Catherine's reforms 2 conclusion briefly. The main reforms of Catherine II the Great - reasons, goals, significance

Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………..……..3

1. short biography Catherine II…………………………………………4

2. Beginning of the reign……………………………………………………6

3. Reforms of Catherine II……………………………………………………….…….7

Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………..17

References………………………………………………………......19

Introduction

Among the autocrats Russian Empire there are many strong, strong-willed personalities, whose political and legislative activities had a huge impact on the growth of not only Russia as a whole, but also individual social strata, the life and culture of society. The gradual modernization of life in Russia, the main impetus of which was given by the European policy of Peter I, was continued by other monarchs, whose era played an equally important role in the formation of the powerful Russian Empire. Russian Empress Catherine II was a powerful legislator; In her government, she sought reforms and made an invaluable contribution to the development and strengthening of Russia. The era of her reign is highlighted by historians as a separate stage in the development of the empire, since it was Catherine II who carried out a course of reforms in the socio-political life of Russia, aimed at its modernization and strengthening state power in the country. This legislative activity of the empress responded to the spirit of the times, new European trends and ideas that the Enlightenment brought with it in the 18th century. The policy of enlightened absolutism of Catherine II, as the main reflection of the principles of the Enlightenment in Russia, is interesting not only for its innovations, but also for the combination of Western trends with the originality of Russia.

1. Brief biography of Catherine II

Catherine was born in 1729 in the German seaside town of Stettin. Born Sophia Frederica Augusta of Anhalt-Zerbst, she came from a poor German princely family.

Ekaterina Alekseevna was a rather complex and, of course, extraordinary person. On the one hand, she is a pleasant and loving woman, on the other, she is a major statesman.

In 1745, Catherine II accepted Orthodox faith and was married to the heir to the Russian throne, the future Peter III. Having arrived in Russia as a fifteen-year-old girl, she quickly mastered the Russian language and customs. But with all her abilities, the Grand Duchess had a hard time adapting: there were attacks from the Empress (Elizabeth Petrovna) and neglect from her husband (Peter Fedorovich). Her pride suffered. Then Catherine turned to literature. Possessing remarkable abilities, will and hard work, she acquired extensive knowledge. She read a lot of books: French educators, ancient authors, special works on history and philosophy, works by Russian writers. As a result, Catherine adopted the ideas of the enlighteners about the public good as the highest goal of a statesman, about the need to educate and educate subjects, about the primacy of laws in society.

In 1754, Catherine gave birth to a son (Pavel Petrovich), the future heir to the Russian throne. But the child was taken from his mother to the apartments of Empress Elizabeth Petrovna.

In December 1761, Empress Elizaveta Petrovna died. Peter III ascended the throne.

Catherine II was distinguished by her enormous capacity for work, willpower, determination, courage, cunning, hypocrisy, unlimited ambition and vanity, in general, all the traits that characterize strong woman. She could suppress her emotions for the sake of developed rationalism. She had a special talent for winning general sympathy.

Catherine slowly but surely moved towards the Russian throne, and eventually took power from her husband. Soon after the accession of Peter III, unpopular among the clan nobility, she overthrew him, relying on the guards regiments.

From the first days of her reign, Catherine wanted to be popular among the broadest masses of the people; she demonstratively attended pilgrimages and went to worship holy places.

In the first years of her reign, Catherine II intensely searched for ways to establish herself on the throne, while showing extreme caution. When deciding the fate of the favorites and mistresses of the previous reign, she showed generosity and condescension, being careful not to cut from the shoulder. As a result, many truly talented and useful people remained in their previous positions. Catherine loved and knew how to appreciate the merits of people. She understood that her praise and rewards would make people work even harder.

2. Beginning of the reign

At the beginning of her reign, Catherine had not yet become accustomed to her new role and either continued to implement the policy outlined in the previous time, or completed it. Some innovations of the empress were of a private nature and did not give grounds to classify Catherine’s reign as an outstanding phenomenon in national history.

Catherine, not without reason, pointed out the rather difficult circumstances under which she began to reign. Finances were depleted. The army did not receive pay for three months. Trade was in decline, because many of its branches were given over to monopoly. There was no correct system in the state economy. The War Department was plunged into debt; the sea barely held on, being in extreme neglect. The clergy was dissatisfied with the taking of lands from him. Justice was sold at auction, and laws were followed only in cases where they favored the powerful.

Immediately after Catherine's accession, vigorous activity was noticeable in the state body. At the same time, the empress’s personal participation in resolving all sorts of issues was demonstrated in all respects.

From the moment of her accession to the throne until her coronation, Catherine participated in 15 meetings of the Senate, and not without success. In 1963, the Senate was reformed: it was divided into six departments with strictly defined functions and, under the leadership of the Attorney General, appointed by the monarch, it became a body of control over the activities of the state apparatus and the highest judicial authority. The Senate lost its main function- legislative initiative, it actually passed to the empress. The death of Ivan Antonovich freed Catherine from fear for the future of her throne. Now her ambition could be satisfied by the realization own plans. She has accumulated some management experience and plans to implement innovations have emerged.

3. Catherine's reforms II

"Mandate" and the Commission of 1767 - 1768

In January 1765, Catherine began direct work on the legislative project.

In July 1767, over 500 locally elected deputies gathered in Moscow to form the “Commission on the Drafting of a New Code,” which worked for seven years. On June 30, the Commission began its work, the “Order” was officially promulgated, and all deputies received the texts of the Code of Legal Principles.

The official text of the “Order of the Commission on the drafting of a new code” consisted of 20 thematic chapters and 526 articles. Most of The text was, apparently, borrowed. However, in the end, Catherine came up with a creation that was independent in design and political principles. The postulates of the laws she developed were aimed at strengthening the unlimited power of the monarch, legality based on “reasonable leniency”, guaranteeing civil rights in the form of privileges for estates, and general reform legal system in the spirit of these principles.

The first five chapters recorded the most important principles of the power of government in Russia as indisputable, “fundamental” principles of the life of society in general. One of the very first articles of the “Nakaz” proclaimed Russia a European power. This provision had an important political connotation: following Montesquieu’s criteria, all the laws of European statehood are inherent in Russia, despite its particular vastness. The main one of these patterns is “The sovereign in Russia is autocratic; for no other power than the power united in his person can act in a manner similar to the space of such a great state.” And “any other rule would not only be harmful to Russia, but also ultimately ruinous.” However, the new, legal monarchy has a new goal: to direct all people’s actions to receive the greatest good from everyone, to promote the prosperity of society, and to guarantee the rights of citizen-subjects. The sovereign cannot and should not rule everywhere himself, although it was he who was supposed to be the legal source of all power in the state. This shows that the “Nakaz” fully preserved the absolutism of the monarchy.

Chapters 9 and 10 established the principles of legislation in the field of criminal law. A properly constructed criminal law was proclaimed to be the most important guarantee of civil “liberty.” The “mandate” categorically prohibited any form of cruel punishment and reduced possible cases of the death penalty. The court is also not so much a punitive institution as a body for protecting society and citizens. And since the court operates in a real estate society, guarantees of judicial justice in it should consist in the participation of elected representatives from estates in the consideration of cases.

Chapters 11-18 were devoted to legislation in the social and legal sphere and civil law. Society is divided into three classes, based on natural and historical differences in occupations. The more honorable place of the nobles guaranteed them special privileges in the service and in property. But it is also important for the peasantry to “establish something useful.” The law must protect everyone, but civil rights are granted according to class.

The last, 19th and 20th chapters of the “Order” established some rules in certain matters of legislation. Freedom of religion was declared, and courts not provided for by law were prohibited.

Despite the complete failure of the Commission, it still had important consequences for the subsequent activities of Catherine II. In this regard, the meeting of deputies of 1767-1768 played a major role. The deputies brought a lot of instructions, their speeches were left in the archives of the Commission, thus the opinions of both the estates and the individuals they separately elected on subjects that interested the Empress were expressed. A huge amount of factual material was collected, reflecting a picture of the views, moods and interests of the society of that time. In addition, Catherine managed to make Russians think about state freedom, political rights, religious tolerance, and the equality of all subjects in the face of the Law. The commission showed exactly what needs to be corrected and what these principles need to be applied to. After the dissolution of the Commission of the Code, Catherine II began her own development of a series of legislative acts that constituted the reform of “enlightened absolutism”, the basis for which were the principles and rules of the previously published “Nakaz”. The reform of local self-government was especially important.

Provincial reform

The provincial institutions of Empress Catherine II constituted an entire era in the history of local government in Russia. In 1775 an extensive legislative document"Institution for the administration of provinces." In accordance with this document, a new administrative-territorial division came into force, and major changes were made to local government. This system lasted for almost a century.

All newly formed provinces and districts received a uniform structure based on a strict separation of administrative, financial and judicial affairs. The province was headed by a government-appointed governor with his deputy, the vice-governor. Sometimes two or three provinces were united under the control of a governor-general. The country was divided into 50 provinces; the provinces were abolished, each province was divided into 10-12 districts. This division was based on the principle of the size of the tax-paying population. A certain number of inhabitants was established for provinces and districts: 300-400 thousand and 20-30 thousand people, respectively.

With the change in the boundaries of the former administrative territories, new district and provincial centers arose. The local government system was reorganized. The weakness of the previous local government was manifested in its inability to suppress anti-government protests on its own. This was convincingly proven by the events of the Moscow “plague riot” of 1771 (a widespread uprising caused by the strictness of quarantine), and especially the Pugachev uprising. Now the central government had numerous administrative institutions at its disposal; any armed uprising would have met with quick and brutal rebuff.

Catherine II developed her provisions on the provinces, striving, first of all, to increase the strength of the administration, delineate departments and attract zemstvo elements to management. In each provincial city, the following were established: provincial boards headed by the governor (had an administrative nature, represented government power and was the auditor of the entire administration), criminal and civil chambers (the highest court bodies in the province), the treasury chamber (financial management body), the upper zemstvo court (judicial place for noble litigation and for the trial of nobles), provincial magistrate (judicial place for persons of the urban class for claims and litigation against them), upper justice (judicial place for fellow believers and state peasants), order of public charity for the establishment of schools, almshouses, etc. All these institutions were collegial in nature and were considered class-based, but in reality all power belonged to the governor.

In each district city there were: a lower zemstvo court (in charge of the affairs of the district police and administration, consisting of a police officer and assessors), a district court (for nobles, subordinate to the Upper Zemstvo Court), a city magistrate (a judicial seat for citizens, subordinate to the provincial magistrate), a lower reprisal (court for state peasants, subordinated to the upper reprisal).

Judicial reform

For the first time in Russia, a court appeared, separated from the executive branch, although dependent on it. The activities of the new bodies acquired the features of self-government, since local residents took part in it. The new courts were elected. Separately, courts were elected for the nobles, the urban population and for those peasants who were not in serfdom.

As a result of the regional reform, police and noble supervision over the population was strengthened, and the number of officials was increased. 216 new cities appeared due to the abolition of the autonomy of the outskirts (in 1775 the Zaporozhye Sich was destroyed, Cossack self-government on the Don was abolished, and the autonomy of Estland and Livonia was abolished).

These were the main measures taken by Catherine II regarding government. As a result, the empress strengthened the composition of the administration, correctly distributed departments between governing bodies and gave broad participation to the zemstvo in new institutions. But the disadvantage of the local institution of 1775 was the previous system in the central administration, the responsibility for leadership and general supervision. With the exception of two institutions (the court of conscience and the order of public charity), all the rest were bodies of one class. Self-government acquired a strictly class character: it was not an innovation for the townspeople, but was a major reform for the nobility.

“Charter of Complaint to the Nobility”

In 1785, Catherine II published the Charter of the Nobility and in it confirmed all their rights received from previous sovereigns, giving them new ones.

Under Catherine II, the nobleman became a member of the provincial noble corporation, which was privileged and held local self-government in its hands. The charter of 1785 established that a nobleman cannot, except by court, lose his title and transfer it to his wife and children. He was freed from taxes and corporal punishment, owned as inalienable property everything that was on his estate, was finally freed from the formerly obligatory public service, but could not take part in elections to noble positions if he did not have an officer rank. Deprivation of noble dignity could be carried out only by decision of the Senate with the highest approval. The estates of convicted nobles were not subject to confiscation. The nobility was now called "noble".

Peasant reforms

She forbade free people and freed peasants from re-entering serfdom. By her order, for the newly established cities, the government bought out serfs and turned them into townspeople. Children of serfs, taken into state care in orphanages, became free. Catherine was preparing a decree according to which children of serfs born after 1785 were considered free. She also dreamed of implementing another project - it would lead to the gradual liberation of peasants during the transfer of estates from one hand to another. But this project was not published, as the empress was afraid of noble discontent.

“Charter of Complaint to Cities”

Simultaneously with the Charter, a Charter was issued to the nobility on the rights and benefits of the cities of the Russian Empire. Like the nobility, urban society was viewed as a legal entity enjoying corporate rights, the main of which was the right of self-government. His primary organ there was a city assembly that elected the city mayor and representatives of the judiciary. The administrative body of class self-government was the general city duma, which met once every three years. It represented the mayor and the so-called vowels (deputies) from six categories of the city population (“real city inhabitants,” that is, owners of real estate within the city); merchants of three guilds; guild artisans; Russian and foreign specialists; “famous citizens” - a large group of people who served in elections, businessmen, intellectuals, townspeople. In the interval between meetings of the city duma, its functions were transferred to the executive body - the six-vote duma, which included one vowel from each category of the population. Compared to the self-government of the nobility, elected city bodies had much fewer rights and were subject to petty state-bureaucratic supervision.

A comparison of all three documents (the Charter to the nobility, the Charter to the cities and the unpublished Charter to the state peasants) allows us to believe that the empress did not so much strive to support one or another class, but rather cared about strengthening the state, the basis of which was, in her opinion, the strong classes of Western European type. It was under Catherine II that a civil society based on the strengthening of classes began to take shape.

An important role in the formation civil society Other works on legislation and law, developed by Catherine II in 1770-1780, also played a role in the Russian Empire. Catherine II was engaged in other projects: about the reconstruction of prisons, about changing the search procedure. From the Code arose a small decree of 1781 changing the responsibility for various types of theft. At the same time, Catherine drew up an extensive charter for the deanery, promulgated in 1782. The Charter defined the principles of reforming police institutions in the country, new tasks of police institutions - not only to search for criminals and maintain order, but also to regulate in general social life in cities. The Charter also included the Criminal Code (since the powers included the right not only to put on trial, but also to determine punishments for minor crimes).

Development of trade and industry

Among the individual events of the enlightened government of Catherine II, the Empress’s patronage of Russian trade also stands out, evidence of which is the Charter of the Cities of 1785. Catherine’s attitude towards Russian trade and industry was affected by the empress’s dependence on Western European ideas. Since Peter I in Russia, a system of old government control was established over trade and industry, and the activities of the commercial and industrial class were constrained by regulation. Catherine II removed these restrictions and destroyed the control bodies - the Berg Manufactory Collegium. She promoted the development of industry and trade. Under her, banknotes, or paper money, were issued for the first time, which greatly helped trade. Wanting to better organize credit, Catherine II established a state loan bank with large capital.

In November 1775, for the development of trade and industry, a Manifesto was issued on the freedom to establish industrial enterprises (“stans”), and freedom of entrepreneurship was declared. Merchants who owned capital over 500 rubles were exempt from the poll tax and paid a tax of one percent on capital; A representative of the merchant class could be freed from conscription duty by paying 360 rubles. Also in 1775, the empress adopted a preferential customs tariff for the Black Sea ports and abolished industrial and trade monopolies. Development southern Russia made grain trade on the Black Sea possible; New cities were founded in Russia, a naval base was built in Sevastopol. These measures, carried out by Catherine in Russia's economic policy, contributed to the expansion of exports and the improvement of various industries.

Extension public education

Important results of the government of “enlightened absolutism” include the measures taken by Catherine II regarding public education. Catherine II, in her “Instructions,” was the first to talk about the educational significance of education and then began to take care of the establishment of various educational institutions.

In accordance with the “General Institution for the Education of Both Sexes of Youth,” a school was opened at the Academy of Arts (1764), the Society of Two Hundred Noble Maidens (1764) with sections for middle-class girls, a commercial school (1772)

In 1782, the Commission on the Establishment of Schools was formed to carry out a larger school reform. These schools were all-class and were maintained at the expense of the state.

The main merit of Catherine II in the field of educational reforms can be considered the first experience of creating in Russia a system of general primary education, not limited by class barriers (with the exception of serfs). The significance of this reform is very high, because it was about creating an all-Russian educational school system.

Organization of medical care to the population

It is also noteworthy that under Catherine II, the organization of medical care to the population was entrusted to the authorities. Caring about public health and hygiene caused an attempt under the empress to properly organize medical assistance countrywide. The medical commission, established in 1763, and the orders of public charity were supposed to oversee the medical unit in the empire and prepare medical workers. Each city was required to have a hospital and a pharmacy, where patients were offered not those medicines that were cheaper, but those prescribed by the doctor. The city was also supposed to establish asylums for the incurable and the insane. Since there were not enough doctors, they were discharged from abroad and Russian doctors and surgeons were trained. At the same time, pharmacies and factories were founded surgical instruments. In 1783, Catherine II organized a medical service to monitor the health of the population. She established hospitals and psychiatric hospitals.

Development of Russian science

Russian science is making a big step forward. In 1783, a special Russian Academy was founded for the study of language and literature. The Academy of Sciences, which existed since Peter the Great's time, conducted five geographical expeditions in the years 1768-1774, which made a valuable contribution to the study of the geography of the country. The Academy of Sciences began publishing Russian chronicles, and twenty-five volumes of ancient Russian documents were published. In 1765, the Free Economic Society emerged, intended to popularize advanced agronomic knowledge and promote landowner rationalization. Numerous articles on organization and management were published in the proceedings of the Free Economic Society. Agriculture. The number of Russian scientists at the Academy of Sciences has increased significantly, among them the outstanding naturalists I. I. Lepyokhin, N. Ya. Ozeretskovsky, astronomer S. Ya. Rumovsky, mineralogist V. M. Severgin and others. The second half of the 18th century included the activities of prominent historians M. M. Shcherbatov and I. N. Boltin; sources on Russian history were actively published (by N.I. Novikov, the Academy of Sciences). Publishing output is increasing enormously. Over the entire 18th century, 9,500 books were published in Russia, of which about 85% were published during the reign of Catherine II. On January 15, the Empress signed a decree allowing the establishment of “free” printing houses.

Positive changes have also occurred in the organization of research work. In 1783, Princess E.R. Dashkova was appointed director of the Russian Academy of Sciences, who showed remarkable abilities in the administrative field. During the twelve years of her tenure in this post, the academic economy and academic educational establishments, work has been established public courses in the main branches of science, the publishing activity of the Academy intensified.

Conclusion

Catherine II was a subtle psychologist and an excellent judge of people; she skillfully selected assistants for herself, not being afraid of bright and talented people. That is why Catherine’s time was marked by the appearance of a whole galaxy of outstanding statesmen, generals, writers, artists, and musicians. In dealing with her subjects, Catherine was, as a rule, restrained, patient, and tactful. She was an excellent conversationalist and knew how to listen carefully to everyone. By her own admission, she did not have a creative mind, but she was good at catching every sensible thought and using it for her own purposes.

During the entire reign of Catherine there were practically no noisy resignations, none of the nobles were disgraced, exiled, much less executed. Therefore, there was an idea of ​​Catherine’s reign as the “golden age” of the Russian nobility. At the same time, Catherine was very vain and valued her power more than anything else in the world. In order to preserve it, she is ready to make any compromises to the detriment of her beliefs.

Under Catherine II, the country's territory, population (by 75%), and income (more than quadrupled) increased significantly. Victories on land and sea glorified Russian weapons and military art. Equally impressive are the successes in economics and culture. But despite all this, one cannot help but see the difficult situation of the working strata of the population. It is not without reason that during the reign of Catherine II, the most powerful popular uprising in the history of feudal Russia took place, led by E. I. Pugachev.

In her policy, Catherine II relied on the Russian nobility. It is not for nothing that Russian nobles, both during her lifetime and after her death, spoke and wrote about the golden age of Catherine the Great, Mother Empress, and wise ruler.

It is difficult to unambiguously assess the results of the reign of Catherine II. Many of her outwardly effective undertakings, conceived on a broad scale, led to modest results or gave unexpected and often erroneous results.

It can also be said that Catherine simply implemented the changes dictated by the times and continued the policies outlined in her previous reigns.

Or recognize her as a major historical figure who took the second, after Peter I, step along the path of Europeanization of the country, and the first along the path of reforming it in a liberal-educational spirit.

Bibliography

1. Encyclopedia for children “Avanta+”. Russian history. Volume 5, part two. M.: Avanta+, 1997.

2. “Order” of Empress Catherine II. S. - Petersburg, 1907.

3. History of Russia. A. Ishimova. M.: Olma-Press, 2000.

What do we know about the Russian Empress Catherine the Great? Facts that have little to do with Catherine often emerge in the memory of descendants; she was a very big fan of court balls and exquisite toilets. Lines of gentlemen always followed her. The lives of her favorites, who were once connected with her by love ties, went down in history. Meanwhile, the Russian Empress was, first of all, an intelligent, bright, extraordinary personality and a talented organizer. It is worth noting that under her, the system of government was transformed for the first time since the reign of Peter the Great. There is still great interest today. Briefly summarizing them, however, is unlikely to be possible. In general, all of her political changes fit into the mainstream of the theory called enlightened absolutism. This movement gained particular popularity in the 18th century. Many areas of state and public life were affected by the reforms of Catherine II. The table “Transformations within the country” given below clearly shows this.

Princess Fike's childhood and upbringing

Sophia Frederica Augusta of Anhalt-Zerbst - that's what it sounded like full name future Russian empress. She was born in the spring of 1729 in a small German town called Stettin (now part of Poland). Her father was in the service of the Prussian king. He was a vain man. At one time he was first a regimental commander, then a commandant, and then a governor hometown. The mother of the future empress was of royal blood. She was the cousin of Peter III, the future husband of her daughter. Sofia, or, as her relatives called her, Fike, was educated at home.

She studied French, Italian, English languages, geography, history, theology, danced and played music. The girl had a cheerful disposition, was restless, and was friends with boys. Her parents were unhappy with her behavior. The Fike family was not rich. But her mother dreamed of marrying off her daughter profitably. Soon her dreams were brought to life.

Marriage to the heir to the throne of Russia

In 1744, the Zerbst princess Fike was invited, along with her mother, to Russia to the royal court for the wedding with the future Russian emperor Peter III, who was her second cousin.

The sixteen-year-old bride was soon introduced to Elizaveta Petrovna, who, trying to secure the Romanovs' right to succession to the throne, hoped to marry her unlucky nephew. The Russian Empress believed that the pretty and graceful Sofia could distract Peter from his childhood games with puppies and toys. As soon as Fike found herself in Russia, she eagerly began to study the Russian language, court etiquette and the Orthodox law of God. The wedding was scheduled for August 25, 1745. The day before, Sofia converted to Orthodoxy and received the name Ekaterina Alekseevna. On the wedding day at 6 o'clock in the morning, the princess was taken to Elizabeth Petrovna's chambers, where she was dressed and combed. The wedding ceremony took place in the Kazan Church. It is noteworthy that 17 years after this, the Life Guards will swear allegiance to their new Empress Ekaterina Alekseevna here. After the wedding, a large ball and banquet was given at the royal court, where Fike was forced to dance with an endless series of elderly nobles. Immediately after the wedding, it became clear that the newly-made husband was not going to fulfill his marital duties. Peter spent all his time playing with tin soldiers and cardboard castles. He turned his marital bedroom into a kennel for hunting dogs. It was obvious that this ignoramus was not capable of governing the state. Meanwhile, Russia needed internal reforms. Catherine 2, as such, did not yet exist. And those close to the royal court expected that for Fike everything would be limited to the role of the emperor’s wife and mother of his children. How wrong they were.

Catherine's accession to the Russian throne

The current Empress Elizaveta Petrovna was fading away every day, her health was very weak. But the relationship between the crowned spouses did not work out. Peter openly lived with his mistress and talked about his desire to marry her. Catherine herself soon also became interested in the 26-year-old chamber cadet Sergei Saltykov. A few months after this, Fike gave birth to a son, who was named Paul. There were rumors at court that his father was Catherine's lover. Despite all this, Empress Elizabeth Petrovna proclaimed the boy second in line to the heir to the throne. Meanwhile, Russia, in alliance with Austria and France, fought with Prussia, where it won one victory after another. This pleased everyone except the infantile Peter, who considered the King of Prussia, Frederick II, an unrivaled military genius. It was clear that if he ascended the throne, Russia would conclude a humiliating peace with Prussia, losing everything that it had acquired during the war. Soon this happened. Elizabeth died on Christmas Day in 1761. After this Peter became Russian Emperor. In March 1762, he made peace with Prussia, which caused a lot of discontent in the ranks Russian army. This is what Catherine’s associates, the Orlov brothers, decided to use against Peter III, one of whom, Gregory, was her lover and the father of her last child. In the Kazan Church, Catherine underwent the ceremony of anointing and taking the oath as Empress of All Rus'. The soldiers were the first to swear allegiance to her.

This happened on June 28, 1762. At that time, no one had any idea what Catherine II’s policy would be.

General information about the reign of the Empress

A week after the events described, on July 6, Catherine received a letter from Orlov stating that her husband Peter, who had written an abdication and was exiled to Ropsha Manor, had died. According to eyewitnesses, the newly-crowned empress was thrashing around, crying and screaming that her descendants would never forgive her for this. However, other sources indicate that she knew about the impending assassination attempt on her husband, since 2 days before his murder, doctor Paulsen was sent to him not with medicines, but with tools for autopsy. Be that as it may, no one challenged Catherine’s right to the throne. And today we can sum up the results of her 34-year reign. To characterize her rule within the state, historians often use a term such as “enlightened absolutism.” Adherents of this theory are convinced that the state must have a strong autocratic government that will work for the benefit of all its citizens. Catherine 2 was expressed primarily in strengthening the bureaucratic apparatus, unifying the management system and centralizing the country. The Empress believed that the vast territory of Russia and its harsh climate necessitated the emergence and prosperity of autocracy here. The reforms of Catherine 2 can be schematically depicted this way.

Table “Transformations within the country”

As we can see from the data in the table, these reforms fully demonstrated the enlightened absolutism of Catherine 2. She sought to concentrate all state power in her hands and ensure that all classes lived in the country according to the special laws she introduced.

Document “Order” - the concept of enlightened absolutism of Catherine II

The Empress, who spoke enthusiastically about the works of Montesquieu and adopted the basic principles of his theory, attempted to convene the so-called Statutory Commission, the main goal of which was to clarify the needs of the people in order to carry out the necessary transformations within the state. This body was attended by 600 deputies from various classes. As a guiding document for this Commission, Catherine issued the “Order”, which became, in essence, a theoretical justification for enlightened absolutism. It is known that it was almost completely copied from the writings of Montesquieu, an ardent supporter of this theory. Catherine herself admitted that here she owned “one line here and there, one word.”

This Commission existed for only a year and a half, and then was dissolved. Was this body called upon to carry out the administrative reforms of Catherine 2? Maybe yes. But historians today agree that all the work of the Commission was aimed at creating a favorable image of the Empress in Russia and abroad. It was this body that decided to award her the title “Great”.

Administrative reforms of Catherine 2

These innovations were legalized on November 7, 1775. The system of administrative division of Russian territory has changed. Previously, it was three-level: provinces, provinces, districts. And now the regions of the state began to be divided only into governorships and districts. At the head of several governorships was the governor-general. The governors, herald-fiscals and refatgei were subordinate to him. Finances in the governorships were in charge of the Treasury Chamber with the support of the Accounts Chamber. At the head of each district was a police captain. The city was allocated as a separate administrative unit, headed by a mayor instead of a governor.

Reform of the Senate Catherine 2

This new formation was accepted by the Empress on December 15, 1763. According to him, the Senate became the highest court. In addition, it was divided into 6 departments:

The first was in charge of all state and political affairs in St. Petersburg;

The second - court cases in St. Petersburg;

The third - medicine, science, art, education, transport;

The fourth - military sea and land affairs;

Fifth - state and political affairs in Moscow;

The sixth is court cases in Moscow.

The governance reforms of Catherine II here were aimed at making the Senate an obedient instrument of autocratic power.

Economic reforms

The reign of the empress was characterized by extensive development of the country's economy. The economic reforms of Catherine 2 affected the banking and monetary spheres, and foreign trade.

During her reign, new credit institutions appeared (loan offices and the State Bank) and began to accept funds from the population for deposits. For the first time, banknotes were issued - paper money. Under Catherine, the state began to export goods abroad in large quantities, such as cast iron, sailing cloth, timber, hemp, and bread. It is difficult to say whether these reforms of Catherine 2 brought a positive result. It is unlikely that it will be possible to talk about this briefly. Massive under its management led to famine in 1780 in many regions of Russia. Cases of mass ruin of peasants have become more frequent. Bread prices have increased. The state treasury was empty. And it exceeded 33 million rubles.

Innovations in the education system

But not all of the empress's transformations were negative consequences. The educational reform of Catherine II began in the 1760s. Schools began to open everywhere, which children from different classes could attend. Particular attention was paid to women's education. In 1764, the Smolensk Institute of Noble Maidens was founded. In 1783, the Russian Academy opened, where eminent foreign scientists were invited. What else did the education reform of Catherine 2 manifest itself in? The fact is that in the provinces orders of public charity were formed, which were in charge of managing public schools, hospitals, shelters for the insane and sick, and hospitals. In Moscow and St. Petersburg, houses were opened for street children who received upbringing and education there.

Estates under Catherine 2

This transformation still causes controversy among historians. The class reforms of Catherine 2 consisted of her issuing two charters in 1785, one of which finally secured the privileges of the nobility, and the other divided the urban population into 6 categories. The Empress herself called these innovations “the crown of her activity.” The “charter granted to the nobility” stipulated the following:

This class was exempt from the quartering of military units, from corporal punishment, from confiscation of property for criminal offenses;

The nobility received the right to the bowels of the earth, the right to own land, and the right to have class institutions;

These people were prohibited from holding elected positions if their income from estates was less than 100 rubles, and they were also deprived of the right to vote if they did not have an officer rank.

What was the urban reform of Catherine 2? The Empress ordered to divide the population into 6 categories:

City dwellers (homeowners);

Merchants of 3 guilds;

Craftsmen;

Nonresident and foreign merchants;

Famous citizens (rich merchants, bankers, architects, painters, scientists, composers);

Posadsky (without houses).

Regarding these innovations, we can say that the policy of Catherine 2 here contributed to a strong stratification of society into rich and poor. Wherein economic situation For some of the nobles, things got worse. Many of them could not enroll public service, not being able to purchase the necessary clothes and shoes. At the same time, a number of large nobles owned vast territories of land and hundreds of thousands of serfs.

Religious politics

What other areas were affected by the state reforms of Catherine 2? This strong-willed woman tried to control absolutely everything in her state, including religion. In 1764, she issued a decree depriving the church of land. Together with the peasants, these territories were transferred to the management of a certain College of Economy. Thus, the clergy became dependent on the royal power. In general, the empress tried to pursue a policy of religious tolerance. In the first years of her reign, the persecution of Old Believers stopped, Buddhism, Protestantism, and Judaism received state support.

Catherine 2 as an adherent of Enlightenment theory

The Empress's 34-year reign was filled with many contradictory events. The enlightened absolutism of Catherine 2, which she tried to preach among the nobility, was manifested in the “Order” she created, and in the class reform, and in the administrative division of the territory of Russia, and in transformations in the field of education. True, all these reforms were limited. autocratic principle of governance, serfdom remained unshakable. Catherine’s relationship with French enlighteners (Voltaire, Diderot) deserves special attention.

She maintained an active correspondence with them, exchanging ideas. They had a very high opinion of her. True, modern historians are confident that these relations were purely sponsorship in nature. The Empress often generously gave gifts to her “friends.”

Results of the reign of the Great Empress

The time has come to briefly characterize the reforms of Catherine 2 and summarize her reign. She carried out many transformations, sometimes very contradictory. The era of the empress is characterized by the maximum enslavement of the peasants and the deprivation of their minimum rights. Under her, a decree was issued prohibiting peasants from filing a complaint against their landowner. Corruption flourished, and on an especially large scale. The empress herself set an example, generously gifting relatives and court associates and appointing her favorites to responsible government posts. It is not surprising that after a few years of her reign, the country's treasury was empty. How did the reforms of Catherine 2 end? Briefly, we can say this: a severe economic crisis and the complete collapse of the state’s financial system. Be that as it may, she actively participated in state life and loved Russia, which had become her native country.

We learned how the enlightened absolutism of Catherine 2 was manifested during her reign, some of the provisions of which she was able to implement.

Unlike many other Russian sovereigns, Catherine had ideas about the transformation of the country, which reflected the ideas of the enlightened absolutism of Voltaire, Montesquieu and other French philosophers12. These thinkers adhered to the idea of ​​​​gradually changing society in an evolutionary way, without shocks and revolutions.

First of all, the policy of enlightened absolutism required the development of new modern legislation that took into account the interests of all members of society.

Realizing the imperfection of existing legislation, the Empress believed that many of the previous decrees became unsuitable for execution, since their authors were guided by outdated considerations that were incomprehensible to contemporaries13.

The active character of Catherine II did not allow her to follow the beaten path; she chose an independent path of development. For the first two years of her reign, Catherine did not take any decisive action towards reform. Having come to power as a result of the coup, she understood that she did not yet have the influence she needed, and was forced to maneuver between various influential political forces. Catherine needed time to, as they say now, “recruit her team.” But also the strengthening of personal power, as O.A. Omelchenko writes. “could not be accomplished otherwise than through a government-favorable solution to objectively pressing problems of legal policy.”

The economic reforms of Catherine II ensured the further development of industry in Russia and allowed the country to enter the foreign market. In Table 2 we present the economic reforms of Catherine II, aimed, among other things, at improving the organization of the country's budget system.

Table 2. Economic reforms of Catherine II

In 1764, Catherine II, with the caution and thoughtfulness characteristic of her as a statesman, laid the foundation for reorganization measures. The Empress began by reviving the former status of one of the central financial bodies - the Chamber Collegium, the president of which was appointed Prince B. A. Kurakin, and after his death in 1765 - A. P. Melgunov. Based on the tasks outlined in the personal imperial decree, A.P. Melgunov in a short time developed a project for the revival and development of the Chamber Collegium. However, in the first decade of the new government, there were no fundamental changes in the financial management system. Melgunov's project remained unrealized.

In the 1760-1770s, which were full of many important events. there was an increase in centralization in matters of managing the country and finances, in particular. Since 1768, a Council began to meet at the imperial court to discuss all critical issues politics and economics, but representatives of financial boards were not included in it. All management of the state's finances was concentrated in the hands of the Prosecutor General of the Senate A. A. Vyazemsky. Central and local financial institutions were directly subordinate to him; he organized control over the implementation state budget, was responsible for the work of banks, concluding agreements on external loans. A. A. Vyazemsky played a key role in managing financial resources and developing the economic strategy of the state. Over the course of several years, new institutions were created under the Attorney General of the Senate - the Expedition of State Revenues under the first department of the Senate (1773) and the Treasury (1780) for the payment of regular and residual amounts. The State Revenue Expedition consisted of four independent expeditions. The first dealt with state revenues; the second - expenses; third - audit of accounts; the fourth - by collecting arrears. The Decree of March 19, 1773 “On the establishment of the Department of Expedition on State Revenues under the 1st Senate and on the delivery to it of all Government places of semi-annual statements on government revenues, taxes and penalties” states “To all local and Moscow Government places, also to send decrees to the Provincial, Provincial and City Voivodeship Offices, ordering that, starting from the current year 1773, they send for every six months, not continuing beyond two months, to the first Senate Department statements, only about income in everything, contrary to what has already been done until now The Prosecutor General and the Cavalier demanded these from them, and others about taxes and government penalties, which are where, with evidence of what diligence and success in returning them to the treasury.

Noticeable transformations occurred during the period of the provincial reform of 1775. Publication of the act “Institutions for managing the province of the All-Russian Empire”, signed by the empress, the largest legislative act in the second half XVIII century, introduced fundamental changes to the country's budget system19. The introduction of this document points out the negative consequences of refusing to continue Peter’s reforms in the previous period: “On the one hand, slowness, omissions and red tape are the natural consequences of such an inconvenient and insufficient situation, where one thing stops another and where again it is impossible to correct for a single voivodeship office, the multitude of various tasks assigned can sometimes serve as a long excuse, and cover up the failure to correct the position, and be a reason for passionate proceedings. On the other hand, from slow production, self-will and sneaking, common to many vices, increase, for retribution for crimes and vices is not carried out with such haste as would be necessary to tame and fear the presumptuous.”20 This document was presented to the Council at the Imperial Court on November 2 and, without further discussion, was adopted on November 5, 1775 (28 chapters were approved on this day, and the last three on January 4, 1780). The empress herself was directly involved in the development of this legislative act. The commission included J. Sivere, P.V. Zavodovsky, A.A. Vyazemsky, G. Ulrich and others.21 The most significant figures were Zavodovsky and Vyazemsky. The latter actually headed the departments of justice, internal affairs and finance from 1780, and occupied an important position in the Senate, being its rapporteur for the Empress, in the late 80s - early 90s of the 18th century. He was also the Prosecutor General of the Senate. Zavodovsky prepared a number of government reports, including the Manifesto on the publication of an institution on the provinces in 1775.

Thus, the adoption of the “Institution for the management of the province of the All-Russian Empire” became the starting point for the reorganization of provincial government bodies. The country received provincial and district administrative divisions. Provincial and district Treasury chambers began to deal with financial issues locally. Being the only local financial bodies, the Treasury Chambers were considered as departments of the Chamber Collegium. The positions of provincial and district treasurers were established to store collected money. State chambers were responsible for collecting revenues, managing drinking taxes, tax farming, and monitoring the condition of roads and bridges22. The new device brought a certain order to financial paperwork, but cost the treasury a tidy sum - almost 30 million rubles. Senators painted the state of affairs in the financial colleges with the darkest colors and were close to the truth. Data on income and expenses were not accurate, and tens of thousands of cases lay unsolved. By decree of the empress, financial boards were abolished: the state office in 1783, the chamber board in 1785, the revision board in 1788.

In addition, Catherine II established State Banks in St. Petersburg and Moscow. On December 29, 1768, the manifesto “On the establishment of State Banks for the exchange of banknotes in St. Petersburg and Moscow” was published. This Manifesto states: “In such a vast empire as Russia is, it seems impossible to provide enough ways to circulate money, on which the well-being of the people and the flourishing state of trade largely depend. It is true that the mere space of the lands of Our Empire is already a certain obstacle to the perfection of that treatment: however, every prudent government in such a case is obliged to overcome, as far as possible, natural difficulties, and take care of this for the good of the common subject. We, having established ourselves on this basis, and charging ourselves with the duty of arranging everything for the benefit of the Power entrusted to Us by God, tried to go into all the details of this matter, and thought about correcting it, also applying it to the state of the State.

Firstly, WE made sure that the burden of the copper coin, which approves its own price, burdens its circulation. Secondly, long-distance transportation of any coin is subject to many inconveniences. And finally, thirdly, WE saw that there is a great shortcoming in the fact that in Russia, following the example of various European regions, there are still no such established places that would maintain proper money circulation and transfer private people’s capital everywhere without the slightest delay and in accordance with the benefit of each .

WE are pleased to begin the establishment of trading banks in OUR empire and hope that through this we are providing a new sign of maternal care for all OUR loyal subjects.

So, from the 1st January of the next year 1769, two banks are established here, in St. Petersburg and in Moscow, under the auspices of OUR, for the exchange of government notes, which will be issued from different governments and government places, from OUR to that designated, so many, and no more as in the above-mentioned banks the capital will consist of cash. These state banknotes must circulate throughout our entire empire on a par with current coin, for which all governments and government agencies must accept those banknotes for all state fees in cash without the slightest difficulty.”

Thus, the transformations of Catherine II in the field of budgetary policy were reflected in monetary reform, financial management reform, the structure of government revenues and updated trade policy. The provincial and district Treasury Chambers began to deal with financial issues locally, and the positions of provincial and district treasurers were established to store the collected money. The new device brought a certain order to financial paperwork, but nevertheless, data on income and expenses was not accurate, tens of thousands of cases lay unsorted.

Catherine 2, like most monarchs who reigned for any significant time, sought to carry out reforms. Moreover, Russia fell into a difficult situation: the army and navy were weakened, there was a large external debt, corruption, the collapse of the judicial system, etc., etc.

Provincial reform:

“Institution for the administration of the provinces of the All-Russian Empire” was adopted on November 7, 1775. Instead of the previous administrative division into provinces, provinces and districts, territories began to be divided into provinces and districts. The number of provinces increased from twenty-three to fifty.

Judicial reform:

Each class had its own court. The nobles were tried by the zemstvo court, the townspeople– magistrates, akpeasants– reprisals. The higher authority was the judicial chambers, whose members were appointed. To the highest destiniesThe main body of the Russian Empire was the Senate.

Secularization reform:

It was held in 1764. All monastic lands, as well as the peasants living on them, were transferred to the jurisdiction of a specially established College of Economy. The state took upon itself the maintenance of monasticism, but from that moment it acquired the right to determine the number of monasteries and monks required by the empire.

Senate Reform:

On December 15, 1763, the manifesto of Catherine 2 was published “On the establishment of departments in the Senate, Justice, Patrimonial and Revision Boards, on the division of their affairs.” The role of the Senate was narrowed, and the powers of its head, the Prosecutor General, on the contrary, were expanded. The Senate became the highest court. It was divided into six departments.

Urban reform:

The reform of Russian cities was regulated by the “Charter on the rights and benefits of cities of the Russian Empire,” which was issued by Catherine II in 1785. New elected institutions were introduced. The number of voters has increased. Residents of the cities were divided into six categories according to various property, class characteristics, as well as merits to society and the state.

Police reform:

In 1782, Empress Catherine 2 introduced the “Charter of Deanery or Police”. According to it, the deanery board became the body of the city police department. It consisted of bailiffs, mayor and chief of police, as well as townspeople determined by elections. The punishments applied by the police were arrest, censure, imprisonment in the workhouse, a fine, and in addition– prohibition of certain types of activities.

Education reform

The creation of public schools in cities marked the beginning state system secondary schools in Russia. They were of two types: main schools in provincial cities and small schools in district ones. School reform was carried out in 1782, and earlier in 1764 a school was opened at the Academy of Arts, as well as the Society of Two Hundred Noble Maidens, then (in 1772)– commercial school.

Currency reform

During the reign of Catherine 2, the State Bank and Loan Bank were formed. And also, for the first time in Russia, paper money (banknotes) was introduced into circulation. 27. Russia and Europe in the 18th century. Changes in the international position of the country.

In the 20s of the 18th century, England remained one of the most implacable opponents of Russia in Europe. The British authorities feared the growing political and naval power of Russia and“ Russian threat” Hannover– hereditary possession of the English king. Besides, London was afraid of losing its mediating role externallytrade in Russia and become dependent on the export of Russian shipbuilding materials. The absence of normal diplomatic relations, interrupted in 1720, and the reduction in trade turnover harmed both sides and their economic interests.

After the death of Catherine I, a new foreign policy course for Russia was proclaimed, which corresponded to the interests of the country. According to Vice-Chancellor A.I. Osterman, Russia, in the difficult international situation of that time, sought“ run away” from everything, what could“ Vwhat space to enter” (avoid any military clashes. She didn't want war, not just for herself, but between European countries. Hence the turnaround in policy towards England.

Throughout the 20s of the 18th century. The question of restoring diplomatic relations between Russia and England was raised more than once. Already in 1727, Russia’s policy clearly outlined a line towards a gradual rapprochement with England while maintaining and further strengthening the Russian-Austrian alliance.

Relations between Russia and Spain in the first half of the 18th century. took shape under difficult conditions of confrontation between the Vienna (Austria and Spain) and Hanoverian (England, France and Prussia) blocs.

Spanish diplomacy made every effort to attract Russia to the Union of Vienna.

This was facilitated by the anti-Russian orientation of the Hanover League, as well as the common interests of Russia and Austria in Turkey, Poland and Sweden. In the rescript, the Russian representative in Madrid of the commercial board, adviser I.A. Shcherbatov, was instructed

13 December 1726 maintain close ties“ Caesar's minister, ponezhemisegorimsko- We find close friendship with the Tsar's Majesty. In July 1726 G. Russia entered into power- Spanish coalition, thereby maintaining the balance of power in Europe. However, she rejected Spain's offerand join the fight against the Hanoverian League. With Russia's accession to the Union of Vienna, the Spaniards expected to act more energetically against their opponents and, above all, France.

At the beginning of 1725, the cabinet of Catherine I declared loyalty to the foreign policy course determined by Peter I. Carefully observing the diplomatic struggle between various blocs, St. Petersburg did not immediately decide on its choice of allies. The greatest interest among presenters European countries represented France, with the help of which Russia hoped to strengthen its positions in Poland, Sweden and Turkey, where the influence of France was especially great. In March 1725, a decision was made to enter into an alliance with France.

The niece of Peter I, Duchess of Courland Anna Ioannovna, who ascended the Russian throne in 1730 after the death of Peter II, supported the idea of ​​Russian-French rapprochement. In 1732, the Empress agreed to begin negotiations with Magnan on concluding an alliance treaty between the two countries. However, very soon these negotiations reached a dead end due to too great differences in foreign policy guidelines.