Collapse of the Golden Horde. Consequences of the Mongol conquest

Collapse of the Golden Horde. Consequences Mongol conquest

Originally under Batu Khan (1227–1256) Golden Horde was dependent on the Mongol Empire. At 1260 ᴦ. The Mongol Empire broke up into independent uluses and under Berke Khan (1256–1266) the Golden Horde became an independent state. Monke Khan (1256–1266) began minting his own coins in the Golden Horde. The Golden Horde reached its greatest power in the first half of the 14th century, especially under Uzbek Khan (1312–1324) and Zhanibek Khan (1342–1357). The power of the khans increased, the convening of kurultai ceased, and power was centralized. In 1312 ᴦ. Uzbek Khan declared Islam the state religion.

From 1357 ᴦ. at 1380 ᴦ. In the Golden Horde, two and a half dozen khans replaced the khan’s throne. This was the era of the “Great Troubles”

At 1380 ᴦ. The actual ruler, Temnik Mamai, was defeated on the Kulikovo field by Russian troops led by Dmitry Donskoy.

Taking advantage of the defeat of Mamai, the Juchid Tokhtamysh seized power in the Golden Horde. Trying to strengthen his power with military victories, he in 1382 ᴦ. burned Moscow, made a series of campaigns in Transcaucasia and Transcaucasia.

In 1389, 1391, 1395. Emir Timur undertook conquests to the Golden Horde and dealt her a blow from which she could no longer recover.

In 1238 ᴦ. Mahmud Tarabi revolted in Bukhara. In 1241 ᴦ. An uprising broke out in Kama Bulgaria in 1259. - in Novgorod, Rostov and Suzdal; at 1270 ᴦ. - in Yaroslavl. The reasons for the weakening of the Golden Horde were: the aggressive campaigns of Emir Timur; permanent internecine wars for power; popular uprisings; the desire of conquered peoples for independence.

By the middle of the 15th century. The Golden Horde ceased to exist. On its ruins, states arose - Ak Orda, Nogai Horde, Siberian, Kazan, Crimean and Astrakhan khanates.

Negative consequences The Mongol conquest resulted in: destruction of productive forces; decline of cities and urban culture (cities and villages, palaces and mosques were destroyed. According to Marco Polo (XIII century), after the establishment of Mongol rule, cities were not allowed to “have walls and gates” so as not to prevent the entry of troops); decline of agriculture and crafts (Irrigation systems were destroyed, agricultural oases were trampled, cultivated fields were abandoned. Thousands of master craftsmen were driven into slavery); demographic crisis; mass extermination people, the population was starving; the final stage of the formation of the Kazakh nation was suspended; decline of spiritual culture (the second largest library in the world after Alexandria was burned in Otrar); the conquered population was subject to heavy taxes and duties (the Mongols introduced more than 20 types of taxes); the population was obliged to supply warriors for the Mongol army; The population was obliged, according to special labels, to provide transport, housing and food to passing khan's messengers, officials, and merchants; The population was entrusted with the responsibility of supplying clothing, food and livestock to the Mongol military detachments stationed in the area. The Mongol conquest delayed for a long time the economic and cultural progress of the peoples of the countries conquered by the Mongols. But it also contained positive points: the Mongolian authorities stimulated the development of trade and international relations (trade and diplomatic ties were established with distant countries. Caravans, diplomatic missions, and travelers moved through the territory of the uluses); the idea of “centralized power” was brought to the steppe, which led to the political consolidation of tribes;

the norms of nomadic life began to be regulated by ʼʼYasaʼʼ, adapted to new conditions ( later than normal"Yasa" to a certain extent were used in the creation of "Zhety-Zhargy"); many shapes political system were also used subsequently in the states that arose on the territory of Kazakhstan in the post-Mongol era; the Mongols did not oppress the culture of the tribes of Kazakhstan - languages, religions, customs and traditions, but on the contrary, the Mongols themselves accepted the Turkic culture.

TOPIC No. 15: Ak Orda. Mogulistan.

Plan:

Collapse of the Golden Horde. Consequences of the Mongol conquest - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Collapse of the Golden Horde. Consequences of the Mongol conquest" 2017, 2018.

As long as strong-willed and energetic khans ruled in Sarai, the Horde seemed to be a powerful state. The first shake-up occurred in 1312, when the population of the Volga region - Muslim, merchant and anti-nomad - nominated Tsarevich Uzbek, who immediately executed 70 Chingizid princes and all noyons who refused to betray the faith of their fathers. The second shock was the murder of Khan Janibek by his eldest son Berdibek, and two years later, in 1359, a twenty-year civil strife began - the “great jam.” In addition to this, in 1346 the plague raged in the Volga region and other lands of the Golden Horde. During the years of the “great silence”, calm left the Horde.

For the 60-70s. XIV century The most dramatic pages in the history of the Golden Horde occur. Conspiracies, murders of khans, strengthening of the power of the Temniks, who, rising together with their henchmen to the khan’s throne, die at the hands of the next contenders for power, pass like a quick kaleidoscope before their amazed contemporaries.

The most successful temporary worker turned out to be Temnik Mamai, who for a long time appointed khans in the Golden Horde (more precisely in its western part) at his own discretion. Mamai was not a Genghisid, but married the daughter of Khan Berdebek. Having no right to the throne, he ruled on behalf of dummy khans. Having subjugated the Great Bulgars, the North Caucasus, Astrakhan, and the mighty Temnik by the mid-70s of the 14th century. became the most powerful Tatar ruler. Although in 1375 Arabshah captured Sarai-Berke and the Bulgars broke away from Mamai, and Astrakhan passed to Cherkesbek, he still remained the ruler of a vast territory from the lower Volga to the Crimea.

“In these same years (1379), writes L.N. Gumilev, a conflict broke out between the Russian Church and Mamai. In Nizhny Novgorod, on the initiative of Dionysius of Suzdal (bishop), Mamai's ambassadors were killed. A war broke out, which went on with varying degrees of success, ending with the Battle of Kulikovo and the return of Chingizid Tokhtamysh to the Horde. In this war, which was imposed by the church, two coalitions took part: the chimeric power of Mamaia, Genoa and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, i.e. The West, and the bloc between Moscow and the White Horde is a traditional alliance, which was started by Alexander Nevsky. Tver avoided participating in the war, and the position of the Ryazan prince Oleg is unclear. In any case, it was independent of Moscow, because in 1382 he, like the Suzdal princes, fought on the side of Tokhtamysh against Dmitry”... In 1381, a year after the Battle of Kulikovo, Tokhtamysh took and destroyed Moscow.

The “Great Jam” in the Golden Horde ended with the coming to power in 1380. Khan Tokhtamysh, which was associated with the support of his rise by the great emir of Samarkand Aksak Timur.

But it was precisely with the reign of Tokhtamysh that events that turned out to be fatal for the Golden Horde were connected. Three campaigns of the ruler of Samarkand, the founder of the world empire from Asia Minor to the borders of China, Timur crushed the Jochi ulus, cities were destroyed, caravan routes moved south into Timur’s possessions.

Timur consistently destroyed the lands of those peoples who sided with Tokhtamysh. The Kipchak kingdom (Golden Horde) lay in ruins, the cities were depopulated, the troops were defeated and scattered.

One of Tokhtamysh’s ardent opponents was the emir of the White Horde from the Mangyt tribe Edigei (Idegei, Idiku), who took part in Timur’s wars against the Golden Horde. Having linked his fate with Khan Timur-Kutluk, who with his help took the Golden Horde throne, Edigei continued the war with Tokhtamysh. He, at the head of the Golden Horde army, defeated the united troops on the Vorskla River in 1399 Lithuanian prince Vitovt and Tokhtamysh, who fled to Lithuania.

After the death of Timur-Kutluk in 1399, Edigei actually became the head of the Golden Horde. For the last time in the history of the Golden Horde, he managed to unite all the former uluses of Jochi under his rule.

Edigei, like Mamai, ruled on behalf of dummy khans. In 1406 he killed Tokhtamysh, who was trying to settle in Western Siberia. In an effort to restore the Jochi ulus within its former borders, Edigei repeated the path of Batu. In 1407, he organized a campaign against Volga Bulgaria and defeated it. In 1408, Edigei attacked Rus', ravaged a number of Russian cities, besieged Moscow, but could not take it.

Edigei ended his eventful life by losing power in the Horde at the hands of one of Tokhtamysh’s sons in 1419.

The instability of political power and economic life, frequent devastating campaigns against the Bulgar-Kazan lands of the Golden Horde khans and Russian princes, as well as what broke out in the Volga regions in 1428 - 1430. The plague epidemic, accompanied by severe drought, did not lead to consolidation, but rather to the dispersion of the population. Whole villages of people then leave for safer northern and eastern regions. There is also a hypothesis of a socio-ecological crisis in the steppes of the Golden Horde in the second half of the 14th - 15th centuries. - that is, a crisis of both nature and society.

The Golden Horde was no longer able to recover from these shocks, and throughout the 15th century the Horde gradually split and disintegrated into the Nogai Horde (beginning of the 15th century), Kazan (1438), Crimean (1443), Astrakhan (1459), Siberian (late 15th century). century), the Great Horde and other khanates.

At the beginning of the 15th century. The White Horde split into a number of possessions, the largest of which were the Nogai Horde and the Uzbek Khanate. The Nogai Horde occupied the steppes between the Volga and the Urals. “The ethnic composition of the population of the Nogai and Uzbek khanates was almost homogeneous. It included parts of the same local Turkic-speaking tribes and the alien Mongol tribes that underwent assimilation. On the territory of these khanates lived the Kanglys, Kungrats, Kengeres, Karluks, Naimans, Mangyts, Uysuns, Argyns, Alchins, Chinas, Kipchaks, etc. In terms of their economic and cultural levels, these tribes were very close. Their main occupation was nomadic cattle breeding. Patriarchal-feudal relations prevailed in both khanates.” “But there were more Mangyt Mongols in the Nogai Horde than in the Uzbek Khanate.” Some of her clans sometimes crossed to the right bank of the Volga, and in the northeast they reached Tobol.

The Uzbek Khanate occupied the steppes of modern Kazakhstan east of the Nogai Horde. Its territory extended from the lower reaches of the Syr Darya and the Aral Sea north to Yaik and Tobol and northeast to the Irtysh.

The nomadic population of the Kipchak kingdom did not succumb to the influence of the ethno-noosphere of either the Russians or the Bulgars, having gone to the Trans-Volga region, they formed their own ethnic group with their own ethno-noosphere. Even when part of their tribes pulled the people of the Uzbek Khanate to Central Asia towards a settled life, they stayed in the steppes, leaving behind the ethnonym Uzbeks, they proudly called themselves - Kazak (Kazakh), i.e. a free man, preferring the fresh wind of the steppes to the suffocating life of cities and villages.

Historically, this gigantic half-state, half-nomad society did not last long. The fall of the Golden Horde, accelerated by the Battle of Kulikovo (1380) and the brutal campaign of Tamerlane in 1395, was as quick as its birth. And it finally collapsed in 1502, unable to withstand the clash with the Crimean Khanate.

Reasons for the collapse of the Golden Horde

Note 1

The beginning of the collapse of the Golden Horde is associated with "Great Remembrance" which began in $1357 with the death of Khan Janibeka. This state entity finally collapsed in the $40s of the $15th century.

Let us highlight the main reasons for the collapse:

Lack of a strong ruler (with the exception of a short time Tokhtamysh)
Creation of independent uluses (districts)
Growing resistance in controlled territories
Deep economic crisis

The Horde's destruction begins

As noted above, the beginning of the decline of the Horde coincided with the death of Khan Janibek. His numerous descendants entered into a bloody feud for power. As a result, for a little over $2$, decades of “zamyatni” were replaced by $25$ of khans.

In Rus', of course, they took advantage of the weakening of the Horde and stopped paying tribute. Military clashes soon followed, the grandiose result of which was Battle of Kulikovo$1380$ year ended for the Horde under the leadership of Temnik Mom, I terrible defeat. And, although two years later a strong khan came to power Tokhtamysh returned the collection of tribute from Rus' and burned Moscow; the Horde no longer had the previous power.

Collapse of the Golden Horde

Central Asian ruler Tamerlane in $1395$ he completely defeated Tokhtamysh and installed his governor in the Horde Edigeya. In $1408, Edigei made a campaign against Rus', as a result of which many cities were plundered, and the payment of tribute, which had stopped in $1395, resumed again.

But there was no stability in the Horde itself; new unrest began. Several times with the help of the Lithuanian prince Vytautas The sons of Tokhtamysh seized power. Then Timur Khan expelled Edigei, although he put him at the head of the Horde. As a result, in $1419, Edigei was killed.

In general, the Horde ceased to exist as a single state association after the defeat by Tamerlane. Since the $1420s, the collapse has accelerated sharply, as another turmoil led to the ruin of economic centers. Under the current conditions, it is quite natural that the khans sought to isolate themselves. Independent khanates began to appear:

The Siberian Khanate emerged in $1420-1421
The Uzbek Khanate appeared in $1428
The Kazan Khanate arose in $1438
The Crimean Khanate appeared in $1441
The Nogai Horde took shape in the $1440s
The Kazakh Khanate appeared in $1465

Based on the Golden Horde, the so-called Great Horde, which formally remained dominant. The Great Horde ceased to exist at the beginning of the 16th century.

Liberation of Rus' from the yoke

In $1462, Ivan III became Sovereign Grand Duke of All Rus'. His priority foreign policy was complete liberation from leftovers Horde yoke. After $10$ years he became the Khan of the Great Horde Akhmat. He set out on a campaign against Rus', but Russian troops repulsed Akhmat’s attacks, and the campaign ended in nothing. Ivan III stopped paying tribute to the Great Horde. Akhmat could not immediately withdraw a new army against Rus', since he was fighting the Crimean Khanate.

Akhmat's new campaign began in the summer of $1480. For Ivan III, the situation was quite difficult, since Akhmat enlisted the support of the Lithuanian prince Casimir IV. In addition, Ivan's brothers Andrey Bolshoy And Boris at the same time they rebelled and left for Lithuania. Through negotiations, the conflict with the brothers was resolved.

Ivan III went with his army to the Oka River to meet Akhmat. Khan did not cross for two months, but in September $1480 he nevertheless crossed the Oka and headed to Ugra River, located on the border with Lithuania. But Casimir IV did not come to Akhmat’s aid. Russian troops stopped Akhmat's attempts to cross the river. In November, despite the fact that the Ugra was frozen, Akhmat retreated.

Soon the khan went to Lithuania, where he plundered many settlements, avenging the betrayal of Casimir IV. But Akhmat himself was killed during the division of the loot.

Note 2

Traditionally, the events of Akhmat’s campaign against Rus' are called "standing on the Ugra River". This is not entirely true, because clashes took place, and quite violent ones, during Akhmat’s attempts to cross the river.

Be that as it may, after the “standstill,” Rus' finally got rid of the $240-year-old yoke.

The Golden Horde was one of the most powerful states, under whose control were vast territories. And yet, by the beginning of the 15th century, the country began to lose its power, and sooner or later, all crises of power had to end with the collapse of the state.

Scientists are still carefully studying the reasons for the rapid disintegration of the state system of the Golden Horde and the consequences of this event for Ancient Rus'. Before compiling a historical essay about the process of decomposition of the Mongol state, it is necessary to talk about the reasons for the future collapse of the Golden Horde.

In fact, the crisis in the country has been observed since the middle of the 14th century. It was then that regular wars for the throne began, and numerous heirs of Khan Janibek argued over power. What reasons influenced the future destruction of the state system?

The absence of a strong ruler (with the exception of Tokhtamysh) capable of keeping the country from internal crises.
From the endXIV century, the state was decomposing, and many khans hastened to form their own independent uluses.
The territories subject to the Mongols also began to rebel, sensing the weakening of the Golden Horde.
Regular internecine wars led to the country experiencing a very serious economic crisis.

After Tokhtamysh handed over the throne to his heirs, the dynastic crisis resumed in the country. The contenders for the throne could not decide which of them was obliged to lead the state. If, however, the throne was still occupied by one of the heirs, he could not guarantee the literacy of the political and economic reforms. All this influenced the state of the state.

The process of destruction of the Golden Horde

Historians are confident that for early feudalism, the process of collapse is an inevitable reality. Such a collapse also occurred with Ancient Russia, and in the 15th century it began to clearly manifest itself in the example of the Golden Horde. The khans and their heirs have long been looking for ways to isolate and praise their own power. That is why, from the beginning of the 1400s, many territories that belonged to the Golden Horde achieved independence. What khanates appeared during this period?

Siberian and Uzbek Khanate (1420s).
Nogai Horde (1440s)
Kazan and Crimean Khanates (1438 and 1441, respectively).
Kazakh Khanate (1465).

Of course, each khanate strove for complete independence, wanting to achieve its rights and freedoms. Moreover, it became important economic question division of tribute coming from Ancient Rus'.

The last full-fledged ruler of the Golden Horde is considered to be Kichi-Muhammad. After his death, the state virtually ceased to exist. For a long time The Great Horde was considered the dominant state, but it also ceased to exist in the 16th century.

Consequences of the collapse of the Golden Horde for Ancient Rus'

Of course, the princes of Ancient Rus' had long dreamed of becoming independent from the Golden Horde. When the country was going through a period of great turmoil, the Russian princes had an excellent chance to achieve independence.

During that period, Dmitry Donskoy was able to defend the rights of Russian princes on the Kulikovo field and achieve independence. In the period from 1380 to 1382, the Russian princes did not pay tribute, but with the invasion of Tokhtamysh, humiliating payments resumed.

After the death of Tokhtamysh, the Golden Horde again began to experience a crisis, and Ancient Rus' perked up. The size of the tribute began to decrease slightly, and the princes themselves did not strive to pay it as diligently as before.

The final blow for the Horde was that a prince appeared in the Russian lands, capable of uniting all the troops under his banner. Ivan III became such a prince. Immediately after gaining power, Ivan III refused to pay tribute.

And if the Golden Horde was just experiencing the crisis of early feudalism, then Ancient Rus' was already emerging from this stage of development. Gradually, individual territories united under common banners, realizing the power of their strength together, and not apart. In fact, it took Ancient Rus' exactly 100 years (1380-1480) to gain final independence. All this time, the Golden Horde was in a great fever, which led to its final weakening

Of course, Khan Akhmat tried to return the territories under his control, but in 1480 Ancient Rus' gained its long-awaited independence, which was the final blow for the once powerful state.

Of course, not every country is able to withstand an economic and internal political crisis. Golden Horde due to internal conflicts lost its former power, and soon ceased to exist altogether. However, this state had a huge influence on the course of international history, and on the course of the history of Ancient Rus' in particular.