Peoples of the Russian Empire in the second half of the 19th century. Abstract: National composition of the Russian Empire

We present to your attention an excerpt from an article by Ya.E. Vodarsky and V.M. Kabuzan “Territory and population of Russia in the XV-XVIII centuries,” dedicated to the ethnic and religious composition of the population of the Russian Empire in the 18th century. The article was published in the collection “Russian Empire. From the origins to the beginning of the 19th century. Essays on socio-political and economic history.”

In the 18th century, the ethnic and religious composition of the Russian population underwent very significant changes. This, first of all, was facilitated by the expansion of the country’s borders, the inclusion of large territories with a diverse national composition (Lithuania, Belarus, the Baltic states, Right Bank Ukraine, Crimea).

However, even at the constant boundaries of the 1720s, the number and, most importantly, the proportion of peoples living there did not remain unchanged. Internal migrations, the influx of immigrants from abroad and abroad, various indicators of natural increase and, finally, assimilation processes contributed to this. Changes in the confessional composition were determined not only by the annexation of new lands to Russia, but also by the mass Christianization of the peoples of the Volga and Urals region in the 40-50s and Siberia in the 80-90s of the 18th century.

Table No. 1 clearly demonstrates changes in the number and proportion of the main peoples of the empire in the 18th century.

Table No. 1.
The size and ethnic composition of the population of the Russian Empire according to the I (1719) and V (1795) audits

In the 18th century, the role of Russians in settling the outskirts was extremely high. The share of Russians in the country’s population is also decreasing slightly in the main regions of their indigenous habitat (in the Central Industrial Region - from 97.7 to 96.2%, in the Northern Region - from 92.0 to 91.3%, in the Central Agricultural Region - from 90 .6% to 87.4%, in the Northern Urals - from 90.8% to 84.0%) These were either regions where other peoples intensively migrated (Ukrainians - to the Black Earth Center, peoples of the Volga region - to the Northern Urals), or territories of significant eviction of Russians (Northern Urals).

In the outskirts of Novorossiya, the share of Russians dropped from 90.6% to 19.1% as it was rapidly settled by Ukrainians from the 1730s.

But in many other outlying regions the picture turned out to be different. In the Lower Volga region, the proportion of Russians has increased from 12.6 to 70.7%, and it is turning into a Russian ethnic territory.

And this despite the influx of German colonists here in the 60s. A similar situation was observed in the neighboring North Caucasus (without its mountainous part), where the share of Russians increased from 3.4 to 53.1%. In the Southern Urals there were only 15.2% Russians in 1719 (and the Bashkirs absolutely dominated here). And in 1795 they turned out to be 40.8%, although the Tatars, Mordovians and Chuvashs of the neighboring Middle Volga region took an active part in settling the region. In Left Bank Ukraine, the share of Russians increased from 2.3 to 5.2%, although there was no significant relocation of Russians here from the central provinces.

Among the Russians, the indigenous inhabitants of Sloboda Ukraine predominated (who lived here even before the Ukrainians arrived here), as well as the Old Believers who settled in the north of the Chernihiv region. In Siberia, the proportion of Russians increased from 66.9 to 69.3%, mainly due to the migration movement (the influx of not only free migrants, but also exiles). In other regions (the Baltics, Right Bank Ukraine, Lithuania) there were few Russians. In other words, in the 18th century, thanks to migration, the Russian ethnic territory within the borders of the empire expanded significantly. The share of Ukrainians in Russia from 1719 to 1795 increased from 12.9 to 19.8%, and within the borders of 1719 - to 16.1%.

This was due, first of all, to the inclusion of Right Bank Ukraine (a region where the share of Ukrainians was close to 90%) in the empire, as well as high natural growth in Novorossiya and Sloboda Ukraine.

Ukrainians quickly settled new lands within the borders of the empire. At the beginning of the century, they lived compactly only in Left Bank Ukraine (95.9%), in the Agricultural Center (8.5%), and Novorossiya (9.4%). Ukrainians populate Novorossiya, their share here rises to 52.2%. They began to develop the North Caucasus and the Lower Volga region, amounting to 18.3 and 7.2%, respectively, in 1795; but they did not become the predominant ethnic component here. But in general, in the 18th century, the Ukrainian ethnic territory in Russia expanded significantly at the expense of New Russia and certain regions of the North Caucasus and the Agricultural Center.

Belarusians occupied a special place. In 1719, within the then borders of Russia, they reached 2.4% of the inhabitants of the empire, and in 1795 on the same territory - 2.3%.

They were located in the Smolensk province (61.5%), on the Left Bank Ukraine (1.9%) and in the Non-Black Earth Center (1.2%). The main territories inhabited by Belarusians became part of the empire in 1772-1795 under three sections of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. At the end of the century, the Belarusian lands are united within the then borders of Russia, and their share in the empire’s population rises to 8.3%, and in the Belarusian-Lithuanian region reaches 62.4%.

In 1719, there were practically no Poles in the empire; in 1795, they already made up 6.2% of its population.

Their share reached 7.8% in Right Bank Ukraine, and 5.4% in Belarus and Lithuania.
The Tatars were located in many regions of Russia. Their share in the 18th century actually did not change (1.9% of the population), and at the turn of the century it even increased from 1.9 to 2.1%. This was due to a higher level of natural growth, as well as their assimilation of a number of other peoples of the region.

At the beginning of the 18th century, the Tatars were located mainly in the Middle Volga region (13.4%), the Southern Urals (13.3%) and Siberia (5.8%).

Thanks to migrations, by the end of the century their share was increasing in the Lower Volga region (in 1795 - 4.4%), the Southern Urals (14.4%), the Northern Urals (2%) and the Northern Caucasus (21.2%). In the Middle Volga region, from where many Tatars migrated to neighboring regions, their share decreases from 13.4 to 12.3%. In Novorossiya in 1795, Tatars made up 10.3% of all residents. They were located in the Tauride province.

The share of the Chuvash in the country from the I to the V revision decreased from 1.4 to 0.9%, and at the turn of the 18th century - from 1.4 to 1.2%.

In the 1720s, they lived only in the Middle Volga region (13.8%) and in very small numbers in the Southern Urals (0.03%). They were mainly located on the territory of the future Kazan (23.3%) and Simbirsk (12.9%) provinces. From here they intensively migrate to the Southern Urals and by the end of the century reach 5.2% of the population of this region. In the Middle Volga region from 1719 to 1795, their share decreased from 13.8 to 12.7%. This was caused not only by the migration of large groups of Chuvash from here, but also by their assimilation by the Tatars mainly in the 40-50s. Then a number of Chuvash, who did not want to accept Orthodoxy, converted to Mohammedanism and merged with the Tatars.

At the beginning of the 18th century, Mordovians lived in three regions: the Middle Volga region (4.9% of the total population), the Industrial Center (0.4%) and the Agricultural Center (0.3%). In general, in the empire the proportion of Mordovians reached 0.7% of the total population. By 1795, the share of Mordovians in the country increased to 0.8%, and within the borders of the 20s - to 1.2%. Their percentage is increasing in all regions: Central Industrial - from 0.4 to 0.7%, Central Agricultural - from 0.3 to 0.5%, and in the Middle Volga region - from 4.9 to 7.3%.

In general, in the 18th century, the number, share, and areas of settlement of the peoples of Russia changed significantly.

The main factors that had a decisive influence on the course of this process were different levels of natural increase and far from equal participation in the migration movement. It was in the 18th century that the Russian, Ukrainian and Tatar ethnic territories greatly expanded. Unfortunately, a significant part of the Russian ethnic territory formed in this century later, during the collapse of the USSR, found itself outside the borders of Russia (in Novorossiya, Southern Siberia, etc.).

No less significant changes have occurred in the religious composition of the population of the Russian Empire and Russia in its current borders and in the 18th century (see table No. 2).

Table 2. Religious composition of the population within the borders of the Russian Empire and modern Russia in the 18th century according to the results of audit and church records

Russia is turning into a country with a diverse, multi-religious composition.

However, the Orthodox remain absolutely predominant in the empire, even at the turn of the 19th century they reached 72% (30.9 million people) of all the country's inhabitants. At the beginning of the 18th century, Russians, Ukrainians and most of Belarusians, as well as a number of old baptized ethnic groups of the northern regions (Karelians, Komi, Izhora, etc.). About 80% of all Orthodox Christians in the world lived within the borders of the empire.

At the constant beginning of the 18th century in Russia, the share of Orthodox Christians was growing (from 85.4% in 1719 to 89.6% in 1795), the share of Protestants remained almost unchanged (1719 - 1.2%, 1795 – 1.1%) and Mohammedans (1719 – 7.6%, 1795 – 7.8%) and sharply decreases among pagans (1719 – 5.8%, 1795 – 1.5% ).

The fact is that in the 1740-1760s in Russia the baptism of the pagan population of the Volga region and the Urals (Mordovians, Chuvash, Mari, Udmurts) was successfully carried out. This process little affected the Mohammedans - the Tatars, and did not affect the Bashkirs at all.

Mass baptism began after Luka Konashevich, who was distinguished by his extraordinary zeal for the faith, was appointed bishop of Kazan in 1738.

In 1740, he created the “Office of Newly Baptized Affairs” at the Sviyazhsk Mother of God Monastery, which began converting the local population to Orthodoxy.

If in the 20s in the four provinces where baptism took place, 3.2% of all Gentiles (13.5 thousand) were converted to Orthodoxy, then in 1745 - 16.4% (79.1 thousand male souls) ) and in 1762 - 44.8% (246.0 thousand male souls). This process affected, first of all, the Kazan province (I revision - 4.7%, III - 67.2%).

In the Nizhny Novgorod, Voronezh and especially Orenburg provinces, the number of baptized people was relatively small. That is why the absolute number of pagans in Russia in 1719 was 794 thousand people, of both sexes, and in 1762 - only 369 thousand people.

In Siberia, mass baptism began only in the 1780s. Here in the 90s in the Tobolsk province, Orthodox Christians made up 49%, Mohammedans - 31%, and pagans - 20% of the total population. And in the Irkutsk province by this time only 18.9% (about 40 thousand) of all “foreigners” were baptized. The Yakuts, part of the Buryats and other peoples of Siberia were baptized already at the beginning of the 19th century.

Thus, in the 18th century in Russia the territory of absolute predominance of the Orthodox population expanded significantly. In terms of its scale, the Christianization of the peoples of the Volga region can only be compared with the return to Orthodoxy of the Uniates of Ukraine and Belarus in 1839 and in the Kingdom of Poland in 1875.

More than a hundred different ethnic groups lived on the territory of the Russian Empire. As the state expanded, the smallest of them were absorbed by larger peoples - Russians, Tatars, Circassians, Latvians.

It would be more correct to call the Bukharts an ethnosocial group that, migrating from Central Asia, settled primarily in Western Siberia. The ethnic component of the Bukharians is complex: Tajik, Uyghur, Uzbek, and to a lesser extent Kazakh, Karakalpak and Kyrgyz national traits are found in it. The Bukharians spoke two languages - Persian and Chagatai. The main specialization of this group was merchants, although there were also missionaries, artisans and farmers.

The number of Bukharians in Siberia began to increase sharply after the conditions for accepting Russian citizenship were simplified. So, if in 1686 - 1687 there were 29 Bukhara households in the Tyumen district, then in 1701 their number reached 49. Bukharans often settled together with the Siberian Tatars, gradually assimilating with them. Perhaps this was explained by the fact that, even living on the same territory with the Tatars, the Bukharans had fewer rights.

Ethnographers believe that it was the Bukhara people who taught one of the traditional types of craft - leatherworking - to the Siberian Tatars. Thanks to the Bukharans, the first educational institutions, the first national library, and the first stone mosque appeared beyond the Urals.

Despite the fact that until the beginning of the 20th century there was a Bukhara volost in the Tara district of the Tobolsk province, this ethnic group actually disappeared even before the collapse of the Russian Empire. The last time the word Bukharan in the national sense is found in the census of the peoples of the USSR for 1926. After that, only the inhabitants of Uzbek Bukhara were called Bukharians.

Crewings

Today the Krevings (“Krewinni” - “Russians”), on the one hand, are Russified, on the other hand, assimilated by Latvians, a Finno-Ugric tribe that inhabited the Bauska district of the Kurland province in the vicinity of the village of Memelgof from the mid-15th to the end of the 19th century. Tradition says that the forefathers of the Krevings initially inhabited the island of Ezel (today the largest island of the Moonsund archipelago), but were bought out by the owner of Memelgof and resettled to their own lands in place of the peasants who died from the plague.

However, historians trust more the version according to which in the middle of the 15th century, German knights, on the orders of the Landmaster of the Teutonic Order in Livonia, Heinrich Vincke, during one of their raids captured a group of the Finno-Ugric Vodi people and sent them to Bauska (the territory of present-day Latvia). Subsequently, their descendants formed a new ethnic group - the Krevings. The knights used the krevings as labor to build fortifications that protected Livonia from the army of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania; in particular, they built the Bauska Castle, which has survived to this day.

In 1846, Russian linguist Andrei Sjogren discovered about a dozen Krevings near the capital of Courland, Mitau, who still retained vague knowledge of their ancestors and language - the so-called Kreving dialect, now extinct. By the beginning of the 20th century, the Krevings actually merged with the Latvians, differing from them only in their traditional costume.

Sayan Samoyeds

If one part of the Samoyed peoples, for example, the Nenets, Nganasans, Selkups, still lives in Siberia - in the Nenets Autonomous Okrug, Tyumen Region, Taimyr and Krasnoyarsk Territory, then the other has already sunk into oblivion. We are talking about the Sayan Samoyeds, who once inhabited the Sayan mountain taiga (within the southern part of the modern Krasnoyarsk Territory) and who, according to linguist Evgeniy Khelimsky, spoke two unrelated dialects.

The first to discover the Sayan Samoyeds was the Swedish officer and geographer Philipp Johann von Stralenberg, as reported in 1730 in his book “Historical and Geographical Description of the Northern and Eastern Parts of Europe and Asia”; Later, this people was studied by the German naturalist Peter Pallas and the Russian historian Gerhard Miller. By the beginning of the 20th century, almost all Sayan Samoyeds were assimilated by the Khakass, and partly by the Tuvans, Western Buryats and Russians.

Teptyari

Historians still have not come to a consensus on who the Teptyars are. Some call them fugitive Tatars who did not want to submit to Ivan the Terrible after the capture of Kazan, others consider them representatives of different nationalities - Tatars, Chuvash, Bashkirs, Mari, Russians, who turned into a separate class.

The encyclopedic dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron in the 19th century wrote that “the Teptyars are a people living among the Bashkirs in the number of 117 thousand souls, which was formed from various fugitive elements of the Volga Finns and Chuvash, who over time merged with the Bashkirs.”

In 1790, the Teptyars were transferred to the category of military service class, from which the Teptyar regiments were formed. Later they were transferred to the subordination of the Orenburg military governor. During the Patriotic War of 1812, the 1st Teptyar Regiment took part in hostilities as part of a separate Cossack corps of Ataman Platov. After the establishment of Bolshevik power, the Teptyars lost their right to national self-determination.

Tubans

In Russian historiography, the Tuba tribe, which was part of the Adyghe peoples, has been known since the 18th century. Tsarist general Ivan Blaramberg in his “Historical, topographical, statistical, ethnographic and military description of the Caucasus” reported: “The Tubins are one of the isolated societies of the Abedzekh tribe and speak the same dialect of the Circassian language. They are daring and occupy the most high-mountainous and inaccessible areas near the rivers Pchega and Sgagvasha, right up to the snowy peaks, the southern slopes of the snowy mountains.” By the end of the Caucasian Wars, the Tubins were assimilated by other mountain peoples.

Turalinians

According to many researchers of Siberia, in particular Gerhard Miller, the Turalinians were the Siberian Tatars who lived sedentarily in the territories between the Irtysh and Tobol rivers. This was a special people of the Turkic-Tatar tribe, similar in customs to the Kazan Tatars, having some admixture of Mongoloid features.

For the first time, Ermak met the Turalinians, who destroyed their settlements of Epanchin and Chingi-Turu and subjugated this tribe to the Russian crown. The people of Turalin were engaged primarily in agriculture, cattle breeding and fishing, and to a small extent in hunting and trade. By the beginning of the 18th century, the overwhelming majority of Turalin residents converted to Orthodoxy and soon became Russified.

The Russian Empire was a multinational state. At the end of the 1850s. The national liberation movement in Poland revived. When starting to prepare and implement liberal reforms, Alexander II could not ignore the need to solve national problems. The police regime in Poland has been relaxed. The State Council for the Kingdom of Poland, established in 1861, consisted of Poles. Grand Duke Konstantin Nikolaevich, a supporter of liberal reforms, became the governor in Poland. However, the majority of Poles sought to free themselves from Russian dependence and create an independent Polish state within its previous borders. They refused to cooperate with the Russian government. The main political forces were divided by contemporaries into two types - “red” and “white”.

The “Whites” expressed the interests of the Polish aristocracy (landowners, big bourgeoisie), and hoped to achieve the restoration of the autonomy of the Kingdom of Poland on the basis of the constitution of 1815.

The “Reds” relied on revolutionary-minded urban youth (part of the bourgeoisie and gentry circles). They sought to restore Poland's independence through an uprising. The “Reds” associated this task with the struggle for the interests of the peasantry. Unlike the “whites,” who were against raising the peasant question, the “reds” proposed abolishing corvée and quitrents and allocating land to the peasants without ransom.

In the early 1860s. The “reds” created a rebel organization, the leadership of which was entrusted to Yaroslav Dombrowski. Members of the organization were able to establish contacts with the Russian revolutionary movement, intending to raise an uprising together and simultaneously with the Land and Freedom society.

The reason for the uprising in Poland was the recruitment of recruits in its cities. Marquis A. Wielepolsky, a well-known liberal, who was placed at the head of the Polish administration, decided in this way to call up young people suspected of revolutionary activity for military service.

In response to this, in January 1863, the Central National Committee of the “Reds” declared itself a provisional government and issued a law declaring peasants the owners of land plots. The state took upon itself the obligation to pay the landowners the value of the lost lands. At the same time, an attack was organized on several Russian garrisons. Soon the rebels published a Manifesto, proclaiming the independence of Poland, as well as political and national equality. A few weeks later, the “whites” also joined the uprising. In the spring and autumn of 1863 there was a struggle for leadership of the uprising. The “Whites” were slow in implementing the agrarian decrees and did not organize a people’s militia. The “reds” came to the leadership again. Meanwhile, the rebel groups suffered military defeat. By May 1864 the uprising was suppressed. The actions of the government of Alexander II, which legitimized the reforms developed by the rebels, played a large role in the defeat of the uprising. Peasants became the owners of plots that were previously in their use. Some landless peasants received small plots for ransom. After the suppression of the uprising, the government launched an offensive against the remnants of Poland's autonomy. All-Russian administration was extended to its territory. Russian personnel were appointed to administrative, pedagogical, and church positions. Polish nobles were deprived of the right to elect leaders of the nobility - they were now appointed in St. Petersburg. The name Kingdom of Poland was replaced by another - Privislinsky region.

In an effort to prevent further aggravation of national problems, the government of Alexander II, suppressing the Polish uprising, carried out a number of reforms in Finland. In 1863, the Finnish Diet, which had not been convened for many years, was convened. The Sejm established the dates for its subsequent convocations. Church control over education was eliminated. Education in Finnish was introduced in educational institutions.

In the 1860-1870s. Finland received its own monetary system and had its own customs. Its income did not go to the imperial treasury.

Finnish rifle battalions, subordinate to the local governor-general, were recruited from natives of the Grand Duchy of Finland.

Unlike Finland and Poland, where the government allowed certain national relaxations, in Little Russia (Ukraine) and the provinces of the North-Western Territory (Belarus) a more stringent course was pursued.

Considering Ukrainians and Belarusians as part of the Russian people, the government did not recognize their language and culture.

Cultural and educational organizations - communities - that emerged in a number of cities in Little Russia were accused of separatist activities. The publication of literature in the Ukrainian language by communities and the study of Ukrainian poetry and folklore were perceived by the government of Alexander II as a desire for isolation. In 1863, the Minister of Internal Affairs banned the printing of popular educational literature, staging plays and holding concerts in Ukrainian.

In the 1850-1860s. The idea of Belarusians as an independent people became stronger among the Belarusian intelligentsia. Literature began to be published in the Belarusian language.

Since Belarusians did not have their own higher educational institutions, they studied in St. Petersburg. It was in the capital of the empire that the first organization of the Belarusian intelligentsia, “Gomon,” arose. If the attempts of the intelligentsia to preserve and develop national culture did not find a positive response from the government, then on social issues it sometimes made concessions. Thus, the peasants of several provinces of Lithuania, Belarus and Right-Bank Ukraine were transferred to compulsory redemption, the lands cut off from their allotments were returned to them, and corvée and quitrents were reduced by 20%.

The government of Alexander II was forced to pursue a more flexible national policy in the Volga region. The policy of forced Christianization of the peoples of the Volga region did not bring the expected results. Some of the newly baptized returned to traditional religious beliefs.

In the 1860-1870s. XIX century a national intelligentsia was formed among the peoples of the Volga region. Teacher and writer Kayum Nasyri made a great contribution to the development of the culture of the Tatar people. He compiled a scientific grammar of the Tatar language, textbooks on mathematics, geography, history, and opened the first Russian-Tatar school in Kazan. Kayum Nasyri laid the foundation of the modern Tatar literary language.

The enlightener I. Ya. Yakovlev became the creator of modern Chuvash writing and literature, founded the Simbirsk Chuvash teacher's school.

Russian culture influenced the formation of national cultures. In particular, the Russian Physics and Mathematics Society, which arose at Kazan University, contributed to this matter. The university itself, where such famous Russian scientists as A. M. Butlerov, V. M. Bekhterev and others taught, and among whose graduates are the writers L. N. Tolstoy, S. T. Aksakov, I. I. Lazhechnikov , also had a beneficial effect on the development of Tatar culture.

At the same time, the government of Alexander II finally destroyed the administrative-political independence and national self-government of the German colonies in the Volga region.

In the 1860s, positive changes took place among the Jewish population. The practice of converting Jews to the Orthodox faith as a means of introducing the Jewish population to state life became a thing of the past. A new trend was the introduction of the Russian language into the Jewish environment. In the 1860s. Merchants of the first guild and holders of academic titles were allowed to live outside the Pale of Settlement. In Poland, Jews were allowed to purchase real estate. As a result, the stratum of Jewish entrepreneurs, as well as representatives of the creative intelligentsia, began to increase in number. However, the national policy of that period was characterized by selectivity and inconsistency.

So, in the 1870s. a number of restrictions on the rights of Jews followed again: Jewish representation in city councils was limited; The public schools created for Jews in 1844 were closed.

Jews were deprived of the right to settle outside cities and towns, even within the Pale of Settlement. They were prohibited from purchasing property in rural areas. Restrictions were introduced for Jewish children when entering educational institutions (the number of Jews in them should not exceed the established norm). There were restrictions on engaging in certain types of professional activities. However, these oppressions extended only to those Jews who did not convert to the Orthodox faith.

A number of monarchist publications promoted hostility towards Jews, influencing government policy.

The policy of tsarism in the Caucasus became more flexible. Here support was provided to the higher and middle clergy. A special court was composed of elected representatives of the mountain peoples, which was introduced to resolve cases “in the spirit of popular views.”

Minister of War D. A. Milyutin insisted not to affect the religion and customs of the highlanders, their way of life, and to try to coordinate Russian policy with the interests of the highlanders themselves. In the light of these ideas, the fate of the leader of the mountaineers of the North Caucasus, and now a prisoner, Shamil, was decided. He was brought to St. Petersburg with great honors, and he and his family were given a salary from the treasury. Shamil and his family were settled in Kaluga. Such an attitude of the government towards Shamil was supposed to strengthen the confidence of the mountain peoples in the king and remove their hostility.

Combining harsh pressure and liberal methods in its national policy, tsarism sought to preserve the unity of the multinational Russian state.

This task remained one of the main ones in the internal policy of Alexander III. The Emperor's closest adviser, Chief Prosecutor of the Holy Synod K. P. Pobedonostsev, assigning Orthodoxy a decisive role in strengthening the autocracy, sought to spread it among the non-Russian peoples of the empire.

Strict measures were applied to those who were officially listed as converts to Orthodoxy, but in fact continued to profess their former religion. Buddhists - Kalmyks and Buryats - were persecuted. They were forbidden to build temples or conduct worship services.

The national policy of tsarism in the Baltic states, Finland and Poland was also determined.

From the second half of the 1880s. compulsory teaching of academic disciplines in public and private educational institutions in Russian was introduced. In all Baltic institutions, office work was translated into Russian. Even the city of Dorpat in the early 1890s. the old Russian name was returned.

A similar policy was followed in Poland. There, Catholic Poles were denied access to government positions. Polish and Lithuanian languages disappeared from public schools.

In Finland, the correspondence of senior officials was translated into Russian. By decree of Alexander III, all local Finnish bills were to be submitted to the relevant ministries in St. Petersburg for consideration.

If the national policy of Alexander III was tightened in the Baltic states, Poland and Finland (where Russification was carried out), and also infringed on the rights of Jews, then a rather flexible course continued to be pursued in relation to the peoples of Central Asia.

The government and local Russian administration were tolerant of the beliefs and traditions of Muslim peoples. The local population was granted the right of internal self-government. The Russian authorities were able to win over both the wealthy elite and the working population of Central Asia. Representatives of the nobility who collaborated with the local Russian administration were encouraged with monetary rewards. Taxes were reduced for workers willing to cooperate, and medical care was provided to women and children.

In 1886, Muslims were given equal rights with the Russian population.

At the same time, changes occurred in the mood of Muslim peoples. On the one hand, there was an awareness of one’s linguistic and religious isolation; on the other hand, interest in Russian culture and language grew, which was greatly facilitated by the increase and strengthening of commercial and industrial ties and military service. A number of Muslim schools taught native and Russian languages, geography, history, natural sciences, etc. Some Muslims inextricably linked their development and national revival with Russia.

We present to your attention an excerpt from the article by Ya.E. Vodarsky and V.M. Kabuzan “Territory and population of Russia in the 15th-18th centuries,” dedicated to the ethnic and religious composition of the population of the Russian Empire in the 18th century. The article was published in the collection Russian Empire. From the origins to the beginning of the 19th century. Essays in Socio-Political and Economic History.

--
In the 18th century, the ethnic and religious composition of the Russian population underwent very significant changes. This, first of all, was facilitated by the expansion of the country’s borders, the inclusion of large territories with a diverse national composition (Lithuania, Belarus, the Baltic states, Right Bank Ukraine, Crimea). However, even at the constant boundaries of the 1720s, the number and, most importantly, the proportion of peoples living there did not remain unchanged. Internal migrations, the influx of immigrants from abroad and abroad, various indicators of natural increase and, finally, assimilation processes contributed to this. Changes in the confessional composition were determined not only by the annexation of new lands to Russia, but also by the mass Christianization of the peoples of the Volga and Urals region in the 40-50s and Siberia in the 80-90s of the 18th century.

Table No. 1 clearly demonstrates changes in the number and proportion of the main peoples of the empire in the 18th century.

Table No. 1.
The size and ethnic composition of the population of the Russian Empire according to the I (1719) and V (1795) audits

The main ethnic group of the country were Russians. Their share from 1719 to 1795 decreased from 70.7 to 48.9%, and within the 1720s - from 70.7 to 68.5%. This phenomenon was caused mainly by a reduced level of natural growth in the central Great Russian regions. In the 18th century, the role of Russians in settling the outskirts was extremely high. The share of Russians in the country's population is also decreasing slightly in the main regions of their indigenous habitat (in the Central Industrial Region - from 97.7 to 96.2%, in the Northern Region - from 92.0 to 91.3%, in the Central Agricultural Region - from 90 .6% to 87.4%, in the Northern Urals - from 90.8% to 84.0%) These were either regions where other peoples intensively migrated (Ukrainians - to the Black Earth Center, peoples of the Volga region - to the Northern Urals), or territories of significant eviction of Russians (Northern Urals). In the outskirts of Novorossiya, the share of Russians dropped from 90.6% to 19.1% as it was rapidly settled by Ukrainians from the 1730s.
But in many other outlying regions the picture turned out to be different. In the Lower Volga region, the proportion of Russians has increased from 12.6 to 70.7%, and it is turning into a Russian ethnic territory. And this despite the influx of German colonists here in the 60s. A similar situation was observed in the neighboring North Caucasus (without its mountainous part), where the share of Russians increased from 3.4 to 53.1%. In the Southern Urals there were only 15.2% Russians in 1719 (and the Bashkirs absolutely dominated here). And in 1795 they turned out to be 40.8%, although the Tatars, Mordovians and Chuvashs of the neighboring Middle Volga region took an active part in settling the region. In Left Bank Ukraine, the share of Russians increased from 2.3 to 5.2%, although there was no significant relocation of Russians here from the central provinces. Among the Russians, the indigenous inhabitants of Sloboda Ukraine predominated (who lived here even before the Ukrainians arrived here), as well as the Old Believers who settled in the north of the Chernihiv region. In Siberia, the proportion of Russians increased from 66.9 to 69.3%, mainly due to the migration movement (the influx of not only free migrants, but also exiles). In other regions (the Baltics, Right Bank Ukraine, Lithuania) there were few Russians. In other words, in the 18th century, thanks to migration, the Russian ethnic territory within the borders of the empire expanded significantly. The share of Ukrainians in Russia from 1719 to 1795 increased from 12.9 to 19.8%, and within the borders of 1719 - to 16.1%. This was due, first of all, to the inclusion of Right Bank Ukraine (a region where the share of Ukrainians was close to 90%) in the empire, as well as high natural growth in Novorossiya and Sloboda Ukraine. Ukrainians quickly settled new lands within the borders of the empire. At the beginning of the century, they lived compactly only in Left Bank Ukraine (95.9%), in the Agricultural Center (8.5%), and Novorossiya (9.4%). Ukrainians populate Novorossiya, their share here rises to 52.2%. They began to develop the North Caucasus and the Lower Volga region, amounting to 18.3 and 7.2%, respectively, in 1795; but they did not become the predominant ethnic component here. But in general, in the 18th century, the Ukrainian ethnic territory in Russia expanded significantly at the expense of New Russia and certain regions of the North Caucasus and the Agricultural Center.
Belarusians occupied a special place. In 1719, within the then borders of Russia, they reached 2.4% of the inhabitants of the empire, and in 1795 on the same territory - 2.3%. They were located in the Smolensk province (61.5%), on the Left Bank Ukraine (1.9%) and in the Non-Black Earth Center (1.2%). The main territories inhabited by Belarusians became part of the empire in 1772-1795 under three sections of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. At the end of the century, the Belarusian lands are united within the then borders of Russia, and their share in the empire’s population rises to 8.3%, and in the Belarusian-Lithuanian region reaches 62.4%.

At the beginning of the 18th century, Germans lived in noticeable numbers only in the Baltic states (6.1% of its population), making up only 0.2% of the total number of all inhabitants in the country. However, since the 1760s, German settlers appeared in many regions of the country. In the 60s they settled in the Lower Volga region and by 1795 they reached 3.8% of all its inhabitants. The settlement of New Russia by Germans begins (0.3% of its population in 1795). Throughout the empire, their share in 1795 increased to 0.6%, and at the turn of the 1720s - to 0.3%.
In 1719, there were practically no Poles in the empire; in 1795, they already made up 6.2% of its population. Their share reached 7.8% in Right Bank Ukraine, and 5.4% in Belarus and Lithuania.
The Tatars were located in many regions of Russia. Their share in the 18th century actually did not change (1.9% of the population), and at the turn of the century it even increased from 1.9 to 2.1%. This was due to a higher level of natural growth, as well as their assimilation of a number of other peoples of the region. At the beginning of the 18th century, the Tatars were located mainly in the Middle Volga region (13.4%), Southern Urals (13.3%) and Siberia (5.8%). Thanks to migrations, by the end of the century their share in the Lower Volga region increased (in 1795 year - 4.4%), Southern Urals (14.4%), Northern Urals (2%) and Northern Caucasus (21.2%). In the Middle Volga region, from where many Tatars migrated to neighboring regions, their share decreases from 13.4 to 12.3%. In Novorossiya in 1795, Tatars made up 10.3% of all residents. They were located in the Tauride province.

The share of the Chuvash in the country from the I to the V revision decreased from 1.4 to 0.9%, and at the turn of the 18th century - from 1.4 to 1.2%. In the 1720s, they lived only in the Middle Volga region (13.8%) and in very small numbers in the Southern Urals (0.03%). They were mainly located on the territory of the future Kazan (23.3%) and Simbirsk (12.9%) provinces. From here they intensively migrate to the Southern Urals and by the end of the century reach 5.2% of the population of this region. In the Middle Volga region from 1719 to 1795, their share decreased from 13.8 to 12.7%. This was caused not only by the migration of large groups of Chuvash from here, but also by their assimilation by the Tatars mainly in the 40-50s. Then a number of Chuvash, who did not want to accept Orthodoxy, converted to Mohammedanism and merged with the Tatars.
At the beginning of the 18th century, Mordovians lived in three regions: the Middle Volga region (4.9% of the total population), the Industrial Center (0.4%) and the Agricultural Center (0.3%). In general, in the empire the proportion of Mordovians reached 0.7% of the total population. By 1795, the share of Mordovians in the country increased to 0.8%, and within the borders of the 20s - to 1.2%. Their percentage is increasing in all regions: Central Industrial - from 0.4 to 0.7%, Central Agricultural - from 0.3 to 0.5%, and in the Middle Volga region - from 4.9 to 7.3%.
In general, in the 18th century, the number, share, and areas of settlement of the peoples of Russia changed significantly. The main factors that had a decisive influence on the course of this process were different levels of natural growth and far from equal participation in the migration movement. It was in the 18th century that the Russian, Ukrainian and Tatar ethnic territories greatly expanded. Unfortunately, a significant part of the Russian ethnic territory formed in this century later, during the collapse of the USSR, found itself outside the borders of Russia (in Novorossiya, Southern Siberia, etc.).

No less significant changes have occurred in the religious composition of the population of the Russian Empire and Russia in its current borders and in the 18th century (see table No. 2).

Table 2. Religious composition of the population within the borders of the Russian Empire and modern Russia in the 18th century according to the results of audit and church records

Within the borders of the entire empire from the I to the V revision, mainly due to the annexation of new territories, the proportion of Orthodox Christians (from 84.5 to 72.0% of all residents) and Mohammedans (from 6.5 to 5.0%) decreases. The share of pagans is falling very strongly, but already in connection with mass baptism (from 4.9 to 0.8%). And at the same time, the percentage of Protestants increases (from 4.1 to 5.5%) and representatives of new faiths appear: Judaism (in 1795 - 2.3%), Roman Catholics (10.6%), Armenian-Gregorians ( 0.1%) and Uniates (3.7%). Russia is turning into a country with a diverse, multi-confessional composition. However, the Orthodox remain absolutely predominant in the empire, even at the turn of the 19th century they reached 72% (30.9 million people) of all the country's inhabitants. At the beginning of the 18th century, Russians, Ukrainians and most of the Belarusians, as well as a number of old-baptized ethnic groups of the northern regions (Karelians, Komi, Izhoras, etc.) were Orthodox. About 80% of all Orthodox Christians in the world lived within the borders of the empire.

By the end of the 18th century, many peoples of the Volga and Ural regions (Mordovians, Mari, Chuvash, Udmurts) came to Orthodoxy. Thanks to migration, a significant Protestant - mainly German - community appears in the country.
At the constant beginning of the 18th century in Russia, the share of Orthodox Christians was growing (from 85.4% in 1719 to 89.6% in 1795), the share of Protestants remained almost unchanged (1719 - 1.2%, 1795 - 1.1%) and Mohammedans (1719 - 7.6%, 1795 - 7.8%) and sharply decreases among pagans (1719 - 5.8%, 1795 - 1.5% ).
The fact is that in the 1740-1760s in Russia the baptism of the pagan population of the Volga region and the Urals (Mordovians, Chuvash, Mari, Udmurts) was successfully carried out. This process little affected the Mohammedans - the Tatars, and did not affect the Bashkirs at all. Mass baptism began after Luka Konashevich, who was distinguished by his extraordinary zeal for the faith, was appointed bishop of Kazan in 1738. In 1740, he created the “Office of Newly Baptized Affairs” at the Sviyazhsk Mother of God Monastery, which began converting the local population to Orthodoxy. If in the 1920s in the four provinces where baptism took place, 3.2% of all Gentiles (13.5 thousand) were converted to Orthodoxy, then in 1745 - 16.4% (79.1 thousand male souls) ) and in 1762 - 44.8% (246.0 thousand male souls). This process affected, first of all, the Kazan province (I revision - 4.7%, III - 67.2%). In the Nizhny Novgorod, Voronezh and especially Orenburg provinces, the number of baptized people was relatively small. That is why the absolute number of pagans in Russia in 1719 was 794 thousand people, of both sexes, and in 1762 - only 369 thousand people.

This selection of photographs is dedicated to the ethnic diversity of the Russian Empire, which the photographer deliberately tried to capture.
The peoples represented in his photographs are given in alphabetical order in accordance with modern Russian names and necessary comments.
To compile this review oldcolor it was necessary to do some research work, since before 1917 many peoples in Russia were called completely differently, sometimes nationality is not indicated in the control album at all, but it was possible to determine it from other sources. In some cases, the author's signatures with the names of nationalities in the control album turned out to be mixed up with each other: “Armenian women” became “Georgian women” and vice versa, but we managed to sort this out too.
Unfortunately, not all photographs were preserved in color and some were not preserved at all. For example, according to List 416, Prokudin-Gorsky had a sketch of a gypsy woman.

1. Avars.
"Avarki." Aul Arakani in Dagestan. 1904:

Prokudin-Gorsky has a wonderful series of ethnographic photographs of Dagestan, but all of them are signed in the control album retroactively as “Types of Dagestan.” Fortunately, List 416 (compiled in 1905) preserves the original author's titles for some of them. The title “Avarki” suits this photo. Until now, representatives of this nationality, if I’m not mistaken, predominate among the residents of the village of Arakani.

Probably Avars (if not Lezgins) are represented in two other remarkable photographs from the village of Arakani:

It still remains a mystery how Prokudin-Gorsky came to Dagestan in 1904 and for what purpose these ethnographic surveys were intended:

It is also paradoxical that the most successful and high-quality photographs of people in the entire collection were taken in 1904, even before Prokudin-Gorsky invented an improved sensitizer (1905), which made it possible to reduce exposure time.

2. Azerbaijanis.
Before the revolution they were called “Baku Tatars”, and Prokudin-Gorsky’s only close-up with representatives of this nationality is signed as “Persian Tatars”:

The photograph was taken in the village of Saatly in the Mugan steppe (Baku province), which Prokudin-Gorsky apparently photographed in 1912 in connection with the cotton project.
Here's the entire photo:

3. Armenians.
Although Prokudin-Gorsky did not reach the territory of the modern Republic of Armenia, he took remarkable photographs of Armenian women in the Artvin district of the Batumi region in March 1912.
"Armenian (Christian) women in ordinary costume":

Armenian woman in festive attire. Artvin, 1912:

4. Bashkirs.
In the summer of 1910, Prokudin-Gorsky made a remarkable series of ethnographic photographs in the Bashkir village of Yahya on the border of modern Bashkortostan with the Chelyabinsk region. Now on maps it is indicated by the Russified toponym Yakhino.
"Young Bashkir":

"Bashkir woman in national costume":

On the other side of modern admin. border, already on the territory of the modern Chelyabinsk region, two photographs were taken with the title “Bashkir Switchman”.

5. Belarusians.
Prokudin-Gorsky filmed on the territory of modern Belarus in connection with the anniversary of 1812, so he paid almost no attention to ethnography.
There is only one photo with a Belarusian peasant woman - “At the harvest. Near the village of Bychi”:

Unfortunately, the whereabouts of the color original of this photograph remain unknown.

6. Greeks.
As is known, since Antiquity and Byzantium, Greeks have lived in the northern Black Sea region. During a visit to the village of Chakva (Chakvi) in the Batumi region in the summer of 1912, Prokudin-Gorsky took the photograph “Group of workers picking tea. Greek women”:

7. Georgians.
Prokudin-Gorsky has three beautiful ethnographic photographs of Georgian women in elegant costumes.
Here is one of them - “Georgian women in festive attire”:

The photo was mistakenly pasted among Artvin’s photographs above the caption “Armenian women in festive attire,” but it is easy to notice that the photo shows benches in the Borjomi Mineral Park, standing near the Catherine Spring.

Georgian woman in national dress, Borjomi Park, 1912:

"Georgian - Tomato Trader", 1912:

This is a fragment of a photograph (not very successful technically) taken somewhere between Dagomys and Sochi. Prokudin-Gorsky's only portrait of a man of Georgian nationality.

8. Jews.
"Group of Jewish boys with a teacher. Samarkand", 1911:

9. Cossacks.
The Cossacks are not a nationality in the full sense; they were still a special class, however, with a high degree of ethno-cultural identity, so they can be called a subethnic group of the Russian people.
Prokudin-Gorsky has a photograph with the author’s title “Dzhigit Ibrahim”. It was made in 1911 in the royal estate of Bayram-Ali, Merv district, Transcaspian region (now it is the Mary velayat of Turkmenistan):

The horseman's uniform is Cossack. Just in 1911, the 1st Caucasian Prince Potemkin-Tavrichesky Kuban Cossack Regiment was stationed in the Merv oasis. Judging by his name (if it is real) and appearance, this Cossack is an Ossetian or a representative of another mountain people.
By the way, at that time the Cossacks who had special training in horse riding were called horsemen.

10. Kazakhs.
Until 1936, the Kazakhs were officially called “Kyrgyz”.
In 1911, in the Hungry Steppe (now the territory of Uzbekistan), Prokudin-Gorsky captured a Kazakh family, calling the picture “Nomadic Kirghiz”:

11. Karelians.
In 1916, during a trip along the Murmansk railway on the territory of modern Karelia, Prokudin-Gorsky took the photograph “Types of Karelian”:

And even earlier, in 1909, in the territory of what is now the Leningrad region, he made a series of ethnographic photographs of women in Karelian folk costume. Unfortunately, they were also not preserved in color.

12. Chinese.
The Chinese were not uncommon in the Russian Empire.
In 1912, in the Batumi region, Prokudin-Gorsky made a wonderful photographic portrait - “Tea factory in Chakva. Chinese master Lau-Jan-Jau”:

This is a legendary personality, one of the “fathers” of Georgian tea growing, you can find a very detailed story about him on the Internet.
Batumi director Zaur Margiev made a documentary about him, “The Second Homeland of the Chinese Lau”: http://zaurmargiev.sitecity.ru/stext_3110214857.phtml
In addition, Prokudin-Gorsky has a photograph with Chinese doctors on Registan Square in Samarkand.

13. Kyrgyz.
Before the revolution, they were called “Kara-Kirghiz” (and Kazakhs were simply called Kirghiz). Prokudin-Gorsky never mentions the name “Kara-Kirghiz”, but it seems that there are several photographs with representatives of this people.
For example, on the territory of modern Kyrgyzstan a photograph was taken with the caption “Bashkirs”:

Before 1917, there was indeed a Bashkir community in Central Asia, but in this case, I believe, Prokudin-Gorsky called the Kyrgyz “Bashkir”.
The photo with the rider was not preserved in color. However, perhaps there is still a color photo with a representative of Kyrgyz nationality. I mean the photograph "Hungry Steppe and Fat-tailed Sheep." Fragment. 1911:

Although it could have been a Kazakh, of course.

14. Kurds.
A relatively small number of Kurds lived within the borders of the Russian Empire in the Caucasus. Prokudin-Gorsky couldn’t pass by and paid special attention to them.
"Kurdish woman with children." Village of Kvartskhan, Artvinsky district, Batumi region, 1912:

Not long ago it turned out that there was another photo from the missing part of the collection:

This is a reproduction of a Prokudin photograph from the book “South Colchis: An Essay by Prof. A. N. Krasnov.” Petrograd, 1915.

15. Lezgins.
In List 416, Prokudin-Gorsky mentions a photograph with the title “Lezgin”.
With a high degree of probability, this is the original author's title for this photo:

Filmed in Dagestan in 1904, possibly in the same village of Arakani.

16. Russians.
Until 1917, it was customary to call all descendants of the Old Russian people Russian. Those who are now officially called “Russians” in the Russian Empire were called representatives of the “Great Russian people” or simply “Great Russians”.
Prokudin-Gorsky took a lot of ethnographic photographs of the Great Russians, so a separate review will be devoted to them.
Here we will show only the most beautiful, poetic photograph - “Lunch in the Mow”, taken on the banks of the Sheksna River (modern Cherepovets district) in 1909:

17. Tajiks.
Before the revolution, the entire settled population of Turkestan was called “Sarts,” and Prokudin-Gorsky signed his photographs in the same way.
Most of the city's Sarts were ethnic Tajiks, identifiable by their more Caucasian facial features (Uzbeks are usually mixed racial).
In terms of the total number of photographs, Prokudin-Gorsky’s sarts are second only to the Great Russians (and perhaps even surpass them).
Here is one of the photographs taken in Samarkand in 1911:

In my opinion, these are ethnic Tajiks, but I am not completely sure, the nationalities are too mixed up in this “melting pot”.
It is impossible to determine what nationality of the Sartyan women in the photographs of Prokudin-Gorsky, since he took them in traditional attire:

18. Tatars.
As far as is known, Prokudin-Gorsky did not film on the territory of modern Tatarstan. However, on the territory of the present Chelyabinsk region in 1910, a photograph was taken entitled “Tatars at the Fire.” Here is its fragment:

19. Turks.
Many Turks lived in the Batumi region after its annexation to Russia in 1878. As A.N. wrote. Krasnov, the Turks lived completely separately, with almost no contact with the Russians and without adopting anything from them, in the hope of a quick return to their former homeland.
Prokudin-Gorsky photographed the Turks in the Batum and Artvin region in 1912.
True, in Batum these could also be Adjarian Muslims, in the photo “Mullahs in the Azizia Mosque. Batum”:

The author himself indicated the nationality of “Turks” only for one of the photographs, which belongs to the missing part of the collection and is available to us only in book reproductions:

20. Turkmens.
Prokudin-Gorsky photographed a lot of Turkmen in the Trans-Caspian region in 1911, on the territory of the royal estate in Bayram-Ali.
True, he called them “Tekins”. Strictly speaking, this is the name of the main Turkmen tribe, but the photographer clearly used the term in a generalized sense.
Here is one of the most interesting pictures - “Tekin with his family”:

21. Uzbeks.
Although Prokudin-Gorsky took a record number of ethnographic photographs on the territory of modern Uzbekistan, it is not easy to understand who the ethnic Uzbeks are in them, since everyone is signed “Sarts”.
It seems that these students in the photograph of a madrasah in Samarkand (January 1907) have an “Uzbek” type of face:

The Emir of Bukhara from the famous photograph was certainly an Uzbek.

Prisoners in Bukhara, 1907:

22. Ukrainians.
Before the revolution they were called “Little Russians” in Russia. Prokudin-Gorsky in 1904 took a series of beautiful photographs in the Putivl district of the Kursk province (transferred from the RSFSR to the Ukrainian SSR in 1924). In the album, all these photographs are signed in the same way, “In Little Russia,” however, thanks to the author’s postcards and List 416, it was possible to clarify the location of the shooting.
Little Russian. Near Putivl, Kursk province, 1904:

There is another portrait of a woman, which was preserved in color only on a postcard:

23. Finns.
As we remember, Prokudin-Gorsky made his very first photographic expedition (apparently in the fall of 1903) to Finland, which was then nominally part of the Russian Empire.
So the Finns became the very first in the series of ethnographic surveys, although they are the last in our alphabet.
Unfortunately, none of these photographs have been preserved in the original.
There is a color book reproduction:

And a black and white control from the album - “Finn Digging Potatoes”:

Peoples of the Russian Empire in the second half of the 19th century. Abstract: National composition of the Russian Empire

Table No. 1.The size and ethnic composition of the population of the Russian Empire according to the I (1719) and V (1795) audits

But in many other outlying regions the picture turned out to be different. In the Lower Volga region, the proportion of Russians has increased from 12.6 to 70.7%, and it is turning into a Russian ethnic territory.

Belarusians occupied a special place. In 1719, within the then borders of Russia, they reached 2.4% of the inhabitants of the empire, and in 1795 on the same territory - 2.3%.

In 1719, there were practically no Poles in the empire; in 1795, they already made up 6.2% of its population.

At the beginning of the 18th century, the Tatars were located mainly in the Middle Volga region (13.4%), the Southern Urals (13.3%) and Siberia (5.8%).

The share of the Chuvash in the country from the I to the V revision decreased from 1.4 to 0.9%, and at the turn of the 18th century - from 1.4 to 1.2%.

In general, in the 18th century, the number, share, and areas of settlement of the peoples of Russia changed significantly.

Table 2. Religious composition of the population within the borders of the Russian Empire and modern Russia in the 18th century according to the results of audit and church records

Russia is turning into a country with a diverse, multi-religious composition.

Mass baptism began after Luka Konashevich, who was distinguished by his extraordinary zeal for the faith, was appointed bishop of Kazan in 1738.

Crewings

Sayan Samoyeds

Teptyari

Tubans

Turalinians

Table No. 1.
The size and ethnic composition of the population of the Russian Empire according to the I (1719) and V (1795) audits