligaments and muscles that provide the flexibility of the column.

The discs of an adult in the aggregate can be a quarter of the total length. At the same time, the height of the discs changes in the process of human life. Changes can be from 0.5 to 2 cm within one day and occur due to compression of the intervertebral discs under the influence of loads. The consequences of the loss of such elasticity are serious diseases.

The anterior fragment of the vertebra is much larger than that of the short bones of other sections, which is due to the higher loads that this part of the spine has to endure.

Each vertebra on both sides is connected to two ribs.

Ribs

The outlines of the skeleton of the chest are 12 pairs of long, narrow and curved plates, consisting of cartilage, spongy bone and called ribs, each of which articulates with its posterior end with the body of its corresponding vertebra.

Only 7 upper pairs have connections with the sternum. These most structurally strong and massive ribs are called "true". Each of the following is attached with its cartilage not to the front, but to the cartilage of the previous rib. The last two are called oscillating and their front ends lie freely.

With its middle part, each rib, as it were, sags relative to the places of articulation with the spine and sternum. This design, coupled with movable joints, allows the cell to freely change its internal volume by lowering and raising. Due to this, the necessary cushioning of the cell is also achieved.

Sternum

There are three main parts in the flat sternum:

• handle
• xiphoid process.

In its appearance, the sternum is an elongated convex-concave bone that does not have a pair. It is located in the front of the cell, being its wall. The three components of the sternum are mutually connected by cartilaginous layers, instead of which bone tissue forms in adulthood.

The handle is the widest part of the sternum and has a thickening in its upper part and a jugular notch, which can be observed in every person in the region of the collar. On both sides of the notch are the points of connection of the sternum with the paired bones of the girdle of the upper extremities.

The body of the sternum is a long bone and in its anterior part has seams left from the connection of its parts in the process of evolution.

The smallest and most variable part is the xiphoid process, which can vary from person to person, both in shape and size. When a person reaches old age, this part of the sternum completely ossifies and fuses with her body.

The cell skeleton performs protective functions, covering the lungs and large arteries. Therefore, all the components of the bone frame and their ligamentous apparatus function in an interconnected manner.

chest types

Depending on their morphological and functional features, a person may have one of the following types of chest:

• hypersthenic;
• normosthenic;
• asthenic.

Hypersthenic has the shape of a fairly wide cylinder. This type is characterized by slightly pronounced pits of Morenheim (subclavian) and extremely small gaps between the ribs, located strictly horizontally. Straight shoulders set wide apart. Together they are moderately developed, the shoulder blades are located close.

Normosthenic has the shape of a cone, the basis of which is the shoulder girdle. The cell is compressed in front, the ribs are moderately oblique, the distance between them is small. The shoulder line forms a right angle with the neck. The shoulder blades differ in blurred contours, the muscles are developed quite well.

Asthenic is characterized by flattened, narrow outlines, has an elongated shape and distinct pits of Morenheim. The ribs are located at a considerable distance from each other and more vertically than in all other types, the clavicles are pronounced. The muscle fibers of the girdle of the upper extremities are very poorly developed, the shoulders are lowered, the shoulder blades do not lie close to the back.

In addition to the three main types, a number of pathological variants of the development of the chest are distinguished.

Emphysematous demonstrates pronounced hypersthenic features with some inconsistencies. Has a slightly larger diameter. Morenheim's pits appear brighter, the ribs are in a horizontal plane. This type is typical for people whose lungs are affected by chronic emphysema.

The paralytic bears features similar to those of a cell with narrow outlines, but in their more vivid manifestation. As a rule, it accompanies long-term lung diseases, leading to their shrinkage. The paralytic chest most often suffers from disproportion, since the distance between its ribs on both sides varies. Because the shoulder blades in the process of breathing move asynchronously.

Rachitic is most often inherent in people who suffered from rickets at an early age. The cage is somewhat elongated from front to back. The sternum protrudes forward, representing the so-called "keel". The sides, closer to the front, are squeezed inward on both sides and articulate with the sternum at a slight angle. There is a retraction of the lower part of the cell in the area of ​​attachment to the diaphragm.

Funnel-shaped differs in a characteristic way by depressed tissues in the region of the xiphoid process. This variant of cell development was often observed in various kinds of artisans. More often - at shoemakers. For which he received the name "shoemaker's chest." Today, it is not possible to establish the cause of such a pathology.

The scaphoid (from the word "rook") type in the upper region of the sternum has a small depression in the shape of a boat. It accompanies pathologies of the spinal cord. It occurs, for example, with syringomyelia.

The chest, which is in a normal state, is somewhat compressed in front and geometrically represents a distorted cone.

Features of the human chest

As a person grows older, most parts of his body undergo a wide variety of metamorphoses in the form of constant corrections of the outlines, proportions and structure of the constituent elements. The number of such changes in the chest area significantly exceeds the number of similar processes in other parts of the body.

The chest of an infant is similar in structure to the sternum of animals and has a cone-shaped shape. By the age of 7, its upper edge coincides with the level of 2-4 thoracic vertebrae, and by the time of final maturation, with 3-4 vertebrae. This is due to the transition to chest breathing and the formation of a spiral line of ribs.

Changes can also occur during the course of the disease. As a result of salt deposits in rickets, their accumulation in bone tissues leads to the fact that the chest can take the form of a keel - a type referred to in the language of physicians as “chicken breast”.

The angle formed by the two costal arches at their junction with the sternum in an infant is 45°, and in an adult - 15°. The final form is formed approximately by the age of 18-20. The most significant changes in this area begin to occur at the age of 14, when the outlines of the cell begin to be influenced by secondary sexual characteristics.

The structure of the human chest is strongly dependent on gender. The sternum of a man, like the entire bone frame of his cell, is much larger than that of a woman. The curvature of his ribs closer to their corners is more pronounced.

In women, the ribs are more twisted and tend to spiral. The anterior part of the ribs is somewhat lower. This affects not only the shape of the sternum, but also the predominant type of breathing. The chest of a woman has a flatter shape, and the characteristic type of her breathing is chest. In men, a predominantly abdominal type is observed. Their breathing is due to the fluctuations of the diaphragm.

The newborn has a fairly deep (compared to width) chest. Due to such proportions, his body has a rounded outline. With age, the ratio of width and depth is transformed, and the width becomes the predominant value. By about 7 years of age, a wide and flat chest is permanently formed in children.

Body types are in a clear relationship with the shape of the sternum. With short stature, a wide and shortened chest is often observed. In tall people, on the contrary, the chest is often elongated and fairly flat.

In older people, the costal cartilages gradually lose their suppleness, which is why they lose their ability to move freely during breathing. Often there is a change in the shape of the cell as a result of the course of a respiratory disease. For example, with emphysema, it often takes on a barrel-shaped shape.

Active sports can give the chest a natural and healthy shape and size. Thanks to them, the pectoral muscles are strengthened, the volume of the lungs necessary for normal life develops.

While watching the video, you will learn about the structure of the skeleton.

A healthy lifestyle protects against cell deformation and prevents diseases of the internal chest organs. Proper nutrition, giving up bad habits, work and rest, regular exercise - all this helps to maintain the tone of the chest and ensures a normal metabolism in the body.

The chest (thorax) (Fig. 112) is formed by 12 pairs of ribs, sternum, cartilage and ligamentous apparatus for articulation with the sternum and 12 thoracic vertebrae. All these formations form the chest, which in different age periods has its own structural features. The chest is flattened from front to back and expanded in the transverse direction. This feature is affected by the vertical position of the person. As a result, the internal organs (heart, lungs, thymus gland, esophagus, etc.) exert pressure mainly not on the sternum, but on the diaphragm. In addition, the shape of the chest is affected by the muscles that move the shoulder girdle, starting on the ventral and dorsal surfaces of the chest. The muscles form two muscle loops that exert pressure on the chest from front to back.

112. Human chest (front view).

1 - apertura thoracis superior;
2 - angulus infrasternalis;
3 - apertura thoracis inferior;
4 - arcus costalis;
5 - processus xiphoideus;
6 - corpus sterni;
7 - manubrium sterni.

113. Schematic representation of the shape of the chest of a person (A) and an animal (B), (according to Benninghoff).

In animals, the chest is compressed in the frontal plane and extended in the anteroposterior direction (Fig. 113).

The first rib, the handle of the sternum and the I thoracic vertebra limit the upper thoracic aperture (apertura thoracis superior), which has a size of 5x10 cm. The boundaries of the lower thoracic aperture (apertura thoracis inferior) make up the xiphoid process of the sternum, cartilaginous arch, XII vertebra and the last rib. The size of the lower hole is much larger than the upper one - 13x20 cm. The circumference of the chest at the level of the VIII rib corresponds to 80 - 87 cm. Normally, the latter size should not be less than half the height of a person, which characterizes the degree of physical development.

Through the upper aperture of the chest, the trachea, esophagus, large blood and lymphatic vessels, and nerves pass. The lower aperture is closed by the diaphragm through which the esophagus, aorta, inferior vena cava, thoracic duct, trunks of the autonomic nervous system and other vessels and nerves pass. The intercostal spaces, in addition to ligaments, are filled with intercostal muscles, vessels and nerves.

During inhalation and exhalation, the size of the chest changes.

This is only possible due to the large length and spiral structure of the ribs. The posterior end of the rib is fixed to the spine by two joints (the head of the rib with the body of the vertebra, the tubercle of the rib with the transverse process), located on the same bone and motionless in relation to each other. Therefore, the movement takes place in both joints simultaneously, namely: the rotation of the back of the rib along the axis connecting the joint of the head of the tubercle of the rib. Anatomically, these joints have a spherical shape, but functionally they are combined and represent a cylindrical joint (Fig. 114). When the posterior end of the rib is rotated, its anterior spiral part rises, moves to the sides and anteriorly; due to this movement of the ribs, the volume of the chest increases.

114. Scheme of movement of the ribs.
A - the location of the axes of rotation of individual ribs.
B - scheme of rotation of I and IX ribs (according to V.P. Vorobyov).

Age features. In a newborn, the chest resembles in shape the chest of animals, in which, as is known, the sagittal size prevails over the frontal. In a newborn, the heads of the ribs and their anterior ends are practically at the same level. At the age of 7, the upper edge of the sternum corresponds to the level II - III, and in an adult - III - IV of the thoracic vertebrae. This lowering is associated with the appearance of the chest type of breathing and the formation of a spiral shape of the ribs. In those cases when, with rickets, mineral metabolism is disturbed and there is a delay in the deposition of salts in the bones, the chest takes on a keeled shape - “chicken breast”.

The infrasternal angle in a newborn reaches 45°, after a year - 60°, at 5 years old - 30°, at 15 years old - 20°, in an adult - 15°. Only from the age of 15 there are gender differences in the structure of the chest. In men, the chest is not only larger, but there is a steeper bend of the rib in the area of ​​​​the angle, but the spiral twisting of the ribs is less pronounced. This feature also affects the shape of the chest and the nature of breathing. Due to the fact that in women, as a result of the pronounced spiral shape of the ribs, the anterior end is lower, the shape of the chest is flatter. Therefore, in women, the thoracic type of breathing prevails, in contrast to men, who breathe mainly due to the displacement of the diaphragm (abdominal type of breathing).

It is noticed that people of different physiques also have their characteristic shape of the chest. In people of short stature with a voluminous abdominal cavity, a wide but short chest with a wide lower opening is observed. On the contrary, in tall people, the chest is long and flat.

In the elderly, the elasticity of the costal cartilages is significantly reduced, which also reduces the excursion of the ribs during breathing. In old age, due to the frequent changes in the shape of the chest. So, with emphysema, a barrel-shaped chest is often observed.

Physical exercise has a significant formative effect on the shape of the chest. They not only strengthen the muscles, but also increase the range of motion in the joints of the ribs, which leads to an increase in the volume of the chest and the vital capacity of the lungs during inspiration.

The chest is a part of the body. It is formed by the sternum, ribs, spine and, of course, muscles. It contains the chest part and the upper part of the peritoneum. The respiratory muscles, which are fixed on the outside and inside, create the conditions for human breathing.

Structure

Four sections are distinguished in the chest frame - anterior, posterior and two lateral. It has two holes (apertures) - upper and lower. The first is limited behind at the level of the very first thoracic vertebrae, from the side - by the uppermost ribs, and in front by the handle of the sternum. The top of the lung enters the aperture and the esophagus and trachea pass through it. The lower opening is wider, its borders go along the twelfth vertebra, along the ribs and arcs, through the xiphoid process and are closed by the diaphragm.

The frame of the chest consists of twelve pairs of ribs. The cartilaginous apparatus and the sternum are located in front. Behind are twelve vertebrae with ribs and the spinal column.

The main role of the cell is to protect vital organs, namely the heart, lungs and liver. When the spine is deformed, transformations are also observed in the chest itself, which is extremely dangerous, can lead to compression of the organs located in it, which leads to disruption of their functioning, and, subsequently, to the development of various diseases in them.

Ribs

Each rib includes bone and cartilage, their special structure does not allow damage to organs during impacts.

Seven large upper ribs are associated with the sternum. Below are three more ribs attached to the upper cartilage. The chest ends with two floating ribs that are not aligned with the sternum, but are attached exclusively to the spine. All together they create a single frame, which is a support. It is almost motionless, as it consists entirely of bone tissue. In a newborn, instead of this tissue, cartilage is used. Actually, these ribs form the posture.

• sit and stand straight;
• engage in active sports that strengthen the muscles of the back;
• use the right mattress and pillow.

The main task of the ribs is not to interfere with the respiratory movement and to protect the organs that are located inside the cell from injury.

Sternum

The sternum looks like a flat bone and includes three sections - the upper (arm), middle (body) and lower (xiphoid process). In structure, it is a spongy substance of the bone, covered with a layer of a denser one. On the handle you can see the jugular notch and a pair of clavicular. They are needed for attachment to the upper pair of ribs and collarbone. The largest section of the sternum is the body. 2-5 pairs of ribs are attached to it, while the formation of sternocostal joints occurs. Below there is a xiphoid process, which is easy to feel. It can be different: blunt, pointed, split, and even have a hole. It completely ossifies by the age of 20.

The form

In young children, the chest is convex in shape, but over the years, with proper growth, it changes.

The cell itself is normally flattened, and its shape depends on the sex, the constitution of the body and the degree of its physical development.

There are three types of chest:

• flat;
• cylindrical;
• conical.

The conical shape occurs in a person with a high level of muscle development and lungs. The chest is large but short. If the muscles are poorly developed, then the cell narrows and lengthens, taking on a flatter shape. Cylindrical is the middle shape between the above.

Under the influence of external and internal factors, the form may change pathologically.

Pathological forms of the chest:

• Emphysematous, it occurs in people with chronic emphysema
• Paralytic. Changes occur in patients with reduced lung weight, this occurs with prolonged diseases of the lungs and pleura.
• The rickets form occurs in people who suffered rickets in childhood.
• The funnel-shaped form is distinguished by a funnel-shaped fossa in the region of the xiphoid process and the lower part of the sternum.
• The scaphoid form occurs in diseases of the spinal cord.
• The kyphoscoliotic form occurs with curvature of the spine as a result of arthritis or tuberculosis.

Traffic

The movement is carried out with the breath of a person.

An almost immovable frame during inhalation increases along with the intercostal spaces, and decreases during exhalation, while the spaces narrow. This is due to special muscles and the mobility of the costal cartilages.

With calm breathing, the respiratory muscles are responsible for the movement of the cell, the most important of which are the intercostal muscles. When they contract, the chest expands to the sides and forward.

If you need to catch your breath after physical exertion, then auxiliary respiratory muscles join them. In case of illness or when the access of oxygen to the lungs is difficult, the muscles attached to the ribs and other parts of the skeleton begin to work. Contracting, they stretch the chest with increasing force.

Features and age-related changes

At birth, all children have a cone-shaped chest. Its transverse diameter is small and the ribs are arranged horizontally. The costal heads themselves and their endings lie in the same plane. Later, the upper border of the sternum decreases and is located in the region of the 3rd and 4th vertebrae. The determining factor is the appearance of chest breathing in children. The first two years are characterized by rapid growth of the cell, but by the age of seven, growth becomes slower, but at the same time, the middle section of the cell increases most of all. Around the age of twenty, the breast takes on a familiar shape.

Men have a larger chest than women. It is also characterized by a stronger curvature of the ribs, but their spiral twisting is less inherent. This specificity affects both the shape of the cell and the pattern of respiration. In a woman, due to the strong spiral shape of the ribs, her front end is lower, and the shape is more flattened. For this reason, her chest type of breathing dominates. This is what differs from men, in whom the respiratory process occurs due to the movement of the diaphragm and is called the abdominal type.

It has been proven that people with different body builds also have a characteristic chest shape. A short person with an enlarged abdomen will have a wider but shorter ribcage with an enlarged lower opening. And, conversely, in a tall person, the shape of the chest will be longer and flattened.

In the region of 30 years, a person begins to ossify. With age, cartilage loses its mobility, which leads to a greater likelihood of injury. The diameter of the breast also decreases, which leads to disturbances in the activity of the organs themselves and the system as a whole, and the shape of the cell changes accordingly.

To prolong the health of your body, and in particular the chest, you need to perform physical exercises. To strengthen the muscles, it is recommended to work out with a barbell or dumbbells, perform a set of special exercises on the horizontal bar. Always, from childhood, it is necessary to monitor posture. On the recommendation of doctors, take vitamins and calcium. This is especially necessary for pregnant women and the elderly. At the beginning of diseases, chondroprotectors are prescribed, which are able to stop the destruction of bone tissue.

You need to follow a healthy diet. In the diet, vegetables, fruits, meat and seafood should be in sufficient quantities. It is also useful to consume fermented milk products, which are rich in calcium and vitamin D.

chest, compares thoracis, make up the thoracic spine, ribs (12 pairs) and sternum.

The thorax forms the chest cavity, cavitas thoracis, which has the shape of a truncated cone, with its wide base facing downwards, and the truncated apex upwards. In the chest, there are anterior, posterior and lateral walls, an upper and lower opening, which limit the chest cavity.

The structure of the chest.

The anterior wall is shorter than the other walls, formed by the sternum and cartilage. Located obliquely, it protrudes more anteriorly with its lower sections than with its upper ones. The posterior wall is longer than the anterior, formed by the thoracic vertebrae and
sections of ribs from heads to corners; its direction is almost vertical.

On the outer surface of the posterior wall of the chest, between the spinous processes of the vertebrae and the corners of the ribs, two grooves are formed on both sides - the dorsal grooves: they lie deep. On the inner surface of the chest, between the protruding vertebral bodies and the corners of the ribs, two grooves are also formed - pulmonary grooves, sulci pulmonales; they are adjacent to the vertebral part of the costal surface of the lungs.

The side walls are longer than the anterior and posterior, formed by the bodies of the ribs and are more or less convex.
The spaces bounded above and below by two adjacent ribs, in front - by the lateral edge of the sternum and behind - by the vertebrae, are called intercostal spaces, spatia intercostalia; they are made by intercostal muscles and membranes.
The chest, compages thoracis, limited by the indicated walls, has two openings - upper and lower, which begin with apertures.

The upper aperture of the chest, apertura thoracis superior, is smaller than the lower one, limited in front by the upper edge of the handle, from the sides by the first ribs and from behind by the body I. It has a transverse-oval shape and is located in a plane inclined from back to front and downwards. The upper edge is at the level of the gap between the II and III thoracic vertebrae.

The lower aperture of the chest, apertura thoracis inferior, is bounded in front by the xiphoid process and the costal arch formed by the cartilaginous ends of the false ribs, from the sides by the free ends of the XI and XII ribs and the lower edges of the XII ribs, and from behind by the body of the XII.

The costal arch, arcus costalis, at the xiphoid process forms a substernal angle open downwards, angulus infrasternalis.