Fundamentals of General Biology - Ed. Libbert E

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE

RUSSIAN FEDERATION

FEDERAL STATE BUDGET EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION

HIGHER PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION

"VYATSK STATE UNIVERSITY"

Department of Biology

Department of Microbiology

I.V. DARMOV

General biology

Lecture course

Tutorial

Approved by the editorial and publishing commission of the methodological council of the Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education "Vyatka State University" as a textbook for students of the direction 020400.62 "Biology" of all training profiles

Reviewers:

Associate Professor, Department of Biotechnology, Vyatka State University,

Candidate of Biological Sciences O. N. Shupletsova;

Chief Researcher of the Research Center 33 Central Research Institute of the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation, Kirov, Doctor of Biological Sciences, Professor V.B. Kalininsky

Darmov, I.V.

UDC 573(07)

The textbook is intended for students of the direction 020400.62 “Biology” of all training profiles studying the discipline “General Biology”.

Those. editor E.V. Kaygorodtseva

1.Biology as a science. Properties of living systems……………………………...4

2.Basics of cytology. Prokaryotes……………………………………………………..17

3.Basics of cytology. Eukaryotes. Membrane components…………….21

4.Basics of cytology. Eukaryotes. Non-membrane components…....……..29

5.Asexual reproduction. Mitosis………………………………………………………..34

6. Sexual reproduction. Meiosis………………………...………………………43

7. Basic patterns of heredity……………………...……54

8. Main patterns of variability……………………………...…64

9.Biological diversity…………………………………………….79

List of sources used……………………………….…….105

Lecture No. 1

Lecture topic: Biology as a science . Properties of living systems.

Lecture outline:

1. Biology as a science

2. Methods of biology

3. Basic concepts of biology

4. Levels of organization of living things

5. Basic properties of living systems

6. Modern definition of a living organism and life

1. Biology as a science

Biology (Greek bios- life, logos- word, doctrine) - a set of sciences about life, about living nature. Biology subject - structure of living organisms, their functions, origin, development, relationships with the environment. Along with physics, chemistry, astronomy, geology, etc. refers to natural sciences.

Biology is one of the oldest sciences, although this term appeared only in 1797 (its author was the German professor of anatomy T. Ruz (1771-1803). Aristotle (384-322 BC) is often called the "Father of Biology" belongs to the first classification of animals.

What are peculiarities biology as a science?

1.1 Biology closely associated with philosophy. This is due to the fact that of the 3 fundamental problems of natural science, 2 are the subject of biological research.

1. The problem of the origin of the Universe, space, nature in general (physics and astronomy deal with it).

2. The problem of the origin of life, i.e. living from non-living.

3. The problem of the origin of Reason and man as its carrier.

The solution to these issues is closely related to the solution fundamental question of philosophy: what comes first – matter or consciousness? Therefore, philosophical aspects occupy a significant place in biology.

1.2. The connection between biology and social and ethical issues.

Social Darwinism, for example, transfers the concept of “natural selection” to human society; differences between classes are explained by biological factors.

Other examples: racism, organ transplants, aging.

1.3. Deep specialization biology.

As a result of differentiation of biology by object of study private biological sciences arose: botany, zoology, microbiology (bacteriology, virology, mycology, etc.).

Another division of biological sciences is by levels of organization and properties of living matter: genetics (heredity), cytology (cellular level), anatomy and physiology (structure and functioning of organisms), ecology (relationships of organisms with the environment), etc.

As a result integration with other sciences arose: biochemistry, biophysics, radiobiology, space biology, etc.

Those. biology is a complex of sciences, and general biology deals with the study of the most general laws of the structure, life activity, development, and origin of living organisms. Main question question that general biology is trying to answer is, what is life?

1.4. Currently, biology, while remaining theoretical basis knowledge of living things becomes directly productive force , gives rise to new technologies: biotechnology, genetic and cellular engineering, etc.

What is the science of biology? Speaking in simple language, is the study of life in all its diversity and grandeur. From microscopic algae and bacteria to large elephants and giant blue whales, life on our planet is incredibly diverse. Taking this into account, where do we borrow from, what is living? What are the main characteristics of life? All this is very important questions with equally important answers!

Characteristics of life

Living beings are treated as visible, and, and invisible world bacteria and viruses. On basic level we can say that life is orderly. Organisms have an extremely complex organization. We are all familiar with the intricate systems of the basic cell.

Life can "work". I will introduce not a daily variety of work, but the maintenance of metabolic processes by obtaining energy in the form of food from the environment.

Life grows and develops. This means more than just copying or increasing size. Living organisms also have the ability to recover from certain types of damage.

Life can reproduce. Have you ever seen dirt or rocks multiply? Most likely not! Life can only come from other living beings.

Life can react. Think about the last time you hit any part of your body. A painful reaction follows almost instantly. Life is characterized by reactions to various stimuli and external stimuli.

Finally, life can adapt and respond requirements imposed by the environment.

There are three main types of adaptations that can arise in higher organisms:

Reversible changes occur in response to changes in the environment. Let's say you live near sea level and travel to a mountainous area. You may begin to experience difficulty breathing and an increase in your heart rate as a result of the change in altitude. These symptoms disappear as you return to sea level.
Somatic changes occur as a result lasting changes in the environment. Using the previous example, if you stay in a mountainous area for a long time, you will notice that your heartbeat will begin to slow down and you will begin to breathe normally. Somatic changes are also reversible.
The final type of adaptation is called genotypic (caused genetic mutation). These changes occur in the genetic makeup of the organism and are not reversible. An example is the development of pesticide resistance in insects and spiders.

Thus, life is organized, “works,” grows, reproduces, responds to stimuli, and adapts. These characteristics underlie the study of science general biology.

Basic principles of modern biology

The foundation of the science of biology as it exists today is based on five basic principles. These are cell theory, gene theory, evolution, homeostasis and the laws of thermodynamics.

: All living organisms are made up of cells. is the basic unit of life.
: Traits are inherited through the transmission of genes. located on and composed of DNA.
: Anything in a population that is inherited over several generations. These changes may be small or large, noticeable or not so noticeable.
: ability to maintain constant internal environment in response to environmental changes.

The science of patterns that are common to all living things. She learns general laws life and those features that are characteristic of all types of living beings, regardless of their systematic position. What is the difference between living and nonliving things, what are the basic and common patterns of life phenomena for all organisms - the answer to these questions is the task of general biology.

The exchange of substances and energy between the organism and the environment, the ability to reproduce, heredity and variability are integral properties of all organisms. These properties are the basis of evolution - the irreversible historical development of living nature, which is accompanied by the adaptation of organisms to living conditions, the formation and extinction of species, the transformation of biogeocenoses and the biosphere as a whole. As a result of evolution, a diverse world of living beings has arisen.

There are several structural and functional levels of the organization of life (living matter). The lower, most ancient one is suborganismal. This is the level of molecular structures where the border between living and nonliving passes. The next level is cellular. The cell, its structures and basic biochemical processes are similar in all organisms. This is followed by the level of the whole organism. The inherent properties of all organisms are the ability to reproduce, heredity and variability. A more complex level of life organization is population-specific. Highest level- ecosystem, biosphere-biogeocenotic, in which communities of animal and plant populations together with their habitat form a functional and structural unity. The integrity of ecosystems (biogeocenoses, biosphere) is determined by the exchange of substances and energy between its components.

General biology studies the laws characteristic of all levels of life organization. The importance of this discipline is extremely great both in the formation of a materialistic worldview and in a number of vital areas human activity. She is gaining more and more practical significance For Agriculture, forestry and fishing industries, biotechnology, medicine, for the rational use of natural resources and nature conservation.

Biology serves as the theoretical basis for agricultural production. Many of its sections are directly related to crop and livestock production. Providing for an ever-increasing population globe food is impossible without the creation of new high-yielding varieties of agricultural crops and productive breeds pets. This can be achieved only by knowing the laws of heredity and variability. Thanks to discoveries in molecular biology, biotechnology is developing - the production of enzymes, hormones, feed proteins, amino acids with the help of microorganisms. Increasing land fertility, creating conditions for obtaining sustainable programmed harvests - these environmental problems must be solved by agronomists-biologists.

Biology studies the biological form of the movement of matter, that is, the totality of organisms living on earth, including humans. Due to the huge diversity of living things on Earth, biology is a complex of various biological sciences and includes botany, mycology (the science of fungi), zoology, a complex of sciences about humans as a biological object, general biology and other sciences. Below we discuss general ideas about biology and its components.

Biology is a complex of sciences that studies all living matter and the organisms formed by it.

What sciences does biology include:

Botany is a science that studies the biological characteristics of plants. The totality of all plants on Earth is called the Earth's flora. Traditionally, together with plants, botany courses study fungi and viruses, which in the strict sense do not belong to plants, but belong to other kingdoms of organisms. Thus, mushrooms form a special kingdom, Mushrooms, and the science of mushrooms is called mycology.

Zoology is the science that studies the animal kingdom.

The totality of all animals inhabiting the Earth is called the fauna of the Earth. It is customary to talk about the fauna of a particular area, a particular region, etc.

The biological characteristics of man are studied by a whole complex of sciences: anatomy, human hygiene (despite the fact that man is a structural unit of the kingdom of Animals, he belongs to the order of primates, the family of apes, the genus man, the species Homo sapiens).

General biology is a special branch of biology that studies the most general patterns biological form of existence of matter.

At the present stage of development of biology, general biology is a complex of sciences consisting of separate, quite independent, but closely interrelated sciences: molecular biology, cytology, theory of development and reproduction, genetics, selection, evolutionary theory, ecology. In the subject General Biology, these sciences are presented in the form of sections, which in the course General Biology with the Fundamentals of Ecology and Environmental Activities are as follows:

1. Cytology is a section that studies the cell, its chemical composition, biochemical processes occurring in the cell, the structure and functions of individual cell organelles.

2. The doctrine of individual development - ontogenesis - a section that includes the doctrine of the reproduction and development of organisms (closely related to cytology).

3. Genetics with the basics of selection - a section that examines the patterns of heredity, variability, their material carriers (genetics), principles and methods for breeding new breeds of animals, plant varieties and strains of microorganisms (selection); theoretical basis selection is genetics.

4. Evolutionary doctrine (theory) - a section that studies phylogeny ( historical development species); integral part this doctrine is Darwinism; The basis of this doctrine (theory) is genetics, selection and other biological sciences.

5. Ecology with the basics of environmental protection - a section that examines the relationship of organisms with each other, the environment, as well as the human impact on Nature and ways to overcome negative consequences this impact.

General biology is closely interconnected with the complex of medical and agricultural sciences, being, on the one hand, their basis, and on the other, these sciences provide rich factual material to illustrate general biological laws. Knowledge and understanding of issues of general biology is impossible without knowledge of mathematics, chemistry, physics, geology, astronomy, philosophy and other sciences in the natural and humanities. So, without knowing the basics organic chemistry It is impossible to understand either molecular biology, or the problems of metabolism underlying ecology, or questions of cytology. All this makes it necessary to deeply assimilate knowledge of both a general biological nature and knowledge of other sciences, natural sciences, mathematics and the humanities.

Knowledge of general biological concepts and laws is of great importance for every person, since they are the basis for understanding the basic problems of ecology (as a special branch of knowledge), without mastering which modern man will not be able to survive in the ever-increasing complexity ecological situation on our planet.

Basics of general biology- Ed. Libbert E. - 1982.

Book of scientists from the GDR under general edition E. Libbert, already known to the Soviet reader. The book provides in a systematic form basic information on general issues biology (features of the organization of living matter, metabolism, genetic code, heredity and variability, reproduction processes, embryogenesis, regulatory mechanisms, animal behavior, evolution, ecological relationships).
Intended for biologists of all specialties, university students of medical, agricultural and veterinary institutes, secondary school biology teachers and specialists in related fields.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Translation Editor's Preface 5
Preface to the Fourth Edition 6
Preface to the first edition 7
Introduction 9
Brief historical sketch of the problem of life 13
Chapter 1. Basic principles of organization of living systems.... 17
1.1. Living matter 17
1.2. Energy 22
1.3. Information 38
Chapter 2: Chemical Building Blocks 50
2.1. Chemical bonds and interactions between molecules. . 50
2.2. Squirrels 52
2.3. Nucleic acids 59
2.4. Carbohydrates 68
2.5. Lipids 72
Chapter 3. Cell as a structural unit 75
3.1. Cell. general review 75
3.2. Cytoplasm - matrix - cytosol 81
3.3 Ribosomes 82
3.4. Membranes 83
3.5. Cell nucleus 88
3.6. Plasmids 101
3.7. Mitochondria and plastids 101
3.8. Endomembrane system 114
3.9. Microfilaments and intracellular movements.... 124
3.10. Tubular (tubular) structures 126
3.11. Paraplasmic (ergastic) inclusions. . . . 131
3.12. Cell wall 132
Chapter 4. Metabolism and energy in the cell 139
4.1. Biocatalysis 140
4.2. Exchange of substances between the cell and the environment. . 143
4.3. Dissimilation as a source of energy 148
4.4. Assimilation 160
4.5. Metabolism of fats and proteins 174
4.6. Regulation of enzyme activity 175
Chapter 5. Implementation of genetic information 183
5.1. Gene action 184
5.2. From polypeptide to feature 192
5.3. Regulation of gene activity 194
5.4. Modifications 200
5.5. Allele relationships 201
5.6. Polygenic inheritance and pleiotropy 201
Chapter 6. Replication and segregation of genetic material. . . 203
6.1. DNA Replication 203
6.2. Cell division in bacteria 206
6.3. Cell division and nuclei in eukaryotes 206
Chapter 7. Organism 210
7.1. Cage (brief repetition of basic information) .... 210
7.2. From single-celled organisms to multicellular.... 212
7.3. From egg to multicellular organism 229
7.4. Differentiation 233
7.5. Biological aging 237
7.6. Hormones 239
Chapter 8. Reproduction 244
8.1. Asexual reproduction 244
8.2. Sexual reproduction (gamogony) 246
8.3. Alternation of generations 251
Chapter 9. Excitability - movement-behavior 258
9.1. Excitability (irritability) 258
9.2. Movement (mobility) 273
9.3. Behavior 281
Chapter 10. Hereditary changes 293
10.1. Mutations 293
10.2. Recombinations 304
Chapter 11. Evolution 319
11.1. Essence of Evolution 319
11.2. Factors of evolution. . 325
11.3. Paths of evolution 347
Chapter 12. Relationships of organisms with the environment 363
12.1. Environment (Ungebung und Umwelt) 363
12.2. Environmental conditions 364
12.3. Organism and environment 375
12.4. Population and environment 386
12.5. Ecosystems 398
12.6. Man and the environment......... 409
Application. Review of the Plant and Animal Kingdoms 413
Sources from which illustrations are taken 419
Subject index 422

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