Russian-Turkish War 1827 1828. Russian-Turkish War (1828-1829)

The military conflict between the Russian and Ottoman Empires in 1828 arose as a result of the fact that after the Battle of Navarino in October 1827, the Porte (the government of the Ottoman Empire) closed the Bosporus Strait, violating the Ackerman Convention. The Akkerman Convention is an agreement between Russia and Turkey, concluded on October 7, 1826 in Akkerman (now the city of Belgorod-Dnestrovsky). Turkey recognized the border along the Danube and the transition to Russia of Sukhum, Redut-Kale and Anakria (Georgia). She undertook to pay all claims of Russian citizens within a year and a half, to provide Russian citizens with the right to unhindered trade throughout Turkey, and to Russian merchant ships the right to free navigation in Turkish waters and along the Danube. The autonomy of the Danube principalities and Serbia was guaranteed; the rulers of Moldavia and Wallachia were to be appointed from local boyars and could not be removed without the consent of Russia.

But if we consider this conflict in a broader context, it must be said that this war was caused by the fact that the Greek people began to fight for independence from the Ottoman Empire (back in 1821), and France and England began to help the Greeks. Russia at this time pursued a policy of non-intervention, although it was in an alliance with France and England. After the death of Alexander I and the accession of Nicholas I to the throne, Russia changed its attitude towards the Greek problem, but at the same time, disagreements began between France, England and Russia on the issue of dividing the Ottoman Empire (dividing the skin of an unkilled bear). Porta immediately announced that it was free from agreements with Russia. Russian ships were prohibited from entering the Bosphorus, and Turkey intended to transfer the war with Russia to Persia.

The Porte moved its capital to Adrianople and strengthened the Danube fortresses. Nicholas I at this time declared war on the Porte, and she declared war on Russia.

Russian- Turkish war 1828-1829 - a military conflict between the Russian and Ottoman Empires, which began in April 1828 due to the fact that the Porte, after the Battle of Navarino (October 1827), in violation of the Ackerman Convention, closed the Bosporus Strait. In a broader context, this war was a consequence of the struggle between great powers caused by Greek war for independence (1821-1830) from the Ottoman Empire. During the war, Russian troops made a series of campaigns in Bulgaria, the Caucasus and northeast Anatolia, after which the Porte sued for peace. Most of the eastern coast of the Black Sea (including the cities of Anapa, Sudzhuk-Kale, Sukhum) and the Danube Delta passed to Russia.

The Ottoman Empire recognized Russian supremacy over Georgia and parts of modern Armenia.

On September 14, 1829, the Peace of Adrianople was signed between the two parties, as a result of which the territory passed to Russia. most of the eastern coast of the Black Sea (including the cities of Anapa, Sudzhuk-Kale, Sukhum) and the Danube Delta.

The Ottoman Empire recognized the transfer to Russia of Georgia, Imereti, Mingrelia, Guria, as well as the Erivan and Nakhichevan khanates (transferred by Iran under the Peace of Turkmanchay).

Türkiye reaffirmed its obligations under the Akkerman Convention of 1826 to respect the autonomy of Serbia.

Moldavia and Wallachia were granted autonomy, and Russian troops remained in the Danube principalities during the reforms.

Türkiye also agreed to the terms of the 1827 Treaty of London granting autonomy to Greece.

Turkey was obliged to pay Russia an indemnity in the amount of 1.5 million Dutch chervonets within 18 months.

Plan
Introduction
1 War statistics
2 Background and reason
3 Military actions in 1828
3.1 In the Balkans
3.2 In Transcaucasia

4 Military actions in 1829
4.1 On the European theater
4.2 In Asia

5 The most striking episodes of the war
6 War Heroes
7 Results of the war
Bibliography
Russo-Turkish War (1828-1829)

Introduction

The Russian-Turkish War of 1828-1829 was a military conflict between the Russian and Ottoman Empires that began in April 1828 due to the fact that the Porte closed the Bosporus Strait after the Battle of Navarino (October 1827) in violation of the Ackerman Convention.

In a broader context, this war was a consequence of the struggle between the great powers caused by the Greek War of Independence (1821-1830) from the Ottoman Empire. During the war, Russian troops made a series of campaigns in Bulgaria, the Caucasus and northeast Anatolia, after which the Porte sued for peace.

1. War statistics

2. Background and reason

The Greeks of the Peloponnese, who rebelled against Ottoman rule in the spring of 1821, were helped by France and England; Russia under Alexander I took a position of non-intervention, but was in an alliance with the former under the agreements of the Aachen Congress ( see also Holy Alliance).

With the accession of Nicholas I, St. Petersburg's position on the Greek issue began to change; but quarrels began between the former allies over the division of the possessions of the Ottoman Empire; Taking advantage of this, the Porte declared itself free from agreements with Russia and expelled Russian subjects from its possessions. The Porte invited Persia to continue the war with Russia and prohibited Russian ships from entering the Bosphorus.

Sultan Mahmud II tried to give the war a religious character; Wanting to lead an army to defend Islam, he moved his capital to Adrianople and ordered the strengthening of the Danube fortresses. In view of such actions of the Porte, Emperor Nicholas I declared war on the Porte on April 14 (26), 1828 and ordered his troops, who had until then been stationed in Bessarabia, to enter the Ottoman possessions.

3. Military actions in 1828

3.1. In the Balkans

Russia had a 95,000-strong Danube Army under the command of P. H. Wittgenstein and a 25,000-strong Separate Caucasian Corps under the command of General I. F. Paskevich.

They were opposed by Turkish armies totaling up to 200 thousand people. (150 thousand on the Danube and 50 thousand in the Caucasus); Of the fleet, only 10 ships stationed in the Bosporus survived.

The Danube Army was tasked with occupying Moldova, Wallachia and Dobruja, as well as capturing Shumla and Varna.

Bessarabia was chosen as the basis for Wittgenstein's actions; the principalities (severely depleted by Turkish rule and the drought of 1827) were supposed to be occupied only to restore order in them and protect them from enemy invasion, as well as to protect the right wing of the army in case of Austrian intervention. Wittgenstein, having crossed the Lower Danube, was supposed to move to Varna and Shumla, cross the Balkans and advance to Constantinople; a special detachment was supposed to land at Anapa and, upon capturing it, join the main forces.

On April 25, the 6th Infantry Corps entered the principalities, and its vanguard under the command of General Fedor Geismar headed for Lesser Wallachia; On May 1, the 7th Infantry Corps besieged the Brailov fortress; The 3rd Infantry Corps was supposed to cross the Danube between Izmail and Reni, near the village of Satunovo, but the construction of a road through a lowland flooded with water required about a month of time, during which the Turks strengthened the right bank opposite the crossing point, placing up to 10 thousand people in their position. troops.

On the morning of May 27, the crossing of Russian troops on ships and boats began in the presence of the sovereign. Despite the fierce fire, they reached the right bank, and when the advanced Turkish trenches were taken, the enemy fled from the rest. On May 30, the Isakcha fortress surrendered. Having separated detachments to besiege Machin, Girsov and Tulcha, the main forces of the 3rd Corps reached Karasu on June 6, and their vanguard, under the command of General Fedor Ridiger, besieged Kyustendzhi.

The siege of Brailov quickly moved forward, and the head of the siege troops, Grand Duke Mikhail Pavlovich, in a hurry to finish this matter so that the 7th Corps could join the 3rd, decided to storm the fortress on June 3; the assault was repulsed, but when Machin’s surrender followed 3 days later, commandant Brailov, seeing himself cut off and having lost hope of help, also surrendered (June 7).

At the same time it took place sea ​​expedition to Anapa. At Karasu, the 3rd Corps stood for 17 whole days, since after the allocation of garrisons to the occupied fortresses, as well as other detachments, no more than 20 thousand remained in it. Only with the addition of some parts of the 7th Corps and the arrival of the 4th Reserve. the cavalry corps, the main forces of the army would reach 60 thousand; but even this was not considered sufficient for decisive action, and at the beginning of June the 2nd Infantry was ordered to move from Little Russia to the Danube. corps (about 30 thousand); in addition, guards regiments (up to 25 thousand) were already on their way to the theater of war.

After the fall of Brailov, the 7th Corps was sent to join the 3rd; General Roth with two infantry and one cavalry brigades was ordered to besiege Silistria, and General Borozdin with six infantry and four cavalry regiments was ordered to guard Wallachia. Even before all these orders were carried out, the 3rd Corps moved to Bazardzhik, where, according to information received, significant Turkish forces were gathering.

Between June 24 and 26, Bazardzhik was occupied, after which two vanguards were advanced: Ridiger to Kozludzha and Admiral General Count Pavel Sukhtelen to Varna, to which a detachment of Lieutenant General Alexander Ushakov from Tulcha was also sent. In early July, the 7th Corps joined the 3rd Corps; but their combined forces did not exceed 40 thousand; it was still impossible to count on the assistance of the fleet stationed at Anapa; The siege parks were partly located near the named fortress, and partly stretched from Brailov.

Meanwhile, the garrisons of Shumla and Varna gradually strengthened; Riediger's vanguard was constantly harassed by the Turks, who tried to interrupt his communications with the main forces. Considering the state of affairs, Wittgenstein decided to limit himself to one observation regarding Varna (for which Ushakov’s detachment was appointed), with the main forces to move to Shumla, try to lure the seraskir from the fortified camp and, having defeated him, turn to the siege of Varna.

On July 8, the main forces approached Shumla and besieged it from the eastern side, strongly strengthening their positions in order to interrupt the possibility of communications with Varna. Decisive action against Shumla was supposed to be postponed until the arrival of the guards. However, our main forces soon found themselves in a kind of blockade, since in their rear and on the flanks the enemy developed guerrilla operations, which greatly hampered the arrival of transports and foraging. Meanwhile, Ushakov’s detachment also could not hold out against the superior garrison of Varna and retreated to Derventkoy.

In mid-July, the Russian fleet arrived from near Anapa to Kovarna and, having landed the troops on board the ships, headed for Varna, against which it stopped. Boss airborne troops Prince Alexander Menshikov, having joined Ushakov’s detachment, on July 22 also approached the said fortress, besieged it from the north, and on August 6 began siege work. General Roth's detachment stationed at Silistria could not do anything due to insufficient strength and lack of siege artillery. Things also did not progress near Shumla, and although the Turkish attacks launched on August 14 and 25 were repelled, this did not lead to any results. Count Wittgenstein wanted to retreat to Yeni Bazar, but Emperor Nicholas I, who was with the army, opposed this.

In general, by the end of August, the circumstances in the European theater of war were very unfavorable for the Russians: the siege of Varna, due to the weakness of our forces there, did not promise success; Diseases were raging among the troops stationed near Shumla, and horses were dying from lack of food; Meanwhile, the insolence of the Turkish partisans was increasing.

At the same time, upon the arrival of new reinforcements in Shumla, the Turks attacked the town of Pravody, occupied by the detachment of Admiral General Benckendorf, however, they were repulsed. General Loggin Roth barely held his position at Silistria, whose garrison also received reinforcements. Gene. Kornilov, observing Zhurzha, had to fight off attacks from there and from Rushchuk, where enemy forces also increased. The weak detachment of General Geismar (about 6 thousand), although it held its position between Calafat and Craiova, could not prevent the Turkish parties from invading the northwestern part of Lesser Wallachia.

The enemy, having concentrated more than 25 thousand at Viddin and Kalafat, strengthened the garrisons of Rakhov and Nikopol. Thus, the Turks everywhere had an advantage in forces, but, fortunately, did not take advantage of this. Meanwhile, in mid-August, the Guards Corps began to approach the Lower Danube, followed by the 2nd Infantry. The latter was ordered to relieve Roth's detachment at Silistria, which would then be drawn near Shumla; The guard is sent to Varna. To recover this fortress, 30 thousand Turkish corps of Omer-Vrione arrived from the Kamchik River. Several ineffective attacks followed from both sides, and when Varna surrendered on September 29, Omer began a hasty retreat, pursued by the detachment of Prince Eugene of Württemberg, and headed towards Aidos, where the vizier’s troops had retreated earlier.

Meanwhile, gr. Wittgenstein continued to stand under Shumla; His troops, after allocating reinforcements to Varna and other detachments, remained only about 15 thousand; but on the 20th of September. The 6th Corps approached him. Silistria continued to hold out, since the 2nd Corps, lacking siege artillery, could not take decisive action.

Meanwhile, the Turks continued to threaten Lesser Wallachia; but the brilliant victory won by Geismar near the village of Boelesti put an end to their attempts. After the fall of Varna, the final goal of the 1828 campaign was the conquest of Silistria, and the 3rd Corps was sent to it. The rest of the troops located near Shumla had to winter in the occupied part of the country; the guard returned to Russia. However, the enterprise against Silistria due to the lack of shells in the siege artillery did not materialize, and the fortress was subjected to only a 2-day bombardment.

After the retreat of the Russian troops from Shumla, the vizier decided to take possession of Varna again and on November 8 moved to Pravody, but, having met resistance from the detachment occupying the city, he returned to Shumla. In January 1829, a strong Turkish detachment raided the rear of the 6th Corps, captured Kozludzha and attacked Bazardzhik, but failed there; and after that, Russian troops drove the enemy out of Kozludzha; in the same month the fortress of Turno was taken. The rest of the winter passed quietly.

3.2. In Transcaucasia

The separate Caucasian Corps began operations a little later; he was ordered to invade Asian Turkey.

In Asian Turkey in 1828, things were going well for Russia: on June 23, Kars was taken, and after a temporary suspension of hostilities due to the appearance of the plague, Paskevich conquered the Akhalkalaki fortress on July 23, and in early August approached Akhaltsikhe, which surrendered on the 16th of the same month. Then the fortresses of Atskhur and Ardahan surrendered without resistance. At the same time, separate Russian detachments took Poti and Bayazet.

4. Military actions in 1829

During the winter, both sides actively prepared for the resumption of hostilities. By the end of April 1829, the Porte managed to increase its forces in the European theater of war to 150 thousand and, in addition, could count on the 40 thousand Albanian militia collected by the Scutari Pasha Mustafa. The Russians could oppose these forces with no more than 100 thousand. In Asia, the Turks had up to 100 thousand troops against Paskevich’s 20 thousand. Only the Russian Black Sea fleet (about 60 ships of various ranks) had a decisive superiority over the Turkish one; Yes, Count Heyden’s squadron (35 ships) also cruised in the Archipelago.

4.1. At the European theater

Appointed commander-in-chief in Wittgenstein's place, Count Diebitsch actively set about replenishing the army and organizing its economic part. Having set out to cross the Balkans, in order to provide food for the troops on the other side of the mountains, he turned to the assistance of the fleet and asked Admiral Greig to take possession of any harbor convenient for the delivery of supplies. The choice fell on Sizopol, which, after its capture, was occupied by a 3,000-strong Russian garrison. The attempt made by the Turks at the end of March to recapture this city was unsuccessful, and then they limited themselves to blockading it from the dry route. As for the Ottoman fleet, it left the Bosphorus at the beginning of May, however, it stayed closer to its shores; at the same time, two Russian military ships were accidentally surrounded by it; one of them (the 36-gun frigate "Raphael") surrendered, and the other, the brig "Mercury" under the command of Kazarsky, managed to fight off the enemy ships pursuing it and escape.

At the end of May, the squadrons of Greig and Heyden began to blockade the straits and interrupted all supplies by sea to Constantinople. Meanwhile, Dibich, in order to secure his rear before the movement for the Balkans, decided first of all to take possession of Silistria; But late onset Spring delayed him, so that only at the end of April he could transport the forces required for this across the Danube. On May 7, siege work began, and on May 9, new troops crossed to the right bank, bringing the forces of the siege corps to 30 thousand.

Around the same time, the vizier Reshid Pasha opened offensive operations with the goal of returning Varna; however, after persistent dealings with the troops, Gen. The company at Eski-Arnautlar and Pravod again retreated to Shumla. In mid-May, the vizier with his main forces again moved towards Varna. Having received news of this, Dibich, leaving one part of his troops at Silistria, went to the vizier’s rear with the other. This maneuver led to the defeat (May 30) of the Ottoman army near the village of Kulevchi.

Although after such a decisive victory one could count on capturing Shumla, however, it was preferred to confine oneself to just observing it. Meanwhile, the siege of Silistria was successful, and on June 18 this fortress surrendered. Following this, the 3rd Corps was sent to Shumla, the rest of the Russian troops intended for the Trans-Balkan campaign began to secretly converge on Devno and Pravody.

Meanwhile, the vizier, convinced that Diebitsch would besiege Shumla, gathered troops there from wherever possible - even from the Balkan passes and from coastal points on the Black Sea. The Russian army, meanwhile, was advancing towards Kamchik and after a series of battles both on this river and at further movement In the mountains, the 6th and 7th corps, around mid-July, crossed the Balkan ridge, simultaneously capturing two fortresses, Misevria and Ahiolo, and the important harbor of Burgas.

This success, however, was overshadowed strong development diseases from which the troops were noticeably melting. The vizier finally found out where the main forces of the Russian army were headed and sent reinforcements to the pashas Abdurahman and Yusuf acting against them; but it was already too late: the Russians moved forward uncontrollably; On July 13, they occupied the city of Aidos, on the 14th of Karnabat, and on the 31st, Dibich attacked the 20 thousand Turkish corps concentrated near the city of Slivno, defeated it and interrupted communication between Shumla and Adrianople.

Although the commander-in-chief now had no more than 25 thousand at hand, but in view of the friendly disposition of the local population and the complete demoralization of the Turkish troops, he decided to move to Adrianople, hoping by his very appearance in the second capital of the Ottoman Empire to force the Sultan to peace.

After intensive marches, the Russian army approached Adrianople on August 7, and the surprise of its arrival so embarrassed the commander of the garrison there that he offered to surrender. The next day, part of the Russian troops was brought into the city, where large reserves of weapons and other things were found.

The occupation of Adrianople and Erzerum, the close blockade of the straits and internal troubles in Turkey finally shook the Sultan’s stubbornness; Commissioners arrived at Diebitsch's main apartment to negotiate peace. However, these negotiations were deliberately delayed by the Turks, counting on the help of England and Austria; and meanwhile the Russian army was melting more and more, and danger threatened it from all sides. The difficulty of the situation increased further when the Scutari Pasha Mustafa, who had until then avoided participating in hostilities, now led a 40,000-strong Albanian army to the theater of war.

In mid-August he occupied Sofia and advanced the vanguard to Philippopolis. Diebitsch, however, was not embarrassed by the difficulty of his position: he announced to the Turkish commissioners that he was giving them until September 1 to receive final instructions, and if after that peace was not concluded, then hostilities on our part would resume. To reinforce these demands, several detachments were sent to Constantinople and contact was established between them and the squadrons of Greig and Heyden.

An order was sent to Adjutant General Kiselyov, who commanded the Russian troops in the principalities: leaving part of his forces to guard Wallachia, cross the Danube with the rest and move against Mustafa. The advance of Russian troops towards Constantinople had its effect: the alarmed Sultan begged the Prussian envoy to go as an intermediary to Diebitsch. His arguments, supported by letters from other ambassadors, prompted the commander-in-chief to stop the movement of troops towards the Turkish capital. Then the Porte's representatives agreed to all the conditions proposed to them, and on September 2 the Peace of Adrianople was signed.

Despite this, Mustafa of Scutaria continued his offensive, and at the beginning of September his vanguard approached Haskioy, and from there moved to Demotika. The 7th Corps was sent to meet him. Meanwhile, Adjutant General Kiselev, having crossed the Danube at Rakhov, went to Gabrov to act on the flank of the Albanians, and Geismar’s detachment was sent through Orhanie to threaten their rear. Having defeated the side detachment of the Albanians, Geismar occupied Sofia in mid-September, and Mustafa, having learned about this, returned to Philippopolis. Here he remained for part of the winter, but after the complete devastation of the city and its environs he returned to Albania. The detachments of Kiselev and Geismar already at the end of September retreated to Vratsa, and at the beginning of November the last troops of the Russian main army set out from Adrianople.

4.2. In Asia

In the Asian theater of war, the 1829 campaign opened in difficult conditions: residents of the occupied areas were every minute ready to revolt; already at the end of February, a strong Turkish corps besieged Akhaltsikhe, and the Trebizond Pasha with an eight-thousand-strong detachment moved to Guria to facilitate the uprising that broke out there. The detachments sent by Paskevich, however, managed to drive the Turks away from Akhaltsikhe and Guria.

But in mid-May, the enemy took offensive actions on a more extensive scale: the Erzurum seraskir Haji-Saleh, having gathered up to 70 thousand, decided to go to Kars; The Trebizond Pasha with 30 thousand was supposed to invade Guria again, and the Van Pasha was to take Bayazet. Paskevich, notified of this, decided to warn the enemy. Gathering about 18 thousand with 70 guns, he crossed the Saganlug mountain range, on June 19 and 20 won victories over the troops of Hakki Pasha and Haji Saleh at the Kainly and Millidyut tracts, and then approached Erzurum, which surrendered on June 27. At the same time, the Pasha of Van, after 2 days of desperate attacks on Bayazet, was repulsed, retreated, and his hordes scattered. The actions of the Trebizond Pasha were also unsuccessful; Russian troops were already on the way to Trebizond and captured the Bayburt fortress.

5. The most striking episodes of the war

· Feat of the brig "Mercury"

· Transition of the Transdanubian Cossacks to the side of the Russian Empire

6. War heroes

· Alexander Kazarsky - captain of the brig "Mercury"

7. Results of the war

· Most of the eastern coast of the Black Sea (including the cities of Anapa, Sudzhuk-Kale, Sukhum) and the Danube Delta passed to Russia.

· The Ottoman Empire recognized Russian supremacy over Georgia and parts of modern Armenia.

· Turkey reaffirmed its obligations under the Akkerman Convention of 1826 to respect the autonomy of Serbia.

· Moldavia and Wallachia were granted autonomy, and Russian troops remained in the Danube principalities during the reforms.

· Turkey also agreed to the terms of the 1827 Treaty of London granting autonomy to Greece.

· Turkey was obliged to pay Russia an indemnity in the amount of 1.5 million Dutch chervonets within 18 months.

Bibliography:

1. Urlanis B. Ts. Wars and population of Europe. - Moscow., 1960.

2. The population is indicated within the boundaries of the corresponding year of registration (Russia: Encyclopedic Dictionary. L., 1991.).

3. Of these, 80,000 are regular army, 100,000 are cavalry and 100,000 are sepoys or vassal horsemen

When preparing for the Unified State Exam in history, it will be important to refresh your memory of the questions school curriculum that you have studied. The Russian-Turkish War of 1828-1829 may also come across to you when taking the test. Let's look at this issue in more detail.

The formal reason for the outbreak of war was the closure of the Bosporus Strait by the Porte (the generally accepted name for the government of the Ottoman Empire). This was the last straw, after which the Russian sovereign Nicholas I, on April 14, 1828, declared war on the Ottoman Empire. By the way, check out all foreign policy this emperor.

Reasons that led to the start of the war

The prerequisites for the imminent war, in short, were the events that began to occur in the spring of 1821, on the territory of modern Greece, later called the Greek Revolution, namely the armed confrontation of the Greek people, the purpose of which was to escape the orbit of influence of the Ottoman Empire.

At that time, the state throne of Russia was occupied by Alexander I, and Russia's foreign policy on this issue was of a non-intervention nature, since the Greek rebels were helped by France and England, and Russia was an ally of France on this issue.

Emperor Nicholas I

With the accession of Tsar Nicholas I to the throne, the situation in the Greek question began to change due to the inability of the allies to agree on the division of the Ottoman Empire. And Russian diplomacy openly supported the Greeks in their struggle. As a consequence of these steps, the Turkish Sultan Mahmud II, who ruled Turkey at that time, and in every possible way tried to give the conflict a religious character, expelled Russian diplomats from the country, and, as mentioned earlier, in violation of the existing agreement, closed the Bosporus Strait for navigation.

Military operations of the 1828 campaign

The main events in 1828 took place in two regions, namely the Balkan Peninsula and Transcaucasia. The Russians had a contingent of about 95,000 people in the Balkans, concentrated at the mouth of the Danube River, and 25,000 corps in the Caucasus.

Turkey was opposed by superior forces, about 150 and 50 thousand military personnel, respectively. Despite this, the military campaign Russian army on the Balkan Peninsula was successful starting in the spring of 1828. The Russian army under the leadership of Field Marshal Peter Christianovich Witgentschein, despite the significant superiority of Ottoman soldiers in numbers, occupied the lands of Moldova and Wallachia (the territory in the south of modern Romania) with virtually no resistance.

This was due to another military strategy, used by Nicholas I for the first time during this campaign. He decided not to conduct an offensive by his troops against the enemy, as had happened previously, during previous wars with Turkey, along the entire line of the lower and middle Danube, but to launch a targeted, concentrated strike in a rather narrow strip of the Black Sea region, concentrating the bulk of his troops here.

Although the offensive of the Russian army was significantly hampered by the unprecedentedly strong spring overflow of rivers from their banks. For example, it took more than a month to prepare the group’s crossing of the Danube. But despite the difficulties and delays that arose, the tsarist troops managed to capture all the Ottoman fortresses located along the Lower Danube, with the exception of Silistria.

The main strike force of the Russian army then began a siege of the two strongest strongholds of Bulgaria, the fortresses: Shumla (Shumen) and Varna. But it was enough to capture them challenging task. In Shumla, about 40,000 Turks defended themselves from an army of 35,000 Russian soldiers, not taking into account the significant number of partisans operating in the vicinity of these cities.

From the Balkans, an attempt was made to attack the corps of Omar Vrione Pasha, which consisted of a 30-thousand-strong Turkish horde, against the brigade of Prince Menshikov, which was besieging Varna. However, despite the efforts of the Turks, Varna fell on September 29, the fortresses of Silistria and Shumla endured a siege and did not surrender, Russian army was forced to retreat.

In the fall of 1828, the Turkish army tried to launch a major offensive in the western direction into Wallachia, but the attempt was thwarted largely due to the brilliant victory of General Fedor Klementievich Geismar at Boelesti. By the end of the Balkan campaign of 1828, most of the Russian contingent returned for the winter beyond the Danube, leaving garrisons in Varna, Pazardzhik and some other cities south of the river, turning these cities into strongholds for the subsequent offensive in 1829.

In the confrontation between Russians and Turks in Transcaucasia during the campaign of 1828. General Ivan Fedorovich Paskevich, acting against enemy forces twice as numerous, occupied fortresses that were of strategic importance: Kars, Poti, Akhaltsikhe, Ardagan, Akhalkalaki, Bayazet. During the capture of the city of Akhaltsikhe, located high in the mountains, on August 16, 1828, a column under the command of Colonel Borodin stormed the city walls, being under fire from enemy artillery located in three tiers.

Campaign of 1829

The winter passed in intensive preparation of both armies for the spring-summer battles. By the spring of 1829, the Turkish army in the Balkans numbered 150 thousand soldiers and about 40 thousand soldiers included in the Albanian militia. Emperor Nicholas I opposed this horde with a 100,000-strong contingent.

In Transcaucasia, 20 thousand soldiers of General Paskevich were opposed by a group of Turkish troops with a total number of 100 thousand. Only the fleet had the advantage; the Russian flotillas of Admiral Greig in the Black Sea and Admiral Heyden in the Aegean Sea dominated the enemy. General Ivan Ivanovich Dibich, an ardent supporter of a quick solution to the Turkish issue and a speedy end to the war, was appointed head of the 1829 campaign on the Balkan Peninsula.

The ships of Admirals Greig and Heyden blocked the Bosphorus Strait on both sides, organizing a naval blockade of Istanbul. The Turkish vizier made a desperate attempt to recapture the city of Varna, but on May 30, 1829, Diebitsch's army of 18,000 soldiers crushingly defeated an enemy army of almost 40 thousand.

This battle took place near the village of Kulevchi. Hoping to take revenge, the vizier pulled the remnants of his armed forces to Shumla in the hope that it would become the next target of the Russians. However, contrary to the plans of the vizier, Dibich, unexpectedly for the Turks, led his troops past the city and with a small military corps, consisting of only 35 thousand soldiers, in early July 1829, headed south to Istanbul.

The Trans-Balkan campaign of 1829, in its courage and military audacity, was strongly reminiscent of the legendary Swiss campaign of Alexander Valilievich Suvorov. Over the course of 11 days, Dibich's troops covered 150 kilometers along the steep Balkan mountains. Realizing his mistake, the vizier hastily sent two detachments (12 and 20 thousand) to intercept Diebitsch’s army, which were completely defeated in the battles of Aytos and Sliven in July 1829.

The Diebitsch garrison was plagued by misfortunes, its numbers were rapidly declining, more from disease and sweltering heat than from battle losses. But, despite all this, the campaign to Istanbul continued. Overcoming another 120 km over the next 7 days. Diebitsch approached Adrianople, the second capital of the Ottoman Empire. On August 8, 1829, the population of the city, discouraged by the appearance of the Russians, surrendered the city to them without firing a single shot. There were only 200 kilometers left to Istanbul.

During the campaign in Transcaucasia, Paskevich was also successful. In the summer of 1829, a Turkish army consisting of two detachments of 30 and 20 thousand moved to Kars, but Paskevich with a detachment of 18 thousand soldiers defeated them in June 1829 one by one: in the battles of Kainly and Mille Duse. And on June 27, 1829, Erzurum was taken, and then Paskevich’s army followed deep into Anatolia, heading towards Trebizond.

End of the war

Dibich's detachment in Adrianople was diminishing before our eyes, the soldiers were dying from previously received wounds and diseases that befell them during the campaign. In a short time, its number was reduced to almost 7,000. Realizing the badness of his situation, but without revealing the true state of affairs, General Dibich from Adrianople began to conduct peace negotiations with the Sultan.

Since the Turks, together with the Albanian militia, had the intention of taking Adrianople into the cauldron, the general understood that delay would lead to certain death. And therefore, in the form of an ultimatum, he demanded that the Porte sign a peace treaty, threatening to strike Istanbul in case of refusal. He confirmed his intentions by sending detachments that captured Sarai and Chorla, located in the middle between Adrianople and Constantinople.

Dibich's bluff worked and on September 2, 1829, the Peace of Adrianople was signed, ending the Russian-Turkish war.

Under the terms of the peace, Turkey paid a small indemnity, tore down military fortresses on the Danube River, gave Anapa and Poti to Russia, and allowed Russian merchant ships to pass through the Bosporus and Dardanelles straits.

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Russo-Turkish War 1828–1829

During the reign of Emperor Nicholas I, one of the main directions of Russian diplomacy was the eastern question - relations with the Ottoman Empire and the solution of international problems associated with its increasing weakening. Within this direction great importance played problems associated with the Black Sea straits of the Bosporus and Dardanelles and the expansion of the influence of the Russian Empire among Slavic peoples Balkan Peninsula. Russia sought to achieve free passage of trade and possibly warships through the straits, since this was the only gateway for the export of Black Sea grain, which was needed European countries. Moreover, since the time of Catherine Great Russia was considered the main patroness of the Orthodox Slavic peoples oppressed by the authorities of the Ottoman Empire.

In 1821, an uprising broke out in Greece against the Turkish yoke. For several years, the rebels fought the troops of the Turkish Sultan with varying success. Finally, in 1827, the Greek National Assembly adopted the Greek Constitution and declared the country's independence from the Turkish Sultan. Representatives of Britain, France and Russia gathered in London addressed Istanbul with a note recognizing the new state. However, the Sultan refused and ordered the combined Turkish-Tunisian-Egyptian fleet to land on the Greek coast. The Muslims who arrived at the landing site carried out a brutal massacre of the Greek population. In response, European countries introduced a joint Anglo-Russian-French squadron into the Mediterranean Sea, which on October 20 (November 1), 1827, defeated the Sultan’s fleet in Navarino Bay. The flagship of the Russian naval forces, the battleship Azov, under the command of Captain 1st Rank M.P. Lazarev, distinguished itself in the battle. During a brutal artillery duel, the Azov sank the Turkish flagship and caused extensive damage to other ships. Under the command of Lieutenant P. S. Nakhimov and Midshipman V. A. Kornilov, the Azov sailors managed to put out fires and conduct aimed fire at the enemy.

For this battle, Azov was awarded the stern St. George flag. For the first time in the history of the Russian fleet, the ship became a guards ship. Its commander was promoted to rear admiral. Lieutenant Nakhimov, who received the rank of captain-lieutenant after the battle, was awarded the order St. George 4th degree.

However, British and French diplomats were concerned that this victory could strengthen Russia's position in the Black Sea straits. They made it clear to the Turkish ruler that their countries would remain neutral in the event of a possible Russian-Turkish conflict. Having received this information, Sultan Mahmud II declared himself the defender of Islam and began to strengthen coastline Black Sea fortresses. Seeing such active preparations, Russian Emperor declared war on Turkey.

At the theaters of military operations, Russia had a 95,000-strong Danube Army under the command of General Count P. X. Wittgenstein and a 25,000-strong Separate Caucasian Corps under the command of General I. F. Paskevich. The Ottoman Empire fielded an army of up to 200 thousand people against these forces. (150 thousand on the Danube and 50 thousand in the Caucasus). The Danube Army was tasked with occupying Moldavia, Wallachia and Dobruja, as well as capturing the fortresses of Shumla and Varna.

On May 7, 1828, Wittgenstein's Danube army crossed the Prut River and began fighting. Under his leadership, the fortresses of Isakchi, Machin and Brailov were taken. At the same time, a sea expedition was carried out to the Caucasian coast in the Anapa region. But Wittgenstein's progress in the Danube theater soon slowed down sharply. Russian troops were unable to take the fortresses of Varna and Shumla and began a long siege. It soon became clear that the siege of Varna, due to the weakness of our forces, did not promise success; Diseases were rampant among the troops stationed near Shumla. Horses died en masse from lack of food; Meanwhile, the insolence of the Turkish partisans increased.

At this time, the enemy, having concentrated more than 25 thousand at Viddin and Kalafat, strengthened the garrisons of the fortresses of Rakhiv and Nikopol. Thus, the Turks everywhere had an advantage in forces, but, fortunately, did not take advantage of this. Meanwhile, in mid-August, the Guards Corps began to approach the Lower Danube, followed by the 2nd Infantry. The latter was ordered to relieve the siege detachment at Silistria, which would then be drawn near Shumla; The guard is sent to Varna. To earn this fortress, 30 thousand came from the Kamchik River. Turkish corps of Omer-Vrione. Several ineffective attacks followed from both sides, and when Varna surrendered on September 29, Omer began a hasty retreat, pursued by a detachment of Prince Eugene of Württemberg, and headed towards Aidos, where the vizier’s troops had retreated earlier.

Meanwhile, Count Wittgenstein continued to stand near Shumla; he had only about 15 thousand troops left for the allocation of reinforcements to Varna and other detachments; but in the 20th of September the 6th Corps approached it. Silistria continued to hold out, since the 2nd Corps, lacking siege artillery, could not take decisive action.

On February 9, 1829, the Highest Rescript was given to Wittgenstein, in which the Tsar thanked the field marshal for his 40 years of service and accepted his resignation.

In the new campaign, the Danube Army was led by Infantry General I. I. Dibich. His appointment radically changed the situation in the theater of military operations.

On June 19, 1829, the fortress of Silistria surrendered, and Dibich began to prepare the army for a campaign in the Balkans, which began on July 2, 1829. Moreover, Count Dibich had the fate of fighting not only the Turks, but also an equally dangerous enemy - the plague, which weakened his army.

The famous Prussian Field Marshal Moltke noted: “Leaving aside the material weakening of the armed forces, we must recognize in the commander-in-chief an extraordinary strength of will so that, in the midst of the struggle against such terrifying and widespread disasters, he does not lose sight of great goal, which could be achieved by adhering to a consistently decisive and prompt course of action. In our (i.e. Moltke’s) opinion, history can pronounce the following verdict in favor of Count Diebitsch’s actions in the Turkish campaign: having weak forces, he undertook only what seemed absolutely necessary to achieve the goal of the war. He began the siege of the fortress and won a victory in the open field, which gave him access to the heart of the enemy monarchy. He found himself here with one ghost army, but the glory of invincibility preceded him. Russia owes the happy outcome of the war to the courageous and at the same time cautious course of action of Count Diebitsch.”

In six marches, having simultaneously won an important victory at Slivna, the Russian army marched 120 miles and already on August 7 found itself under the walls of Adrianople, which had not seen Russian squads since the days of Prince of Kyiv Svyatoslav. The next day Adrianople surrendered.

In the same year, the Black Sea Fleet covered its banners with unfading glory. On May 14 (26), 1829, returning from a reconnaissance voyage, the 18-gun brig "Mercury" under the command of Lieutenant Commander A.I. Kazarsky was suddenly attacked by two Turkish battleships. One of the battleships was armed with 100 cannons, the other - 74. Kazarsky gathered the Mercury officers for a council, which unanimously accepted only decision- fight. For three hours, skillfully maneuvering, the Mercury fought an artillery battle with Turkish ships. In smoke and flames, Kazarsky placed his brig between the Turkish ships. Being lighter in design, the Russian ship passed at full speed between the Turks, who, not seeing anything because of the smoke, began to shoot at each other, thinking that they were firing at the Mercury.

The heroic feat of the brig Mercury was highly appreciated. He was awarded the St. George Banner. Later, a monument was erected in Sevastopol. On a granite pedestal stands a small bronze ship with the inscription “To the Kazar. An example for posterity."

On September 2 (14), 1829, a peace treaty was signed in Adrianople between Russia and Turkey. Russian empire included the eastern coast of the Black Sea with the cities of Anapa and Sukhum, as well as the Danube River delta. The principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia were granted autonomy, and Russian troops remained in them during the reforms. The Ottoman Empire also agreed to the terms of the 1827 Treaty of London granting autonomy to Greece. In addition, she was obliged to pay Russia an indemnity in the amount of 1.5 million Dutch chervonets within 18 months.